The rays of light

Lens (optics)


A lens.

Lenses can be used to focus light.
A lens is an optical device which transmits and refracts light, converging or diverging the beam.
[citation
needed]
A simple lens consists of a single optical element. A compound lens is an array of simple lenses
(elements) with a common axis; the use of multiple elements allows more optical aberrations to be corrected
than is possible with a single element. Lenses are typically made of glass or transparent plastic. Elements
which refract electromagnetic radiation outside the visual spectrum are also called lenses: for instance,
a microwave lens can be made from paraffin wax.
The variant spelling lense is sometimes seen. While it is listed as an alternative spelling in some dictionaries,
most mainstream dictionaries do not list it as acceptable.
[1


A convex lens is also known as a converging lens. A converging lens is a lens that
converges rays of light that are traveling parallel to its principal axis. They can be
identified by their shape which is relatively thick across the middle and thin at the upper
and lower edges. The edges are curved outward rather than inward. As light
approaches the lens, the rays are parallel. As each ray reaches the glass surface, it
refracts according to the effective angle of incidence at that point of the lens. Since the
surface is curved, different rays of light will refract to different degrees; the outermost
rays will refract the most. This runs contrary to what occurs when a divergent lens
(otherwise known as concave, biconcave or plano-concave) is employed. In this case,
light is refracted away from the axis and outward.



Concave Lens






A concave lens is a lens that possesses at least one surface that curves inwards. It is a
diverging lens, meaning that it spreads out light rays that have been refracted through it.
A concave lens is thinner at its centre than at its edges, and is used to correct short-
sightedness (myopia). The writings of Pliny the Elder (2379) makes mention of what is
arguably the earliest use of a corrective lens. According to Pliny, Emperor Nero was
said to watch gladiatorial games using an emerald, presumably concave shaped to
correct for myopia.

Pressure Relief valve
The relief valve (RV) is a type of valve used to control or limit the pressure in a system or vessel which can build up by a process
upset, instrument or equipment failure, or fire.
The pressure is relieved by allowing the pressurised fluid to flow from an auxiliary passage out of the system. The relief valve is
designed or set to open at a predetermined set pressure to protect pressure vessels and other equipment from being subjected to
pressures that exceed their design limits. When the set pressure is exceeded, the relief valve becomes the "path of least resistance"
as the valve is forced open and a portion of the fluid is diverted through the auxiliary route. The diverted fluid (liquid, gas or liquid
gas mixture) is usually routed through a piping system known as a flare header or relief header to a central, elevated gas
flare where it is usually burned and the resulting combustion gases are released to the atmosphere.
[1]
As the fluid is diverted, the
pressure inside the vessel will drop. Once it reaches the valve's reseating pressure, the valve will close. The blowdown is usually
stated as a percentage of set pressure and refers to how much the pressure needs to drop before the valve reseats. The blowdown
can vary from roughly 220%, and some valves have adjustable blowdowns.

Pressure
Pressure is force per unit area applied in a direction perpendicular to the surface of an object
Pressure
Common symbol(s): P
in SI base quantities: 1 kg/(ms
2
)
SI unit: Pascal (Pa)
Derivations from other quantities: P = F / A
Vacuum pump

A vacuum pump is a device that removes gas molecules from a sealed volume in order to leave behind a partial vacuum. The
first vacuum pump was invented in 1650 by Otto von Guericke, and was preceded by the suction pump, which dates
to antiquity.

Pumping speed refers to the volume flow rate of a pump at its inlet, often measured in volume per unit of time. Momentum
transfer and entrapment pumps are more effective on some gases than others, so the pumping rate can be different for each
of the gases being pumped, and the average volume flow rate of the pump will vary depending on the chemical composition of
the gases remaining in the chamber.
Throughput refers to the pumping speed multiplied by the gas pressure at the inlet, and is measured in units of
pressurevolume/unit time. At a constant temperature, throughput is proportional to the number of molecules being pumped
per unit time, and therefore to the mass flow rate of the pump. When discussing a leak in the system or backstreaming through
the pump, throughput refers to the volume leak rate multiplied by the pressure at the vacuum side of the leak, so the leak
throughput can be compared to the pump throughput.


The distance between the principal focus and the centre of the lens is called the focal length.

Magnetism
Magnetism is a class of physical phenomena that includes forces exerted by magnets on other magnets. It has its origin in
electric currents and the fundamental magnetic moments of elementary particles. These give rise to a magnetic
field that acts on other currents and moments. All materials are influenced to some extent by a magnetic field. The strongest effect
is on permanent magnets, which have persistent magnetic moments caused by ferromagnetism. Most materials do not have
permanent moments. Some are attracted to a magnetic field (paramagnetism); others are repulsed by a magnetic field
(diamagnetism); others have a much more complex relationship with an applied magnetic field (spin glassbehavior
and antiferromagnetism). Substances that are negligibly affected by magnetic fields are known as non-magnetic substances.
They includecopper, aluminium, gases, and plastic. Pure oxygen exhibits magnetic properties when cooled to
a liquid state.
GAS TURBINE
A gas turbine, also called a combustion turbine, is a type of internal combustion engine. It has an upstream
rotating compressorcoupled to a downstream turbine, and a combustion chamber in-between.
The basic operation of the gas turbine is similar to that of the steam power plant except that air is used instead of water. Fresh
atmospheric air flows through a compressor that brings it to higher pressure. Energy is then added by spraying fuel into the air and
igniting it so the combustion generates a high-temperature flow. This high-temperature high-pressure gas enters a turbine, where it
expands down to the exhaust pressure, producing a shaft work output in the process. The turbine shaft work is used to drive the
compressor and other devices such as an electric generator that may be coupled to the shaft. The energy that is not used for shaft
work comes out in the exhaust gases, so these have either a high temperature or a high velocity. The purpose of the gas turbine
determines the design so that the most desirable energy form is maximized. Gas turbines are used to
power aircraft, trains, ships, electrical generators, or even tanks.
[1]



Distilled water
Distilled water is water that has many of its impurities removed through distillation. Distillation involves boiling the water
and then condensing thesteam into a clean container.
Use in steam irons
Although possibly once the recommended procedure, using distilled water in steam irons for pressing clothes (once thought to help
reduce mineral build-up and increase iron life
[8]
), now most manufacturers say that distilled water is not only no longer necessary in
their irons, but can actually result in malfunction, including spitting and leaking during use. This may occur due to the lack of
impurities in distilled water, which can heat beyond the normal boiling point, rather than nucleating around dissolved impurities at the
normal boiling point and producing the necessary steam when it hits the soleplate. It has been suggested that this superheated
(distilled) water in an iron will flash boil when disturbed (as with moving an iron), and cause the iron to spit, leak, and possibly scald
the user. However, a mainstream iron manufacturer has a more basic explanation; simply put, distilled water does not contain the
minerals necessary to help the water vaporize on contact with the soleplate.
[9]
solar energy
Solar energy, radiant light and heat from the sun, is harnessed using a range of ever-evolving technologies such as solar
heating, solar photovoltaics, solar thermal electricity, solar architecture and artificial photosynthesis.
[1][2]

Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar depending on the way they capture, convert
and distribute solar energy. Active solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic panels and solar thermal collectors to harness
the energy. Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials with favorable thermal mass or light
dispersing properties, and designing spaces that naturally circulate air.
In 2011, the International Energy Agency said that "the development of affordable, inexhaustible and clean solar energy
technologies will have huge longer-term benefits. It will increase countries energy security through reliance on an indigenous,
inexhaustible and mostly import-independent resource, enhance sustainability, reduce pollution, lower the costs of
mitigating climate change, and keep fossil fuelprices lower than otherwise. These advantages are global. Hence the additional
costs of the incentives for early deployment should be considered learning investments; they must be wisely spent and need to be
\widely shared".
[1



Lenz's law /lntsz l/ is a common way of understanding how electromagnetic circuits obey Newton's third law and
the conservation of energy.
[1]
Lenz's law is named after Heinrich Lenz, and it says:

Electricity

Magnetism
Electrostatics[show]
Magnetostatics[hide]
Ampre's law

Magnetic field
Magnetization

Magnetic flux
BiotSavart law
Magnetic dipole moment
Gauss's law for magnetism
Electrodynamics

In physics, specifically electromagnetism, the magnetic flux through a surface is the component of the
magnetic B field passing through that surface.. Magnetic flux is usually measured with a fluxmeter, which
contains measuring coils and electronics, that evaluates the change of voltage in the measuring coils to
calculate the magnetic flux.
electromotive forcemagnetic flux
Fluorocarbons, sometimes referred to as perfluorocarbons or PFCs, are organofluorine compounds that contain
only carbon and fluorine bonded together in strong carbonfluorine bonds.



What Is in Dirty Water?

Dirty water contains a lot of things like bacteria, viruses, soil, chemicals and a lot of other harmful
compounds. The dirt in water is depended on the area on which the water was collected from. It is
estimated that about 5000 children die each day from complication brought about by drinking dirty
water. Most of these deaths occur in the third world countries.

Electro Plating
Electroplating is a process that uses electrical current to reduce dissolved metal cations so that they form a coherent metal
coating on an electrode..
copper in heating panels

The foremost residential use of solar energy came in the shape of solar thermal heating panels & applications. Through covering a
system of copper pipes with a black heat-collecting surface beneath a greenhouse-style pane of glass, the fluid inside these copper
pipes can be easily heated with solar radiation and further pumped through a baseboard heating system.

Copper and it's alloys are extensively used in these systems, that are usually ideal for keeping a small swimming pool, baseboard
heating, household hot water etc at a comfortable temperature. While the manufacturing process and the mechanism through
which they work is highly technical, they are much simpler to install and maintain in their actual usage.
Stainless Steel
Stainless steel does not readily corrode, rust or stain with water as ordinary steel does, but despite the name it is not fully stain-
proof, most notably under low oxygen, high salinity, or poor circulation environments.
[2]
There are different grades and surface
finishes of stainless steel to suit the environment the alloy must endure. Stainless steel is used where both the properties of steel
and resistance to corrosion are required.
Stainless steel differs from carbon steel by the amount of chromium present. Unprotected carbon steel rusts readily when exposed
to air and moisture. This iron oxide film (the rust) is active and accelerates corrosion by forming more iron oxide, and due to the
greater volume of the iron oxide this tends to flake and fall away. Stainless steels contain sufficient chromium to form a passive film
of chromium oxide, which prevents further surface corrosion by blocking oxygen diffusion to the steel surface and blocks corrosion
from spreading into the metal's internal structure, and due to the similar size of the steel and oxide ions they bond very strongly and
remain attached to the surface.
[3]
Elements
Stainless steel contains chromium which provides the unique stainless and corrosion resisting properties.
Self Protective
Stainless steel has a unique self-healing property. Due to the alloying elements used, a thin, transparent layer is formed
on the surface. In case the surface is scratched or damaged otherwise, this thin layer, which is only a few atoms thick,
immediately rebuilds with the assistance of oxygen from air or water. This is the reason why stainless steel does not
require any coating or other corrosion protection to remain bright and shiny even after decades of use.
Alloys
For a list of common alloys click here.
Advantages
The lack of need for a finish reduces delivery time of stainless parts. However parts cost more to machine due to their
hardness. Stainless parts offer higher strength and corrosion resistance. The metal usually remains bright and shiny even
after decades of use. Stainless steel also retains strength and shock resistance even at high temperatures. It is hygienic
due to the smooth and minimally porous surface. Most alloys are non-magnetic. Stainless steel has excellent fatigue and
impact resistance. Products made with the metal generally last a long time.

Copper in heat exchangers
Heat exchangers are devices that transfer heat in order to achieve desired heating or cooling. An important design aspect
of heat exchanger technology is the selection of appropriate materials to conduct and transfer heat fast and efficiently.
Copper has many desirable properties for thermally efficient and durable heat exchangers. First and foremost, copper is
an excellent conductor of heat. This means that copper's high thermal conductivity allows heat to pass through it quickly.
Other desirable properties of copper in heat exchangers include its corrosion resistance, biofouling resistance, maximum
allowable stress and internal pressure, creep rupture strength, fatigue strength, hardness, thermal
expansion, specific heat, antimicrobial properties, tensile strength, yield strength, high melting
point, alloyability, ease of fabrication, and ease of joining.
[1][2][3][4][5]

The combination of these properties enable copper to be specified for heat exchangers in industrial facilities, HVAC systems,
vehicular coolers and radiators, and as heat sinks to cool computers,disk drives, televisions, computer
monitors, and other electronic equipment.
[6]
Copper is also incorporated into the bottoms of high-quality cookware because the
metal conducts heat quickly and distributes it evenly.



Rotation around a fixed axis is a special case of rotational motion. The fixed axis hypothesis excludes the possibility of a
moving axis, and cannot describe such phenomena as wobbling or precession
The greenhouse effect is a process by which thermal radiation from a planetary surface is absorbed by
atmospheric greenhouse gases, and is re-radiated in all directions. Since part of this re-radiation is back towards the surface
and the lower atmosphere, it results in an elevation of the average surface temperature above what it would be in the absence of the
gases.

Reflection principle says that it is possible to find sets that resemble the class of all sets. There are several different forms of the
reflection principle depending on exactly what is meant by "resemble principle are theorems of ZF set theory due
to Montague (1961),

Light is the medium of energy by which we perceive our environment through our eyes. It is one form of electromagnetic
radiation which also includes things like ultraviolet, infrared, and radio waves.
Like all electromagnetic radiation, light is transmitted by individual packets (or quanta) of energy known as photons. These photons
are the units by which the combined forces of electricity and magnetism are communicated between other particles, such as the
electrons associated with an atom. Depending on the circumstances under which it is observed, a photon can behave like a particle
or as a wave. This principle is known as wave-particle duality.


In optics the refractive index or index of refraction n of a substance (optical medium) is a dimensionless number that describes
how light, or any other radiation, propagates through that medium. It is defined as
,
where c is the speed of light in vacuum and v is the speed of light in the substance
The greenhouse effect is a process by which thermal radiation from a planetary surface is absorbed by
atmospheric greenhouse gases, and is re-radiated in all directions. Since part of this re-radiation is back towards the surface
and the lower atmosphere, it results in an elevation of the average surface temperature above what it would be in the absence of the
gases.
[1][2]