Isabelle Dominique S.

Cabazor
2013-13543
September 23, 2014
Answers to Thought Questions for Exercise 7
1. Segmentation is said to have developed in chordates, arthropods, and annelids from a common
ancestor. Environmental conditions and needs of the specific animal caused the variations in the
manifestations of segmentation in these three groups. The evolutionary significance of segmentation is
that it caused the diversity of the arthropods making them one of the most successful phyla, with the
most number of species and individuals. Segments enable the organism to fulfill a specific need by
specializing a part (or a segment) of itself rather than growing a new organ for a specific purpose.
(Source: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/07/100726222316.htm)
2. Some species of leeches did not evolve to have teeth that can pierce the skin of animals. These are
the predacious leeches usually found in temperate regions. There are relatively less of these leeches
probably because they expend more energy looking for and ambushing prey to swallow whole.
Meanwhile, the blood-sucking leeches (either proboscidate or non-proboscidate) make up most of the
population because of their food source. Blood contains much of the nutrients needed by the leech to
survive. Most leeches are able to ingest huge amounts of blood (ten times their size, for some) which
means that they can store up a lot of blood which can sustain them for a while even if they dont find a
new host. This is advantageous compared to the predacious leeches that have to consistently stalk and
ambush a new prey in order to keep going since they cannot store up their prey in their bodies in the
same way that blood-sucking leeches store up blood in their bodies.
(Source: Modern Text Book of Zoology: Invertebrates By Prof. R.L.Kotpal p 517-518)

3. The similarities between cephalopod eyes and vertebrate eyes (specifically human eyes) arise from
the fact that cephalopods are predators that rely heavily on sight to capture their prey. Cephalopods are
also capable of communication and behavioural interaction, which both involve the use of eyes. The
pupils of cephalopods are able to dilate and contract very quickly much like vertebrate eyes allowing
them to focus on tracking prey even in the depths of the ocean. They also have retinal sensitivity that is
very close to the retinal sensitivity of human eyes both in sophistication and in the fact that it improves
as the organism matures. Lastly, their lenses are sensitive and provide clear imaging which, as
mentioned before, is essential in their capture of prey.

(Source: http://www.mapoflife.org/topics/topic_7_Camera-eyes-of-cephalopods/)

4. Bio-indication involves measuring the environmental damage found in a certain place. It is done by
measuring the amount of contaminants or the amount of accumulated toxins of some chosen species to
determine the level of contamination in a given area. Shellfish (such as Perna viridis) are able to ingest
metals and other toxins due to their high tolerance. The toxins damage the reproductive organs of male
and female P. viridis making them an excellent measure of the amount of water pollution in aquatic
ecosystems.
(Source: Metallothionein gene expression in green mussels (Perna viridis) as a bioindicator for heavy
metal on the North Coast of Java and its impact on the development of reproductive organs by Yulia
Irnidayanti, Shofy Septiana and Apriliana Layli Fitri, Jakarta State University)
5. Nematodes are somehow able to evade the immunity response of gastropods causing them to
become excellent intermediate hosts for these parasites. An example of this is the parasite Schistosoma
mansoni using snails as intermediate hosts. The immunity response of the snail involves hemocytes
encapsulating the parasite and eliminating it. However, S. mansoni has found a way to survive being
eliminated by the snails immune response allowing them to use the snail to multiply. It also doesnt
help that invertebrates generally do not have an adaptive immune system to counter these mutations of
the parasites making them excellent hosts.
(Source: Cathepsin B Homologue at the Interface between a Parasitic Nematode and Its Intermediate
Host by Michael S. Duffy, Deanne K. Cevasco, Dante S. Zarlenga, Woraporn Sukhumavasi, and Judith A.
Appleton)
6. According to John R. Meyer from North Carolina State University, there is no one all-encompassing
ecological or physiological trait that could attribute to the longevity of this group of organisms. It is a
combination of various characteristics that enabled the insects to survive planet-wide extinctions and
efforts (by humans and other predators) to eliminate them. (1)Their exoskeleton gives them protection,
prevents desiccation, provides shape and support for the entire body, and allows them freedom of
movement through the joints found in the exoskeleton. (2)The small size of the insects does not require
too much nourishment to sustain and also allows them to evade predators by camouflaging or hiding
themselves in their surroundings. (3)Insects are the only invertebrates that can fly allowing them to
evade predators and is an effective mode of transport, enabling them to cover a lot of land when it
comes to looking for food. (4)They have very effective modes of reproduction that allow them to
produce a lot of eggs and to have a lot of these eggs hatch successfully. These combined with the short
life cycle of insects allow them to be very effective as a group in sustaining their population.
(5)Metamorphosis of insects allows them to have a compartmentalized life cycle. In most insects, this
means that the larval stage is devoted to feeding and growth (e.g. caterpillar) while the adult stage is
devoted to reproduction (e.g. butterfly). (6) Lastly, their ability to adapt to constantly changing
environment and resources allow them to thrive in even the most extreme environments.
(Source: http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/text01/success.html)
7. The hermit crab grows very slowly and chooses its shell very carefully. The main consideration for
choosing the shell is the size of its opening. The opening must not be too big or too small for the hermit
crab. It must also be big enough to protect the soft abdomen of the crab. Its shape and weight must also
allow the crab to move around.
(Sources:
http://academic.reed.edu/biology/professors/srenn/pages/teaching/web_2007/mdes_website/index.ht
ml
http://www.hermitcrabpatch.com/Hermit-Crab-Shell-Selection-a/149.htm)

8. Colonial insects, such as ants, use heavenly bodies to navigate to and from their colony despite being
blind. These skylight cues and counting their steps help them find there way back to their colony after
finding a food source to bring back. They also secrete certain hormones that mark the path they have
taken, usually directing to a food source. This path can also be detected by other ants who will help
bring the food to the colony.
(Source: http://www.esa.int/gsp/ACT/doc/EVENTS/InnovativeSystemWorkshop2/ACT-ART-
Bridge2Space-Seidl.pdf)
9. Spider webs suit the specific need of the spider that weaves them. Although not all types of prey can
be captured by just one web form or orientation, maximizing retention, interposition and stopping
abilities of the web is taken into account. Spiders that aim to capture heavier prey build webs that focus
in the stopping ability of the web in order for the web to absorb the preys momentum without
breaking. Meanwhile, spiders that aim to capture smaller and weaker prey tend to weave webs that are
better at retention so that the small insects do not escape from the web after being captured.
(Source: Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, Vol. 21 (1990), pp. 341-372. Function and Phylogeny
of Spider Webs by William G. Eberhard)