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Notes of Algebra

The document defines matrices and matrix operations. It introduces the definition of a matrix as a rectangular array of numbers arranged in rows and columns. It defines types of matrices such as square, identity, upper/lower triangular matrices. It describes basic matrix operations like addition, scalar multiplication, and transpose. It also introduces matrix multiplication and properties like non-commutativity when order is changed. Matrix powers and their application to directed graphs are discussed. Block multiplication is presented as a way to view matrix-vector products.

Uploaded by

Sherif El-soudy
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
37 views

Notes of Algebra

The document defines matrices and matrix operations. It introduces the definition of a matrix as a rectangular array of numbers arranged in rows and columns. It defines types of matrices such as square, identity, upper/lower triangular matrices. It describes basic matrix operations like addition, scalar multiplication, and transpose. It also introduces matrix multiplication and properties like non-commutativity when order is changed. Matrix powers and their application to directed graphs are discussed. Block multiplication is presented as a way to view matrix-vector products.

Uploaded by

Sherif El-soudy
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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1.

Matrix Algebra
1.1. Definition of a Matrix

An m n matrix is a rectangular array of real numbers, arranged in m rows and n columns. The elements of a matrix are
called the entries. The expression m n denotes the size of the
matrix.

a11 a12 . . . a1n


a

21 a22 . . . a2n
A = ..
..
..
..
.
.
.
.
am1 am2 . . . amn
We write aij to represent the entry in the ith row and j th
column of A. For example, each of the following is a matrix,

A=

2 3 1
4 0 5

7
D = 1 ,
2

4 2
B = 1 7 ,
5 3

E=


4 3 0 ,

1 2 3
C=4 5 6
7 8 9
F=

We say that two m n matrices A and B are equal if and


only if their corresponding entries are equal.
1.2. Square Matrices

A square matrix is a matrix having the same number of rows


as columns. The main diagonal entries of a n n matrix A are
a11, a22, a33 , . . . , ann .

An identity matrix is a square matrix with all main diagonal


entries equal to 1 and all of the other entries equal to zero.

1
0
0
0


0 1 0 0
1 0

I2 =
, I4 =
0 0 1 0
0 1
0 0 0 1
An upper triangular matrix is a square matrix with all entries below the main diagonal equal to zero. Similarly, a lower
triangular matrix is a square matrix with all entries above the
main diagonal equal to zero.

7 2 2 0
3
0
0
0 4 9 5

9 2 0
P=
0 0 0 8 , Q =
14 6 1
0 0 0 3
1.3. Addition and Scalar Multiplication with Matrices

Let A and B both be m n matrices. The sum of A and


B is the m n matrix A + B whose (i, j)th entry is equal to
aij + bij . For example,


6 3 2
7 0 4


+

5 6 3
4 2 4


=

11 9 1
11 2 0

Let A be an m n matrix, and let c be a scalar. Then the


matrix cA, the scalar multiplication of c and A, is the m n
matrix whose (i, j)th entry is equal to caij . For example, if c =
2 and

A=

4 1 6 7
2 4 9 5


,

then2A =
2

8 2 12 14
4 8 18 10

Theorem 1.1. (optional) Let A, B, andC be m n matrices,


and let c and d be scalars. Then
1. A + B=B + A.
2. A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C.
3. There exists an m n matrix O, such that O + A = A for
each A.
4. For each A, there exists an m n matrix, A, such that
A + (A) = O.
5. c(A + B) = cA + cB.
6. (c + d)A = cA + dA.
7. (cd)A = c(dA).
8. 1A = A.
Remark 1.1. Let A and B both be m n matrices. Then
A B denotes A + (B).
1.4. The Transpose of a Matrix

Let A be an m n matrix. The transpose matrix AT is the


n m matrix whose (i, j)th entry is the same as the (j, i)th entry
of the original matrix A. For example,

6
2
if A =
3
1

10
4

0
8

then AT =

6 2 3 1
10 4 0 8

Theorem 1.2. Let A and B both be m n matrices, and let c


be a scalar. Then
1. (AT )T = A
2. (A + B)T = AT + BT
3. (cA)T = c(AT )
3

1.5. Matrix Multiplication

Let A be an m n matrix and B and n p matrix. The


product of A and B, denoted by AB, is the m p matrix whose
(i, j)th entry is given by
n

ai1 b1j + ai2 b2j + . . . ain bnj =
aik bkj
k=1

For example,


5 1 4
3 6 0



9 4 8 2
30
34
27
6
7 6 1 0 =
15 24 18 6
2 5 3 4

Remark 1.2. If the order of the factors in a product of matrices


is changed, the product matrix may change or may not exist.
For example:

Let

A=


Then

AB =

6 9
4 6
3 12
2 8

,

,


1 2
B=
1 0


2 3
BA =
6 9

Theorem 1.3. (optional) Assume that k is an arbitrary scalar


and that A, B, and C are matrices of sizes such that the indicated operations can be performed.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

IA = A, BI = B
A(BC) = (AB)C
A(B + C) = AB + AC
(B + C)A = BA + CA
k(AB) = (kA)B = A(kB)
(AB)T = B T AT
4

1.5.1. Nonnegative powers of square matrices

Let A be an n n matrix. Then the nonnegative powers of


A are defined by A0 = In , A1 = A, and for k 2, Ak = Ak1A.
1.5.2. An application to directed graphs

Let G be a directed graph with n vertices v1, v2, . . . , vn. The


adjacency matrix A is the n n matrix whose (i, j)-entry aij
is 1 if there is an edge from vj to vi, and zero otherwise. For
example, the adjacency matrix of the directed graph in Figure 1
is

1 1 0
A=1 0 1
1 0 0
Theorem 1.4. Let A be the adjacency matrix of a directed graph
with n vertices. The (i, j)-entry of Ar , r 1, is the number of
walks of length r from vj to vi.
As an application of Theorem 1.4, the number of walks of
length 3 in the directed graph of Figure 1 is given by the matrix

4 2 1
A3 = 3 2 1
2 1 1
v1

v2

v3

Figure 1: A directed graph

1.5.3. Block Multiplication

Let A be an m n matrix and B an n 1 matrix. When


forming the product AB, it is sometimes convenient to view A
in terms of its columns and B in terms of its entries. Then write

AB = (C1C2 . . . Cn )

x1
x2
..
.
xn

= x 1 C1 + x 2 C2 + . . . x n Cn

For example


5 1 4
3 6 0






1
5
1
4
3 = 1
+ (3)
+2
3
6
0
2

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