EXPERIMENT 1

TENSION TEST ON MILD STEEL ROD

AIM: To conduct a tensile test on a mild steel specimen and determine the
following:
(i) Limit of proportionality (ii) Elastic limit
(iii) Yield strength (IV) Ultimate strength
(v) Youngs modulus of elasticity (VI) Percentage elongation
(vii) Percentage reduction in area.
APPARATUS: (i) Universal Testing Machine (UTM)
(ii) Mild steel specimens
(iii) Graph paper
(iv) Scale
(v) Vernier Caliper
DIAGRAM:-

THEORY:The tensile test is most applied one, of all mechanical tests. In this test ends of test piece are
fixed into grips connected to a straining device and to a load measuring device. If the applied
load is small enough, the deformation of any solid body is entirely elastic. An elastically
deformed solid will return to its original from as soon as load is removed. However, if the load is
too large, the material can be deformed permanently. The initial part of the tension curve which
is recoverable immediately after unloading is termed. As elastic and the rest of the curve which
represents the manner in which solid undergoes plastic deformation is termed plastic. The stress
below which the deformations essentially entirely elastic is known as the yield strength of
material. In some material the onset of plastic deformation is denoted by a sudden drop in load
indicating both an upper and a lower yield point. However, some materials do not exhibit a sharp
yield point. During plastic deformation, at larger extensions strain hardening cannot compensate
for the decrease in section and thus the load passes through a maximum and then begins to
decrease. This stage the ultimate strength which is defined as the ratio of the load on the
specimen to original cross-sectional area, reaches a maximum value. Further loading will
eventually cause neck formation and rupture
.
PROCEDURE:1) Measure the original length and diameter of the specimen. The length may either be length of
gauge section which is marked on the specimen with a preset punch or the total length of the
specimen.
2. Insert the specimen into grips of the test machine and attach strain-measuring device to it.
3. Begin the load application and record load versus elongation data.
4. Take readings more frequently as yield point is approached.
5. Measure elongation values with the help of dividers and a ruler.
6. Continue the test till Fracture occurs.
7. By joining the two broken halves of the specimen together, measure the final length and
diameter of specimen.
OBESERVATION: - A) Material:
A) Original dimensions
Length = -----------Diameter = --------Area = -------------B) Final Dimensions:
Length = ------------------Diameter = ----------------Area = ------------------------

S.No Load(N)

Original
Gauge Length

Extension
(mm)

Load
Stress = ---------- N/mm2
Area

Increase in
length
Strain =
length

To plot the stress strain curve and determine the following.

(i) Limit of proportion
= Load at limit of proportionality / Original area of cross-section (N/mm2)

(ii)

Elastic limit
= Load at elastic limit / Original area of cross-section (N/mm2)

(iii) Yield strength

= Yield load / Original area of cross-section (N/mm2)

(iv) Ultimate strength

= Maximum tensile load / Original area of cross-section (N/mm2)

--------Original

(v) Youngs modulus, E

= Stress below proportionality limit / Corresponding Strain (N/mm2)
(vi) Percentage elongation
= Final length (at fracture) original length /Original length
(vii) Percentage reduction in area
= Original area-area at fracture / Original area

RESULT:i) Average Breaking Stress =

ii) Ultimate Stress =
iii) Average % Elongation =
EXPERIMENT 2
COMPRESSION TEST ON WOOD
Aim
To find the compressive strength of given specimen.
Material and Equipment
Universal testing machine,

Compression pads,
Given specimen,
Theory
This is the test to know strength of a material under compression.
Generallycompression test is carried out to know either simple compression
characteristicsof material or column action of structural members.It has been
observed that for varying height of member, keeping crosssectionaland the load
applied constant, there is an increased tendency towards bending ofa
member.Member under compression usually bends along minor axis, i.e, along
least lateral dimension. According to column theory slenderness ratio has more
functional value. If this ratio goes on increasing, axial compressive stress goes
ondecreasing and member buckles more and more. End conditions at the time
of test have a pronounced effect on compressive strength of materials. Effective
length must be taken according to end conditions assumed, at the time of the
test. As the ends of the member is made plain and fit between two jaws of the
machine, fixed end is assumed for calculation of effective length. Effective
length is taken as 0.5 L where L is actual length of a specimen
Figure

Observation
Cross sectional area of the specimen perpendicular to the load=A=mm 2
Load taken by the specimen at the time of failure, W=. (N)
Strength of the pin against shearing (s) = [W/A ] N/mm2

Procedure
1. Place the specimen in position between the compression pads.
2. Switch on the UTM
3. Bring the drag indicator in contact with the main indicator.
4. Select the suitable range of loads and space the corresponding weight in the
pendulum and balance it if necessary with the help of small balancing weights
5. Operate (push) the button for driving the motor to drive the pump.

6. Gradually move the head control ever in left hand direction till the
specimenfails.
7. Note down the load at which the specimen shears
8. Stop the machine and remove the specimen.
9. Repeat the experiment with other specimens.
Precautions
1. Place the specimen at center of compression pads,
2. Stop the UTM as soon as the specimen fails.
3. Cross sectional area of specimen for compression test should be kept large as
compared to the specimen for tension test: to obtain the proper degree of
stability.
Result
Compressive strength of the specimen N/mm2

EXPERIMENT 3
DOUBLE SHEAR TEST
AIM: To conduct shear test on specimens under double shear

APPARATUS: i)
Universal testing machine.
ii)
Shear test attachment.
iii)
Specimens.
DIAGRAM:-

THEORY: Place the shear test attachment on the lower table, this attachment consists of cutter. The
specimen is inserted in shear test attachment & lift the lower table so that the zero is
adjusted,then apply the load such that the specimen breaks in two or three pieces. If the specimen
breaks in two pieces then it will be in single shear & if it breaks in three pieces then it will be in
double shear.
PROCEDURE:
1. Insert the specimen in position and grip one end of the attachment in the upper portion and one
end in the lower portion.
2. Switch on the main switch of universal testing machine.
3. The drag indicator in contact with the main indicator.
4. Select the suitable range of loads and space the corresponding weight in the pendulum and
balance it if necessary with the help of small balancing weights.
5. Operate (push) buttons for driving the motor to drive the pump.
6. Gradually move the head control level in left-hand direction till thespecimen shears.
7. Down the load at which the specimen shears.
8. Stop the machine and remove the specimen
Repeat the experiment with other specimens.

OBESERVATION:Diameter of the Rod, D =

.. mm

Cross-section area of the Rod (in double shear) = 2x /4x d2 =

Load taken by the Specimen at the time of failure, W =

.mm2
N

Strength of rod against Shearing = x2x /4x d2

= (W / 2) x /4x d2 N/mm2

RESULT:
The Shear strength of mild steel specimen is found to be = N/mm2
EXPERIMENT 4
TORSION TEST ON MILD STEEL ROD
Aim:
To find the modulus of rigidity.

Specimen and equipments

1. A torsion testing apparatus,
2. Standard specimen of mild steel or cast iron.
3. Twist meter for measuring angles of twist
4. A steel rule and calipers and micrometer.
Theory
A torsion test is quite instrumental in determining the value of rigidity (ratio of shear
stress to shear strain) of a metallic specimen. The value of modulus of rigidity can be found out
through observations made during the experiment by using the torsion equation:
T C
=
Ip
l
Where
T=torque applied,
Ip= polar moment of inertia,
C=modulus of rigidity,
= Angle of twist (radians), and
l= gauge length.
In the torque equipment refer fig. One end of the specimen is held by a fixed support and
the other end to a pulley. The pulley provides the necessary torque to twist the rod by addition of
weights (w). The twist meter attached to the rod gives the angle of twist.

Torsion testing equipment

Procedure
1. Prepare the testing machine by fixing the two twist meters at some constant lengths
from fixed support.
2. Measure the diameter of the pulley and the diameter of the rod.
3. Add weights in the hanger stepwise to get a notable angle of twist for T1 and T2
4. Using the above formula calculate C
Tabulation:
Torque

Angle of twist

S.No
Kgf.cm

N.mm

Result
Modulus of rigidity of the shaft.

Radian

Modulus of rigidity
(N/mm2)

EXPERIMENT 5
IMPACT TEST ON METAL SPECIMEN
Aim
To determine the Impact toughness (strain energy) through Izod test and Charpy test
Theory
In a impact test a specially prepared notched specimen is fractured by a single blow from
a heavy hammer and energy required being a measure of resistance to impact. Impact load is
produced by a swinging of an impact weight W (hammer) from a height h. Release of the weight
from the height h swings the weight through the arc of a circle, which strikes the specimen to
fracture at the notch (fig). Kinetic energy of the hammer at the time of impact is mv 2 /2, which is
equal to the relative potential energy of the hammer before its release. (mph),where m is the
mass of the hammer and v = 2 gh is its tangential velocity at impact, g is gravitational
acceleration (9.806 m/s 2 ) and h is the height through which hammer falls. Impact velocity will
be 5.126 m/s or slightly less. Here it is interesting to note that height through which hammer
drops determines the velocity and height and mass of a hammer combined determine the energy.
Energy used can be measured from the scale given. The difference between potential energies is
the fracture energy. In test machine this value indicated by the pointer on the scale. If the scale is
calibrated in energy units, marks on the scale should be drawn keeping in view angle of fall ()
and angle of rise (. Height h1 and h2 equals,)
h1= R (1-cos) and h2= (1-cos).
With the increase or decrease in values, gap between marks on scale showing energy also
increase or decrease. This can be seen from the attached scale with any impact machine.
Energy used in fracturing the specimen can be obtained approximately as Wh1Wh2 This energy
value called impact toughness or impact value, which will be measured, per unit area at the
notch.
Izod introduced Izod test in 1903. Test is as per the IS: 1598
Charpy introduced Charpy test in 1909. Test is as per the IS: 1499.

a. IZOD TEST
Specimen and equipment
1. Impact testing machine.(fig.)
2. Specimen and v notch is shown in the fig. Size of the specimen is 10mmX 10mm X 75mm
Mounting of the specimen:
Specimen is clamped to act as vertical cantilever with the notch on tension side. Direction
of blow of hammer is shown in fig. Direction of blow is shown in fig.

Impact testing equipment

Schematic impact testing

Position of specimen for Izod test

Procedure
1. Measure the dimensions of a specimen. Also, measure the dimensions of The notch.
2. Raise the hammer and note down initial reading from the dial, which will be energy to be used
to fracture the specimen.
3. Place the specimen for test and see that it is placed center with respect to hammer.
Check the position of notch.
4. Release the hammer and note the final reading. Difference between the initial and final reading
will give the actual energy required to fracture the Specimen.
5. Repeat the test for specimens of other materials.
6. Compute the energy of rupture of each specimen.
Impact Value =

(energy absorbed / cross sectional area)

J/m2

Toughness = (energy absorbed / volume of specimen) J/m3

Observation
Length of the specimen (L) =
Breadth of the specimen (B) =
Depth of the specimen (D)
=
Area of the specimen (A)
= LxB
Volume of the specimen (V)
= LxBxD
Impact Value = (E1 - E2) / A =

J/m2

J/m3

Toughness = (E1 - E2) / V =

Tabulation:

Specimen

Initial
Energy(E1) in
Joule

Residual
Energy (E2)
in Joule

Absorb Energy
(E1-E2)

Result
Strain energy of given specimen is
The impact strength of given specimen = ------The toughness of given specimen = -------

joule/mm2
joule/mm3

Impact Value

Toughness
J/m3

b.CHARPY TEST
Specimen and equipment:
1. Impact testing machine. (Fig.)
2. U notch is cut across the middle of one face as shown in (fig.).

Specimen for Charpy test

Charpy impact testing equipment

Mounting of specimen
Specimen is tested as a beam supported at each end (fig.7). Hammer is allowed to
hit then specimen at the opposite face behind the notch.

Mounting of specimen

Procedure
1. Measure the dimensions of a specimen. Also, measure the dimensions of The notch.
2. Raise the hammer and note down initial reading from the dial, which will be energy to be used
to fracture the specimen.
3. Place the specimen for test and see that it is placed center with respect to hammer. Check the
position of notch.
4. Release the hammer and note the final reading. Difference between the initial and final reading
will give the actual energy required to fracture the Specimen.
5. Repeat the test for specimens of other materials.
6. Compute the energy of rupture of each specimen.
Impact Value = (energy absorbed / cross sectional area) J/m2
Toughness = (energy absorbed / volume of specimen) J/m3
Observation
Length of the specimen (L) =
Breadth of the specimen (B) =
Depth of the specimen (D)
=
Area of the specimen (A)
= LxB
Volume of the specimen (V)
= LxBxD
Impact Value = (E1 - E2) / A =
J/m2
3
Toughness = (E1 - E2) / V =
J/m
Tabulation:

Specimen

Initial
Energy(E1) in
Joule

Residual
Energy (E2)
in Joule

Absorb Energy
(E1-E2)

Impact Value

Result
Strain energy of given specimen is ..
The impact strength of given specimen =
The toughness of given specimen = ..

joule/mm2
joule/mm3

Toughness
J/m3

EXPERIMENT 6
ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST
Objective
To determine the hardness the Hardness of the given Specimen using Rockwell hardness test.
Materials and equipments required
Rockwell hardness testing machine.
Black diamond cone indenter,
Hard steel specimen.
Theory
Rockwell test is developed by the Wilson instrument co U.S.A in 1920.This test is an
indentation test used for smaller specimens and harder materials. The test is subject of IS:
1586.In this test indenter is forced into the surface of a test piece in two operations, ensuring the
permanent increase in depth of an indentation from the depth increased from the depth reached
under a datum load due to an additional load. Measurement of indentation is made after
removing the additional load. Indenter used is the cone having an angle of 120 degrees made of
black diamond.
Precautions
1. Thickness of the specimen should not be less than 8 times the depth of indentation to avoid the
deformation to be extended to the opposite surface of a specimen.
2. Indentation should not be made nearer to the edge of a specimen to avoid unnecessary
concentration of stresses. In such case distance from the edge to the center of indentation should
be greater than 2.5 times diameter of indentation.
3. Rapid rate of applying load should be avoided. Load applied on the ball may rise a little
because of its sudden action. Also rapidly applied load will restrict plastic flow of a material,
which produces effect on size of indentation.
Procedure
1. Examine hardness testing machine (fig.1).
2. Place the specimen on platform of a machine. Using the elevating screw raise the platform and
bring the specimen just in contact with the ball. apply an initial load until the small pointer shows
red mark.
3. Release the operating valve to apply additional load. Immediately after the additional load
applied, bring back operating valve to its position.
4. Read the position of the pointer on the C scale, which gives the hardness number.
5. Repeat the procedure five times on the specimen selecting different points for indentation.
Observation
1. Take average of five values of indentation of each specimen. Obtain the hardness number from
the dial of a machine.
2. Compare Brinell and Rockwell hardness tests obtained.

Tabulation:

Specimens

Scale

Reading (HRC/HRB)

Load(kgf
)

Mean
1

Mild Steel

HRB =

High Carbon steel

HRC =

Brass

HRB =

Aluminium

HRB =

Rockwell hardness test equipment

Result

Rockwell hardness of given specimen is

EXPERIMENT 7
BRINELL HARDNESS TEST
Aim
To determine the hardness of the given specimen using Brinell hardness test.
Specimen and specimen
Brinell hardness tester
Aluminum specimen
Ball indenter.
Precautions
1. Thickness of the specimen should not be less than 8 times the depth of indentation to avoid the
deformation to be extended to the opposite surface of a specimen.
2. Indentation should not be made nearer to the edge of a specimen to avoid unnecessary
concentration of stresses. In such case distance from the edge to the center of indentation should
be greater than 2.5 times diameter of indentation.
3. Rapid rate of applying load should be avoided. Load applied on the ball may rise a little
because of its sudden action. Also rapidly applied load will restrict plastic flow of a material,
which produces effect on size of indentation.
4. Surface of the specimen is well polished, free from oxide scale and any foreign material.
Theory
Hardness of a material is generally defined as Resistance to the permanent indentation
under static and dynamic load. When a material is required to use under direct static or dynamic
loads, only indentation hardness test will be useful to find out resistance to dentation.
In Brinell hardness test, a steel ball of diameter (D) is forced under a load (F) on to a surface of
test specimen. Mean diameter (d) of indentation is measured after the removal of the load (F).
Observation
1. Take average of five values of indentation of each specimen. Obtain the hardness number from
equation (!).
2. Compare Brinell and Rockwell hardness tests obtained.
Procedure
1. Load to be applied for hardness test should be selected according to the expected hardness of
the material. However test load shall be kept equal to 30 times the square of the diameter of the
ball (diameter in mm)
F=30.D 2
Where ball diameter, generally taken as 10 mm.
For guidelines hardness range for standard loads given below
Ball diameter
10

Load (kg)
3000
1500

Range of Brinell hardness

96 to 600
48 to 300

500

16 to 100

2. Apply the load for a minimum of 15 seconds to 30 seconds. [if ferrousmetals are to be tested
time applied will be 15 seconds and for softer metal 30seconds]
3. Remove the load and measure the diameter of indentation nearest to 0.02 mm using
microscope (projected image)
4. Calculate Brinell hardness number (HB). As per IS: 1500.
5. Brinell hardness number
2
2
2F/D{D- [ D d ] }
Where D is the diameter of ball indenter and d is the diameter of indentation. Hardness numbers
normally obtained for different materials are given below(under 3000 kg and 10 mm diameter
ball used).
Ordinary steels medium carbon
Structural steel
Very hard steel

100 to 500
130 to 160
800 to 900

Note: Brinell test is not recommended for then materials having HB over 630.It is necessary to
mention ball size and load with the hardness test when standard size of ball and load are not
used. Because indentation done by different size of ball and load on different materials are not
geometrically similar. Ball also undergoes deformation when load is applied. Material response
to the load is not same all the time.
6. Brinell hardness numbers can be obtained from tables 1 to 5 given in IS: 1500, knowing
diameter of indentation, diameter of the ball and load applied.
Tabulation:

Material

Load(kgf
)

Diameter of
indenter(mm)

Diameter of indentation(mm)
1
2
3

Brinell
Hardness
Number
(BHN)

Brinell hardness test equipment

Result
The Brinell hardness number of the specimen is..

EXPERIMENT 8
DEFLECTION TEST ON BEAMS
AIM: To determined youngs modulus of elasticity of material of beam simply supported at
ends.
APPARATUS: 1. Deflection of beam apparatus
2. Pan
3. Weights
4. Beam of different cross-sections and material (say wooden and Steel beams)
THEORY:If a beam is simply supported at the ends and carries a concentrated load at its centre, the
beam bends concave upwards. The distance between the original position of the beams and its
position after bending at different points along the length of the beam, being maximum at the
centre in this case. This difference is known as deflection
In this particular type of loading the maximum amount of deflection () is given by the relation,

=
W l3
48 EI
(i)
W l3
48 I
------------- (ii)
W =Load acting at the center, N
L =Length of the beam between the supports mm
E =Youngs modulus of material of the beam, N/mm2
I =Second moment of area of the cross- section (.i.e. moment of Inertia) of the beam, about the
neutral axis, mm4.
E

BENDING STRESS
As per bending equation,
Where,M
I
b
Y

=
=
=
=

M
I

b
Y

Bending moment, N-mm

Moment of inertia, mm.4
Bending stress, N/mm2, and
Distance of the top fiber of the

beam from the neutral axis

PROCEDURE:
1. Adjust cast- iron block along the bed so that they are symmetrical with respect to the length of
the bed.

2. Place the beam on the knife edges on the block so as to project equally beyond each knife
edge. See that the load is applied at the centre of the
beam
3. Note the initial reading of vernier scale.
4. Add a weight of 20N (say) and again note the reading of the vernier scale.
5. Go on taking readings adding 20N (say)each time till you have minimum six readings.
6. Find the deflection () in each case by subtracting the initial reading of vernier scale.
7. Draw a graph between load (W) and deflection () . On the graph choose any two convenient
points and between these points find the corresponding values of W and . Putting these
Values in the relation
= WI3
48 I
Calculate the value of E
8. Calculate the bending stresses for different loads using relation
b =My
I

Deflection of beam apparatus

Tabulation:

S. No

Load(P)
(N)

Bending
moment
(N/mm)

Bending Stress
(N/mm2)

Deflection
(mm)

RESULT:
The youngs modulus for steel beam is found to be .. N/mm2

Youngs Modulus
(N/mm2)

EXPERIMENT 9
COMPRESSION TEST ON HELICAL SPRING
AIM : To determine the stiffness of the spring and modulus of rigidity of the spring wire
APPARATUS: i)

Spring testing machine.

ii)

A spring

iii) Vernier caliper, Scale.

iv)

Micrometer.

DIAGRAM:-

THEORY: Springs are elastic member which distort under load and regain their original shape
when load is removed. They are used in railway carriages, motor cars, scooters,
motorcycles, rickshaws, governors etc. According to their usesthe springs perform the
following Functions:
1) To absorb shock or impact loading as in carriage springs.
2) To store energy as in clock springs.
3) To apply forces to and to control motions as in brakes and clutches.

4) To measure forces as in spring balances.

5) To change the variations characteristic of a member as in flexible mounting of motors.
The spring is usually made of either high carbon steel (0.7 to 1.0%) or medium carbon
alloy steels. Phosphor bronze, brass, 18/8 stainless steel and Monel and other metal alloys are
used for corrosion resistance spring.
Several types of spring are available for different application. Springs may classified as
helical springs, leaf springs and flat spring depending upon their shape. They are fabricated of
high shear strength materials such as high carbon alloy steels spring form elements of not only
mechanical system but also structural system. In several cases it is essential to idealize complex
structural systems by suitable spring.
PROCEDURE:
1) Measure the diameter of the wire of the spring by using the micrometer.
2) Measure the diameter of spring coils by using the vernier caliper
3) Count the number of turns.
4) Insert the spring in the spring testing machine and load the spring by a suitable weight
and note the corresponding axial deflection in tension or compression.
5) Increase the load and take the corresponding axial deflection readings.
6) Plot a curve between load and deflection. The shape of the curve gives the stiffness of
the spring.
OBESERVATION
Least count of micrometer = mm
Diameter of the spring wire, d =mm
(Mean of three readings)
Least count of vernier caliper = mm
Diameter of the spring coil, D = mm
(Mean of three readings)
Mean coil diameter, Dm = D - dmm
Number of turns,
n=

Tabulation:

S.No

Load(N)

Deflection
(mm)

Stiffness
(N/mm)

Modulus of Rigidity
(N/mm2)

RESULT:
The value of spring constant (k) of closely coiled helical spring is found to
be
..N/mm