CIVIL ENGINEERING

LAB MANUAL
STRENGTH OF MATERIAL

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 LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

Sl. No. Name of the Experiment Page No.

To determine the tensile strength of specimen 3
1.

2. To find the compressive strength of given specimen. 8

3 To find the modulus of rigidity 10

4 To determine the Impact toughness (strain energy) through Izod test and 12
Charpy test.
5 To determine the Impact toughness (strain energy) through and Charpy 15
test.
6 To determine the hardness of the given specimen using Brinell hardness 17
test
7 To determine the hardness the Hardness of the given Specimen using 20
Rockwell hardness test.

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 EXPERIMENT NO.1

TITLE: TENSION TEST

AIM: To determine the tensile strength of specimen

Specimen and equipments

Universal testing machine (fig1.a)
Specimen as shown in the( fig1.b)
Of different ferrous and non ferrous materials

Fig.1(a)

THEORY

The tensile test is most applied one, of all mechanical tests. In this test ends of a test piece are
fixed into grips connected to a straining device and to a load measuring device. If the applied
load is small enough, the deformation of any solid body is entirely elastic. An elastically

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deformed solid will return to its original position as soon as load is removed. However, if the
load is too large, the material can be deformed permanently. The initial part of the tension
curve (fig.2), which is recoverable immediately after unloading, is termed as elastic and rest
of the curve, which represents the manner in which solid undergoes plastic deformation is
termed plastic. The stress below which the deformation is essentially entirely elastic is known
as the yield strength of material. In some materials (like mild steel) the onset of plastic
deformation is denoted by a sudden drop in load indicating both an upper and lower yield
point. However, some materials do not exhibit a sharp yield point. During plastic
deformation, at larger extensions strain hardening cannot compensate for the decrease in
section and thus the load passes through a
Maximum and then begins to decrease. As this stage the’ Ultimate strength ‘, which is
defined as the ratio of the specimen to original cross –sectional area, reaches a maximum
value. Further loading will eventually cause ‘neck’ formation and rupture. Usually a tension
test is conducted at room temperature and the tensile load is applied slowly. During this test
either round or flat specimens (fig.1) may be used. The round specimens may have smooth,
shouldered or threaded ends. The load on the specimen is applied mechanically or
hydraulically depending on the type of testing machine.

Stress strain Diagram

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PROCEDURE
1. Measure the dimensions of a specimen Diameter =d= ,
Total length of a specimen, Cross sectional area = Ao= ,
Mark gage length (Lo) at three different portions on the specimen,
Covering effective length of a specimen.(this is required so that necked portion will remain
between any two points of gage length on the specimen.)
2. Grip the specimen in the fixed head of a machine. (Portion of the specimen has to be
gripped as shown in the fig.
3. Fix the extensometer within the gauge length marked on the specimen.
Adjust the dial of extensometer at zero.
4. Adjust the dial of a machine to zero, to read load applied.
5. Select suitable increments of loads to be applied so that corresponding elongation can be
measured from dial gauge.
6. Keep speed of machine uniform. Record yield point, maximum load point, point of
breaking of specimen.
7. Remove the specimen from machine and study the fracture observes type of fracture.
8. Measure dimensions of tested specimen. Fit the broken parts together and measure reduced
diameter and final gage length.
OBSERVATIONS
Specimen prepared from M.S bar/CI/Al
1. Diameter = d = mm

2. Gage length (lo)= 5Xd= mm

3. Original cross sectional area of the specimen = Ao = mm2
4. Final gage length obtained= Lo’=
5. Final diameter obtained = mm

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 OBSERVATION TABLE 1

Sl. No. Load applied (N) Area of a Stress (N/mm 2 ) Modulus of

specimen (Ao) elasticity (E)
(P)
N/mm2

OBSERVATION TABLE 2.

Sl. No Contraction in Deformation Lateral Linear Poisson

diameter (dd) in length strain strain ratio
(mm) (mm)

Note:
1. Use vernier caliper to measure diameter, gage length etc. for the specimen.
2. If C.I. specimen is to be tested only one observation will be taken at failure.

RESULTS
1. Calculate stress and strain for every interval of applied load.
Draw stress strain curve as shown in the Fig.
2. Compute the following;

A. Modulus of elasticity
Hook’s law states that stress is always proportional to strain within elastic limit. The ratio of
stress and strain is constant, called modulus of elasticity or young’s modulus (E)
E= Stress/strain
B. Yield stress (fy);
The point, at which strain increases without increase in stress, is known as Yield point. Stress
measured at yield point is called yield stress.
C. Tensile strength:

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Maximum carrying capacity of a material in tension is called tensile strength
Tensile strength= maximum tensile load/ original cross sectional Area.
D. Percentage elongation:
The extension produced in a gage length, expressed as a percentage of its original value (LO)
% Elongation= [(LO’ – Lo)/Lo] X 100
Where Lo’ is final gage length after fracture.
E. Percentage reduction in area:
= [(AoAo’)/Ao ] X100
Where Ao’ is final reduced cross sectional area after fracture.

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 2

TITLE: COMPRESSION TEST

AIM: To find the compressive strength of given specimen.

MATERIAL AND EQUIPMENT

Universal testing machine,
Compression pads,
Given specimen

THEORY
This is the test to know strength of a material under compression. Generally compression test
is carried out to know either simple compression characteristics of material or column action
of structural members. It has been observed that for varying height of member, keeping cross-
sectional and the load applied constant, there is an increased tendency towards bending of a
member. Member under compression usually bends along minor axis, i.e, along least lateral
dimension. According to column theory slenderness ratio has more functional value. If this
ratio goes on increasing, axial compressive stress goes on decreasing and member buckles
more and more. End conditions at the time of test have a pronounced effect on compressive
strength of materials. Effective length must be taken according to end conditions assumed, at
the time of the test. As the ends of the member is made plain and fit between two jaws of the
machine, fixed end is assumed for calculation of effective length. Effective length is taken
as0.5 L where L is actual length of a specimen

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OBSERVATION
Cross sectional area of the specimen perpendicular to the load=A=……mm 2
Load taken by the specimen at the time of failure, W=. ……(N)
Strength of the pin against shearing (s) = [W/A ] N/mm 2
PROCEDURE
1. Place the specimen in position between the compression pads.
2. Switch on the UTM
3. Bring the drag indicator in contact with the main indicator.
4. Select the suitable range of loads and space the corresponding weight in the pendulum and
balance it if necessary with the help of small balancing weights
5. Operate (push) the button for driving the motor to drive the pump.
6. Gradually move the head control ever in left hand direction till the specimen fails.
7. Note down the load at which the specimen shears
8. Stop the machine and remove the specimen.
9. Repeat the experiment with other specimens.
PRECAUTIONS
1. Place the specimen at center of compression pads,
2. Stop the UTM as soon as the specimen fails.
3. Cross sectional area of specimen for compression test should be kept large as compared to
the specimen for tension test: to obtain the proper degree of stability.
RESULT
Compressive strength of the specimen ………N/mm

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 EXPERIMENT NO.3

TITLE: TORSION TEST

AIM: To find the modulus of rigidity.

SPECIMEN AND EQUIPMENTS

1. A torsion testing apparatus,

2. Standard specimen of mild steel or cast iron.
3. Twist meter for measuring angles of twist
4. A steel rule and calipers and micrometer.

Figure.

Torsion equipment

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THEORY
A torsion test is quite instrumental in determining the value of rigidity (ratio of shear stress to
shear strain) of a metallic specimen. The value of modulus of rigidity can be found out
through observations made during the experiment by using the torsion equation:

T/IP = C𝜽/ l or C = Tl/ I 𝜽

Where T=torque applied,

Ip= polar moment of inertia,
C=modulus of rigidity, = Angle of twist (radians), and
l= gauge length.

In the torque equipment refer fig. One end of the specimen is held by a fixed support and the
other end to a pulley. The pulley provides the necessary torque to twist the rod by addition of
weights (w). The twist meter attached to the rod gives the angle of twist.

Procedure
1. Prepare the testing machine by fixing the two twist meters at some constant lengths from
fixed support.
2. Measure the diameter of the pulley and the diameter of the rod.
3. Add weights in the hanger stepwise to get a notable angle of twist for T1 and T2
4. Using the above formula calculate C

CONCLUSION:
RESULT
Modulus of rigidity of the shaft……….

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 EXPERIMENT NO.4
TITLE: IMPACT TEST

AIM: To determine the Impact toughness (strain energy) through Izod test and Charpy test

THEORY

In a impact test a specially prepared notched specimen is fractured by a single blow from a
heavy hammer and energy required being a measure of resistance to impact. Impact load is
produced by a swinging of an impact weight W (hammer) from a height h. Release of the
weight from the height h swings the weight through the arc of a circle, which strikes the
specimen to fracture at the notch (fig.Kinetic energy of the hammer at the time of impact is
mv 2 /2, which is equal to the relative potential energy of the hammer before its release.
(mgh),where m is the mass of the hammer and v = 2 gh is its tangential velocity at impact, g
is gravitational acceleration (9.806 m/s 2 ) and h is the height through which hammer falls.
Impact velocity will be 5.126 m/s or slightly less. Here it is interesting to note that height
through which hammer drops determines the velocity and height and mass of a hammer
combined determine the energy. Energy used can be measured from the scale given. The
difference between potential energies is the fracture energy. In test machine this value
indicated by the pointer on the scale. If the scale is calibrated in energy units, marks on the
scale should be drawn keeping in view angle of fall () and angle of rise (. Height h1 and h2
equals,
h1= R (1-cos𝜃) and h2= (1-cos𝜃).
With the increase or decrease in values, gap between marks on scale showing energy also
increase or decrease. This can be seen from the attached scale with any impact machine.
Energy used in fracturing the specimen can be obtained approximately as Wh1-Wh2
This energy value called impact toughness or impact value, which will be measured, per unit
area at the notch.
Izod introduced Izod test in 1903. Test is as per the IS: 1598
Charpy introduced Charpy test in 1909. Test is as per the IS: 1499.

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A. IZOD TEST
Specimen and equipment
1. Impact testing machine. (fig.3)
2. Specimen and v notch is shown in the fig.4. Size of the specimen is 10mm X 10mm X
75mm
Mounting of the specimen:
Specimen is clamped to act as vertical cantilever with the notch on tension side.
Direction of blow of hammer is shown in fig. Direction of blow is shown in fig
Figure.
Izod Impact
Izod Impact testing equipment

PROCEDURE
1. Measure the dimensions of a specimen. Also, measure the dimensions of the notch.
2. Raise the hammer and note down initial reading from the dial, which will be energy to be
used to fracture the specimen.

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3. Place the specimen for test and see that it is placed center with respect to hammer. Check
the position of notch.
4. Release the hammer and note the final reading. Difference between the initial and final
reading will give the actual energy required to fracture the Specimen.
5. Repeat the test for specimens of other materials.
6. Compute the energy of rupture of each specimen.
OBSERVATION
Initial and final reading of the dial.
RESULT: Strain energy of given specimen is …..

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 EXPERIMENT NO.5
TITLE IMPACT TEST

AIM: To determines the Impact toughness (strain energy) through Charpy test.

CHARPY TEST
Specimen and equipment:
1. Impact testing machine. (Fig.4)
2. U notch is cut across the middle of one face as shown in fig.

FIGURE CHARPY TEST

Charpy impact testing equipment

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 Charpy impact testing equipment

Mounting of specimen
Specimen is tested as a beam supported at each end. Hammer is allowed to hit then specimen
at the opposite face behind the notch.

PROCEDURE
1. Measure the dimensions of a specimen. Also, measure the dimensions of The notch.
2. Raise the hammer and note down initial reading from the dial, which will be energy to be
used to fracture the specimen.
3. Place the specimen for test and see that it is placed center with respect to hammer. Check
the position of notch.
4. Release the hammer and note the final reading. Difference between the initial and final
reading will give the actual energy required to fracture the Specimen.
5. Repeat the test for specimens of other materials.
6. Compute the energy of rupture of each specimen.
OBSERVATION
Initial and final reading of the dial.
RESULT: Strain energy of given specimen is…………

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 EXPERIMENT NO.6

TITLE:- BRINELL HARDNESS TEST.

AIM: To determine the hardness of the given specimen using Brinell hardness test.
Specimen and specimen
Brinell hardness tester (fig.2)
Aluminum specimen
Ball indenter.
PRECAUTIONS
1. Thickness of the specimen should not be less than 8 times the depth of indentation to avoid
the deformation to be extended to the opposite surface of a specimen.
2. Indentation should not be made nearer to the edge of a specimen to avoid unnecessary
concentration of stresses. In such case distance from the edge to the center of indentation
should be greater than 2.5 times diameter of indentation.
3. Rapid rate of applying load should be avoided. Load applied on the ball may rise a little
because of its sudden action. Also rapidly applied load will restrict plastic flow of a material,
which produces effect on size of indentation.
4. Surface of the specimen is well polished, free from oxide scale and any foreign material.
THEORY
Hardness of a material is generally defined as Resistance to the permanent indentation under
static and dynamic load. When a material is required to use under direct static or dynamic
loads, only indentation hardness test will be useful to find out resistance to indentation.
In Brinell hardness test, a steel ball of diameter (D) is forced under a load (F) on to a surface
of test specimen. Mean diameter (d) of indentation is measured after the removal of the load
(F).
OBSERVATION
1. Take average of five values of indentation of each specimen. Obtain the hardness number
from equation (!).
2. Compare Brinell and Rockwell hardness tests obtained.

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PROCEDURE

1. Load to be applied for hardness test should be selected according to the expected hardness
of the material. However test load shall be kept equal to 30 times the square of the diameter
of the ball (diameter in mm)
F=30.D 2
Where ball diameter, generally taken as 10 mm.

For guidelines hardness range for standard loads given below

Ball diameter Load (kg) Range of Brinell hardness

10 3000 96 to 600

1500 48 to 300

500 16 to 100

2. Apply the load for a minimum of 15 seconds to 30 seconds. [if ferrous metals are to be
tested time applied will be 15 seconds and for softer metal 30 seconds]
3. Remove the load and measure the diameter of indentation nearest to 0.02 mm using
microscope (projected image)
4. Calculate Brinell hardness number (HB). As per IS: 1500.
5. Brinell hardness number
2𝐹
𝜋𝐷 𝐷− 𝐷 2 −𝑑 2
Where D is the diameter of ball indenter and d is the diameter of indentation. Hardness
numbers normally obtained for different materials are given below (under 3000 kg and 10
mm diameter ball used)

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Ordinary steels medium carbon 100 to 500

Structural steel 130 to 160

Very hard steel 800 to 900

Note: Brinell test is not recommended for then materials having HB over 630.
It is necessary to mention ball size and load with the hardness test when standard size of ball
and load are not used. Because indentation done by different size of ball and load on different
materials are not geometrically similar. Ball alsoundergoes deformation when load is applied.
Material response to the load is notsame all the time.

6.Brinell hardness numbers can be obtained from tables 1 to 5 given in IS: 1500,
knowing diameter of indentation, diameter of the ball and load applied.

Figure 5

Brinell hardness tester

RESULT;
The Brinell hardness number of the specimen is……………..

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 EXPERIMENT NO.7

TITLE: ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST

OBJECTIVE: To determine the hardness the Hardness of the given Specimen using
Rockwell hardness test.
MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED
Rockwell hardness testing machine.
Black diamond cone indenter,
Hard steel specimen.
THEORY
Rockwell test is developed by the Wilson instrument co U.S.A in 1920.
This test is an indentation test used for smaller specimens and harder materials. The test is
subject of IS: 1586.In this test indenter is forced into the surface of a test piece in two
operations, measuring the permanent increase in depth of an indentation from the depth
increased from the depth reached under a datum load due to an additional load. Measurement
of indentation is made after removing the additional load. Indenter used is the cone having an
angle of 120 degrees made of black diamond.
PRECAUTIONS
1. Thickness of the specimen should not be less than 8 times the depth of indentation to avoid
the deformation to be extended to the opposite surface of a specimen.
2. Indentation should not be made nearer to the edge of a specimen to avoid unnecessary
concentration of stresses. In such case distance from the edge to the center of indentation
should be greater than 2.5 times diameter of indentation.
3. Rapid rate of applying load should be avoided. Load applied on the ball may rise a little
because of its sudden action. Also rapidly applied load will restrict plastic flow of a material,
which produces effect on size of indentation.
PROCEDURE
1. Examine hardness testing machine (fig.6).
2. Place the specimen on platform of a machine. Using the elevating screw raise the platform
and bring the specimen just in contact with the ball. apply an initial load until the small
pointer shows red mark.
3. Release the operating valve to apply additional load. Immediately after the additional load
applied, bring back operating valve to its position.

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4. Read the position of the pointer on the C scale, which gives the hardness number.
5. Repeat the procedure five times on the specimen selecting different points for indentation.
OBSERVATION
1. Take average of five values of indentation of each specimen. Obtain the hardness number
from the dial of a machine.
2. Compare Brinell and Rockwell hardness tests obtained.

Figure .6

Rockwell hardness test equipment

RESULT
Rockwell hardness of given specimen is ……..

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