THE UNIVERSITY OF AKRON

Mathematics and Computer Science

Lesson 6: Dividing & Factoring Polynomials
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a3 a4 = a7 (ab)10 = a10 b10

(ab (3ab 4)) = 2ab 4
(ab)3 (a1 + b1 ) = (ab)2 (a + b)
(a b)3 = a3 3a2 b + 3ab2 b3
2x2 3x 2 = (2x + 1)(x 2)
1
2 x + 13 = 0 = x = 26
G = { (x, y) | y = f (x) }
f (x) = mx + b
y = sin x
c
Copyright 19952000
D. P. Story
Last Revision Date: 2/2/2000

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Lesson 6: Dividing & Factoring Polynomials

Table of Contents

6. Dividing & Factoring Polynomials

6.1. Polynomials: A Quick Review
6.2. Polynomial Division
Polynomial Division Explained
6.3. Factoring Polynomials: Motivation
6.4. Factoring Polynomials: Theory
Reducible versus Irreducible Polynomials The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra Roots and Linear Factors Related
6.5. Factoring Polynomials: Methods
Factoring x2 + bx + c Factoring x2 a2 Factoring
ax2 + bx + c Factoring x3 a3

6. Dividing & Factoring Polynomials

6.1. Polynomials: A Quick Review
A polynomial in x is an algebraic expression that can be built up
through any (nite) combination of additions, subtractions, and multiplications of the symbol x with itself and with numerical constants.
The degree of the polynomial is the value of the highest exponent.
Illustration 1. Examples of Polynomials in x.
(a) 2x+1 has degree 1. A degree one polynomial is sometimes called
linear because its graph is a straight line.
(b) 5x2 4x + 3 has degree 2. A degree two polynomial is called a
quadratic polynomial.
8
2
(c) 7x3 4x2 x + has degree 3. This is called a cubic poly3
9
nomial.
(d) x4 + x has degree 4.
(e) x45 5x34 + x3 + 1 has degree 45.
(f) 3y 3 + 2y y + 12 is a polynomial in y of degree 3.

Section 6: Dividing & Factoring Polynomials

(g) As a convenience, a constant is considered to be a polynomial

of degree 0. Thus, the algebraic expression 3 may be interpreted
as a polynomial of degree 0.
Sometimes we symbolically denote a polynomial in x by notations
such as P (x) or Q(x); polynomials in some other variable such as y
would be denoted similarly: P (y) and Q(y). If P (x) is a polynomial
in x, then we write (type) deg(P (x)) to refer to the degree of P (x).
Polynomials arise naturally in many branches of mathematics and
engineering. Polynomials are the basic building blocks used to create
numerical approximations such as the ones used by your hand-held
calculator. The graphs of certain polynomials have properties that
man exploits to create many useful everyday conveniences such as
ashlights and satellite dishes.
One of the reasons for the importance of polynomialsand quotients
of polynomialsis that their values can be computed by elementary

Section 6: Dividing & Factoring Polynomials

arithmetic operations: addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. These are the operations a computer is designed to perform
quickly and eciently.
The sum and product of polynomials is again a polynomial. Illustrate
this assertion by doing the next exercise. Classify each answer as a
polynomial and state its degree.
Exercise 6.1. The Algebra of Polynomials. Perform the indicated operations and classify the results.
(a) (4x3 6x2 + 2x + 1) + (2x3 3x + 4)
(b) (7x5 4x3 + 12x 4) (5x5 + 3x4 + 4x3 + 2x 4)
(c) (3x 2)(x2 2x + 1)
(d) (x2 4)(x2 + 4)
Adding and multiplying polynomials were covered by the general
methods described in Lesson 3 (addition) and in Lesson 5 (multiplication). In the next paragraph we look at division of polynomials.

Section 6: Dividing & Factoring Polynomials

6.2. Polynomial Division

In this paragraph, we will be primarily interested in dividing polynomials. If N (x) and D(x) are polynomials in x then the expression
N (x)
D(x)
is called a rational expression or a rational function.
Illustration 2. Examples of Rational Expressions.
3x3 2x2 + 7x + 1
2x + 1
(b)
(a)
5x2 4x + 2
x2 + 3x 2
4x12 7x9 + 1
4x4 3x3 + 2x2 + 8x 3
(c)
(d)
x3
x+3

(1)

Section 6: Dividing & Factoring Polynomials

Polynomial Division Explained

Now turning to the problem of computing (1), generally, we can only
divide a ratio of polynomials when the when the degree of the numerator is greater than or equal to the degree of the denominaotr. In
symbols
N (x)
If deg(N ) deg(D), then we can divide
D(x)
In this case, when we do divide, then the result looks like this
R(x)
N (x)
= Q(x) +
D(x)
D(x)

(2)

where Q(x) and R(x) are polynomials and deg (R(x)) < deg(D(x)).
An interesting and important fact to remember is that the representation on the right-hand side of equation (2) is unique. This fact will
be exploited in the section on factoring.
Terminology. Given the representation in equation (2), then
N (x) is called the dividend;
D(x) is called the divisor;

Section 6: Dividing & Factoring Polynomials

Q(x) is called the quotient;

R(x) is called the remainder.
This is the same terminology used in long division of numbers.
In Illustration 2, the numerator has less degree than the denominator in example (a); consequently, we cannot divide these two polynomials. In examples (b)(d), the degree of the numerator is equal to
or greater than the degree of the denominator; in each of these examples we can further expand the expression by dividing denominator
into the numerator.
Division Algorithm. How to divide one polynomial by another and
obtain a result of the form (2)
(a) Arrange the terms of N (x) and D(x) so that the powers of the
terms are listed in descending order.
(b) Divide the rst term of the dividend by the rst term of the
divisor. This gives the rst term of the quotient.

Section 6: Dividing & Factoring Polynomials

(c) Now, multiply the term of the quotient just computed by the
divisor, and subtract this product from the dividend. The result
is the remainder.
 If the degree of the remainder is less than the degree of
the divisor, D(x), you are done!
 If the degree of the remainder is not less than the divisor,
D(x), continue by using the remainder just obtained as a
new dividend, repeat; i.e., go to (b) to compute the next
term of the quotient.
The next example shows how to perform polynomial division. Study
this example closely; with a paper and pencil, slowly work through
the examplefollow my calculations as I work through the Division
Algorithm.
Example 6.1. Divide the expression:

2x3 3x2 + 6x 4
.
x1

Section 6: Dividing & Factoring Polynomials

Again, work through these two examples with pencil and paper. Strive
to understand how each entry is determined from the Division Algorithm.
Example 6.2. Divide denominator into the numerator in parts (b)
and (d) in Illustration 2.
Part (c) of Illustration 2 can be handled dierently than parts (b)
and (d). Why? Read the example to nd out why.
Example 6.3. Divide
Illustration 2.

4x12 7x9 + 1
that appeared in part (c) of
x3

Having done a few examples of polynomials, its time for you to try a
few. Follow the Division Algorithm and my examples.
2x3 3x2 + x 1
.
Exercise 6.2. Divide:
x2
Exercise 6.3. Divide:

4x4 + 2x2 + x + 1
.
x2 + 1

Section 6: Dividing & Factoring Polynomials

In the next exercise the remainder is zero. Do you recall what that
means?
Exercise 6.4. Divide:

x3 + 1
.
x+1

6.3. Factoring Polynomials: Motivation

Factoring is the reverse process to expanding:
(x + 1)(x + 2) = x2 + 3x + 2.

(3)

Reading the equation from left-to-right, we are expanding the polynomial (x + 1)(x + 2); reading the equation from right-to-left we are
factoring the polynomial x2 + 3x + 2.
Illustration 3. Factoring has a variety of uses in mathematics. Here
is a set of examples to illustrate that assertion.

Section 6: Dividing & Factoring Polynomials

(a) Simplication of algebraic expressions:

x3 + 3x2 + 2x
x(x2 + 3x + 2)
=
x+1
x+1
x(x + 1)(x + 2)
=
x+1
= x(x + 2)

factor a common x

factor again by (3)

nicely simplied!

Surely you agree, the last expression is preferable to the rst.

(b) Solving Equatons: For what values of x is x2 +3x+2 equal zero?
That is, solve the equation
x2 + 3x + 2 = 0
Since x2 + 3x + 2 = (x + 1)(x + 2) it is now obvious that the
only values of x that make x2 + 3x + 2 equal zero are x = 1
and x = 2.

Section 6: Dividing & Factoring Polynomials

(c) Simplication for the purpose of numerical calculations. Suppose you wanted to compute, on your calculator, values of the
polynomial
x4 + 4x3 + 6x2 + 4x+ 1
for x = 3.23344, 27.3234, and 34.000123. Even with the aid of
your calculator this would be a tedious task, and there is a very
good chance that you will make errors. Suppose I told you that
the above expression is nothing more than
(x + 1)4
Which one would you use to make the calculations?
Summary. Factorization tends to simplify, reduce the number of arithmetical operations performed, and often times yields valuable information about the behavior of the expression.

Section 6: Dividing & Factoring Polynomials

6.4. Factoring Polynomials: Theory

In this section we discuss some important background information and
theory: Reducible versus Irreducible Polynomials; the Fundamental
Theorem of Algebra; and Roots and Factors Related.
These are important and fundamental concepts you should try to
understand.
Reducible versus Irreducible Polynomials
Some polynomials can be factored, others cannot. Naturally we have
a terminology for each situation.
A polynomial that can be factored into a product of polynomials of
smaller degree is called a reducible; otherwise, the polynomial is
called irreducible.
Illustration 4. Reducible and Irreducible Polynomials.
(a) The polynomial x2 +3x+2 is reducible because it can be factored
into factors of smaller degree:
x2 + 3x + 2 = (x + 1)(x + 2).

Section 6: Dividing & Factoring Polynomials

We have factored a second degree polynomial into a product of

linear polynomials.
(b) The polynomial x3 3x2 + 3x 1 is reducible because
x3 3x2 + 3x 1 = (x 1)3 .
Here we say that (x 1) is a linear factor of multiplicity 3.
(c) The polynomial x3 + x2 + x + 1 is reducible because
x3 + x2 + x + 1 = (x + 1)(x2 + 1).
This polynomial factors into linear and quadratic factors.
(d) The polynomials x2 + 1 and x2 x + 1 are irreducible; that is,
it cannot be factored any further. How do I know that? Read
on!
Question. It was stated in the last illustration that x2 +1 is irreducible.
Suppose I factor it as follows: x2 + 1 = 12 (2x2 + 2). Since I have
factored it into a product of polynomials (the constant 12 may be
considered a polynomial of degree 0), does this mean that x2 + 1 is

Section 6: Dividing & Factoring Polynomials

reducible? Review the denitions of reducible and irreducible before

you respond.
(a) Yes

(b) No

Question. Consider the factorization: 2x2 + 2x = (2)(x2 + x). We

have factored a degree two polynomial into a product of a degree 0
polynomial and a degree 2 polynomial. In light of the discussion in
the previous Question, does this mean that 2x2 + 2x is irreducible?
(a) Yes
(b) No
The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra
According to the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra, any polynomial of degree greater than zero can be factored into a product of
linear and irreducible quadratic factors.
Illustration 5. For example,
x4 + 2x3 + 2x2 + 2x + 1 = (x + 1)2 (x2 + 1).

(4)

Section 6: Dividing & Factoring Polynomials

Linear Factors: The factor (x + 1)2 is called a linear factor because

x + 1, the base of the power, is a degree 1 polynomial (degree 1 =
linear). The presence of (x + 1)2 in the factorization, of course, means
that (x + 1) appears twice in the factorization
x4 + 2x3 + 2x2 + 2x + 1 = (x + 1)(x + 1)(x2 + 1).
but hardly ever write it this way. Here, we say that (x + 1) is a linear
factor of multiplicity 2, meaning it appears twice in the factorization.
Irreducible Quatdratic Factors: The other factor, (x2 + 1), in equation (4) is a second degree polynomial, or a quadratic polynomial. This
particular one is irreducible. The exponent of the factor (x2 + 1) =
(x2 + 1)1 is 1 meaning this factor has multiplicity 1; there is only 1
factor of this type present in the factorization (4).
Thus, the factorization of the polynomial x4 + 2x3 + 2x2 + 2x + 1 given
in equation (4) is the one described in the Fundamental Theorem
of Algebra; that is,
x4 + 2x3 + 2x2 + 2x + 1 = (x + 1)2 (x2 + 1).

Section 6: Dividing & Factoring Polynomials

is a factorization into linear and irreducible quadratics factors.

Exercise 6.5. Consider the factorization:
x3 (2x + 1)4 (x2 + 1)5 (5 2x)3 (x2 + x + 1).
Classify each factor as linear or irreducible quadratic and state the
multiplicity of each factor.
Roots and Linear Factors Related
There is a relationship between a root of a polynomial and its linear
factors. Lets begin by recalling what a root of a polynomial is. Let
P (x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d
be any polynomial. (For illustrative purposes, Ive just written a third
degree polynomial.) A root of P (x) is any number r such that
P (r) = ar3 + br2 + cr + d = 0

(5)

Section 6: Dividing & Factoring Polynomials

that is, a root is any number r that causes the polynomial to evaluate
to zero. Another way of thinking of a root is, a root is any solution to
the equation:
ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0.
Illustration 6. The numbers 1 and 2 are roots of the polynomial
P (x) = x2 + 3x + 2 since
 P (1) = (1)2 + 3(1) + 2 = 1 3 + 2 = 0
 P (2) = (2)2 + 3(2) + 2 = 4 6 + 2 = 0
In the next lesson, Lesson 7, we discuss techniques for nding roots
of polynomials. There, we will discuss methods of solving equations.
What is the relation between roots and linear factors?
 (x r) a factor implies r is a root. Let P (x) be any polynomial and
r a number. Clearly, if (x r) is a factor or P (x), then r is a root of
P (x). Indeed, if we assume (x r) is a factor of P (x) then
P (x) = Q(x)(x r)

Section 6: Dividing & Factoring Polynomials

for some polynomial Q(x); that is, (x r) appears in the factorization

of P (x). Now you can see that
P (r) = Q(r)(r r) = 0.
This means that r is a root of the polynomial P (x).

 r a root implies (x r) a factor. Divide the polynomial P (x) by the

polynomial (x r). The result, by equation (2) will have the form:
P (x)
R(x)
= Q(x) +
(x r)
(x r)

(6)

where the remainder R(x) has degree less than x r. This means, in
this case, that R(x) has degree zero since xr had degree one. Degree
zero polynomials are constants; thus, R(x) is, in fact, a constant. Ill
call this constant R. We have then
R
P (x)
= Q(x) +
.
(x r)
(x r)

Section 6: Dividing & Factoring Polynomials

Multiply both sides of the equation by x r to obtain

P (x) = Q(x)(x r) + R,

R = constant.

(7)

There is a simple interpretation for the value of R. If we replace x by

r in equation (7), we see
or,

P (r) = Q(r)(r r) + R
R = P (r)

(9)

Now, if r is a root of the polynomial P (x), then from (5), P (r) = 0.

But by (9), the remainder R = P (r) = 0. Substituting this into
equation (7) we get,
P (x) = Q(x)(x r) + 0,

or, P (x) = Q(x)(x r)

This means that (x r) is a factor of P (x).

We now summarize the observations of the past few paragraphs.

Section 6: Dividing & Factoring Polynomials

Summary. Roots and Linear Factors Related:

Let P (x) is a polynomial and r a number. Then r is a root
of P (x) if and only if (x r) is a factor of P (x).
I still havent explained how I know that x2 + 1 is irreducible. It is
clear that for any number x, x2 + 1 = 0; therefore, the polynomial
x2 + 1 has no roots, hence, it has no linear factors. Now x2 + 1 has
degree two, if it is to be factored, it must factor into linear factors.
But x2 + 1 has no linear factors. Thus, x2 + 1 is irreducible.
Exercise 6.6. Read carefully the reasoning in the previous paragraph, and apply it to the polynomial x4 + 1. It is clear that for all x,
x4 +1 = 0 and so x4 +1 has no roots, hence, has no linear factors. Can
we deduce that x4 + 1 is irreducible in the same way as we deduced
that x2 + 1 was irreducible?
6.5. Factoring Polynomials: Methods

Section 6: Dividing & Factoring Polynomials

Factoring x2 + bx + c
In this section we discuss methods of factoring a second degree polynomial with integer coecients with leading coecient of one:
x2 + bx + c

b, c Z

If the polynomial x2 + bx + c is not irreducible, then it can be factored

into a product of linear polynomials of the form:
x2 + bx + c = (x + r1 )(x + r2 ).

(10)

The problem is to determine the values of r1 and r2 . This can be

done in one of two ways: (1) by trial and error; or (2) the Quadratic
Formula. The latter method will be taken up in Lesson 7.
Lets play for a moment. Expand the right-hand side of (10):
x2 + bx + c = (x + r1 )(x + r2 )
= x2 + (r1 + r2 )x + r1 r2 .

Section 6: Dividing & Factoring Polynomials

Thus, if x2 + bx + c can be factored into (x + r1 )(x + r2 ), then

r 1 + r2 = b
r1 r2 = c
Lets now summarize the results so far in the form of a shadow box.
How to factor x2 + bx + c, where b, c Z
We try to nd two number r1 and r2 such that
r 1 + r2 = b
r1 r2 = c
In this case, x2 + bx + c = (x + r1 )(x + r2 ).
Strategy. Given x2 + bx + c, where b and c are integers: First list all
pairs of integers r1 and r2 the product of which is c. Then among all
those pairs of numbers, r1 and r2 , thus listed, choose the pair whose
sum is bchoose that pair r1 and r2 such that r1 + r2 = b.

Section 6: Dividing & Factoring Polynomials

Lets go to the examples.

Example 6.4. Factor each of the following polynomials.
(a) x2 x 2 (b) x2 + 5x + 6 (c) 4 3x x2
Solve the next exercise using good notation. Be neat, be organized.
Take pride in your work !
Exercise 6.7. Factor each of the following using the recommended
strategy as illustrated in Example 6.4.
(a) x2 + 7x + 10 (b) x2 7x + 10 (c) x2 3x 10
(d) x2 + 3x 10 (e) x2 + 11x + 10 (f) x2 9x 10
Heres a few more. Dont forget the strategy and the standard methods
as illustrated in Example 6.4.
Exercise 6.8. Factor each of the following.
(a) x2 + 4x 12 (b) x2 + 3x 18 (c) x2 10x + 21
(d) x2 + 7x 8 (e) x2 2x + 1 (f) 2x2 + 8x + 8

Section 6: Dividing & Factoring Polynomials

Factoring x2 a2
Polynomials that are in the form of a dierence of two squares are
easy to factor. From equation (3) of Lesson 5 we have
x2 a2 = (x a)(x + a)

(11)

The problem students have is recognizing the presence of such a polynomial. Its a matter of training you eyes and brain to work together.
Illustration 7. Dierence of Two Squares.
(a) x2 1 = (x 1)(x + 1).
(b) x2 4 = (x 2)(x
+ 2).
(c) x2 3 = (x 3)(x + 3). Note: Any positive number can be
thought of as the square of another number. Consequently, the
a2 that is in equation (11) does not have to be a perfect square;
it can be any positive number.
Exercise 6.9. (Skill Level 0) Factor each of the following.
(a) x2 9 (b) x2 12 (c) x2 17 (d) 25 x2

Section 6: Dividing & Factoring Polynomials

Factorization formula (11) came from expansion formula (3) of Lesson 5. The expansion formula is actually more general: We can factor
any dierence of two squaresas illustrated below.
Illustration 8. Dierence of two squares.
(a) 4x2 9 = (2x
3)(2x +
3).
(b) 3x2 16 = ( 3 x 4)( 3 x + 4).
(c) x4 16 = (x2 4)(x2 + 4) = (x 2)(x + 2)(x2 + 4). Here we have
applied equation (11) twice! The result is a complete factorization of x4 16 into a product of linear and irreducible quadratic
factors as prescribed by the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra.
Exercise 6.10. Factor each of the following using (11).
(a) 4x2 9 (b) 5x2 3 (c) x4 25
The factorization formula (11) can be applied whenever we have a
dierence of two squares.
Exercise 6.11. Factor each of the following dierences of squares
and simplify when possible. Note: simplify = expand.

Section 6: Dividing & Factoring Polynomials

(a) x2 (x 1)2 (b) x2 y 2 4 (c)

(2x 1)2 (2x + 1)2

x

Factoring ax2 + bx + c
We now turn to the problem of factoring a quadratic polynomial of
the form
a, b, c Z
(12)
ax2 + bx + c
The trial and error methods illustrated earlier can be utilized to factor (12). Generally, if the polynomial is not irreducible, its factorization of would look like this:
ax2 + bx + c = (q1 x + r1 )(q2 x + r2 )

(13)

If we multiply out the right-hand side of (13) that will give us clues
how to nd the numbers q1 , q2 , r1 , and r2 :
ax2 + bx + c = (q1 x + r1 )(q2 x + r2 )
= q1 q2 x2 + (q1 r2 + r1 q2 )x + r1 r2

Section 6: Dividing & Factoring Polynomials

Thus, we seek numbers such that

q1 q2 = a

r1 r2 = c

q1 r2 + q 2 r1 = b

The task of nding the numbers q1 , q2 , r1 , and r2 may be easy or

dicult.
Important Point. It is known that if the polynomial ax2 + bx + c has
only rational rootsroots that are rational numbersthen q1 , q2 , r1 ,
and r2 are integers. However, a quadratic polynomial such as (12)
may have irrational roots.
In this section, we look at quadratics having rational roots, hence
the factors we seek have integer coecients. The other case can be
handled by use of the binomial formula taken up in Lesson 7.
Strategy. To factor ax2 + bx + c into to linear factors
ax2 + bx + c = (q1 x + r1 )(q2 + r2 )
(a) List all integer pairs q1 and q2 such that q1 q2 = a, the coecient
of the x2 term.

Section 6: Dividing & Factoring Polynomials

(b) List all integer pairs r1 and r2 such that r1 r2 = c, the constant
term.
(c) Find that combination of q1 , q2 and r1 , r2 such that q1 r2 +q2 r1 =
b, the coecient of the cross-product term.
This can usually be carried out by rst choosing candidates for q1 and
q2 then trying all combinations for r1 and r2 . If that fails, try another
choice for q1 and q2 . (I told you it was trial and error.)
Heres an example of the scheme just described.
Example 6.5. Factor 6x2 + x 1.
In the exercises below, use Example 6.5 as a guide to factoring.
Exercise 6.12. Factor 8x2 + 2x 1.
Exercise 6.13. Factor 6x2 5x 6.
In Lesson 7 well review techniques of solving equations. Solving
polynomial equations has applications to factorization. (Recall the
paragraph on Roots and Linear Factors Related.) At that time we will

Section 6: Dividing & Factoring Polynomials

be able to factor quadratics with irrational roots as well as rational

roots.
Factoring x3 a3
The sum or dierence of cubes is easy to factor so well nish this
lesson by factoring this type. The formula we shall use is
b3 a3 = (b a)(b2 + ab + a2 )
b3 + a3 = (b + a)(b2 ab + a2 )

(14)

The major problem of students is recognizing the presence of cubes.

Illustration 9. Factor each of the following.
(a) x3 8 = (x 2)(x2 + 2x + 4). Here a = 2 in (14).
(b) x3 + 8 = (x + 2)(x2 2x + 4).
(c) 8x3 1 = (2x 1)(4x2 + 2x + 1). Here b = 2x and a = 1.
(d) x3 y 3 + 1 = (xy + 1)(x2 y 2 xy + 1). Here b = xy and a = 1.
Exercise 6.14. (Skill Level 0) Factor each of the following.
(a) x3 1 (b) 27x3 8 (c) 8y 6 + 27

Section 6: Dividing & Factoring Polynomials

Exercise 6.15. (Skill Level 0.5) Factor and simplify each.

x3 1
8x3 27
(8x3 1)(x2 + 3x + 2)
(a)
(c)
(b)
x1
x2 1
4x2 9
This is the end of Lesson 6 on dividing polynomials and factoring.
To continue, go to Lesson 7.

Solutions to Exercises
6.1. Solutions:
(a) Combine (4x3 6x2 + 2x + 1) + (2x3 3x + 4).
(4x3 6x2 + 2x + 1) + (2x3 3x + 4) = 6x3 6x2 x + 5.
This is a polynomial of degree 3.
(b) (7x5 4x3 + 12x 4) (5x5 + 3x4 + 4x3 + 2x 4)
(7x5 4x3 + 12x 4) (5x5 + 3x4 + 4x3 + 2x 4)
= 2x5 3x4 8x3 + 10x
which is a polynomial of degree 5.

Solutions to Exercises (continued)

(c) (3x 2)(x2 2x + 1). Use the General Multiplication Rule to

obtain
(3x 2)(x2 2x + 1)
= (3x)(x2 ) (3x)(2x) + (3x) 2(x2 ) + 2(2x) 2
= 3x3 6x2 + 3x 2x2 + 4x 2
= 3x3 8x2 + 7x 2
Alternately, you can expand as follows:
x2 2x + 1
3x 2
3x3 6x2 + 3x
2x2 + 4x 2
3x3 8x2 + 7x 2 = The is a polynomial of degree 3.
(d) (x2 4)(x2 + 4) = x4 16. by (3) in Lesson 5. A polynomial
of degree 4.
Exercise 6.1.

Solutions to Exercises (continued)

6.2. Solution: Just follow the Division Algorithm!

2x2 + x + 3
x 2 2x3 3x2 + x1
2x3 4x2
x2 + x1
x2 2x
3x1
3x6
5

the quotient

(b) divide 2x3 by x to get 2x2

(c) multiply 2x2 by x 2 and place it here

(c) subtract; (b) divide x2 by x to get x

(c) multiply x by x 2 and place it here

(c) subtract; (b) divide 3x by x to get 3

(c) multiply 3 by x 2 and place it here

(c) subtract; done; this is the remainder

Interpretation of Calculations: x 2 divides into 2x3 3x2 + x 1

. . . 2x2 + x + 3 times with a remainder of 5. Thus,
2x3 3x2 + x 1
5
= 2x2 + x + 3 +
x2
x2
Compare this equation with (2).

Exercise 6.2.

Solutions to Exercises (continued)

6.3. Solution: Just follow the Division Algorithm!

4x2 2
x2 + 1 4x4 +2x2 +x+1
4x4 +4x2
2x2 +x+1
2x2 2
x+3

the quotient

(b) divide 4x4 by x2 to get 4x2

(c) multiply 4x2 by x2 + 1 and place it here

(c) subtract; (b) divide 2x2 by x2 to get 2

(c) multiply 2 by x2 + 1 and place it here

(c) subtract; done; this is the remainder

Interpretation of Calculations: x2 + 1 divides into 4x4 + 2x2 + x + 1

. . . 4x2 2 times with a remainder of x + 3. Thus,
4x4 + 2x2 + x + 1
x+3
= 4x2 2 + 2
2
x +1
x +1
Compare this equation with (2).

Exercise 6.3.

Solutions to Exercises (continued)

6.4. Solution:
x2 x +1
x + 1 x3
+1
2
3
x +x
x2 +1
x2 x
x+1
x+1
0

the quotient

(b) divide x3 by x to get x2

(c) multiply x2 by x + 1 and place it here

(c) subtract; (b) divide x2 by x to get x

(c) multiply x by x + 1 and place it here

(c) subtract; (b) divide x by x to get 1

(c) multiply 1 by x + 1 and place it here

(c) subtract; done; this is the remainder

Interpretation of Calculations: x + 1 divides into x3 + 1 . . . x2 x + 1

times with a remainder of 0. Thus,
x3 + 1
0
= x2 x + 1 +
= x2 x + 1
x+1
x+1

Solutions to Exercises (continued)

This means that x + 1 evenly divides into x3 + 1. If we multiply both

sides of the equations by x + 1 we get
x3 + 1 = (x + 1)(x2 x + 1)
The division process can be used as a technique to factor a polynomial.
Exercise 6.4.

Solutions to Exercises (continued)

6.5. Answers:
Factor
x3
(2x + 1)4
(x2 + 1)5
(5 2x)3
(x2 + x + 1)

Classication
Multiplicity
linear
3
linear
4
irreducible quadratic
5
linear
3
irreducible quadratic
1
Exercise 6.5.

Solutions to Exercises (continued)

6.6. No! x4 + 1 has no linear factors, but, by the Fundamental

Theorem of Algebra it can be factored into a product of linear
factors and irreducible quadratic factors. As it doesnt have any linear
factors, and its degree is 4, it is must be possible to factor it into a
product of two irreducible quadratic factors.
Can you nd these two factors?

Exercise 6.6.

Solutions to Exercises (continued)

6.7. Answers: Hopefully, you used the method illustrated in Example 6.4.
(a) x2 + 7x + 10 = (x + 2)(x + 5).
(b) x2 7x + 10 = (x 2)(x 5).
(c) x2 3x 10 = (x + 2)(x 5).
(d) x2 + 3x 10 = (x 2)(x + 5).
(e) x2 + 11x + 10 = (x + 1)(x + 10).
(f) x2 9x 10 = (x + 1)(x 10).
Did I list all possible combinations, or did I miss one or two?
Exercise 6.7.

Solutions to Exercises (continued)

6.8.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)

Answers:
x2 + 4x 12 = (x 2)(x + 6).
x2 + 3x 18 =) = (x + 6)(x 3).
x2 10x + 21 = (x 3)(x 7).
x2 + 7x 8 = (x 1)(x + 8).
x2 2x + 1 = (x 1)(x 1) = (x 1)2 a perfect square!
2x2 +8x+8 = 2(x2 +4x+4) = 2(x+2)(x+2) = 2(x+2)2 again
a perfect
!
Exercise 6.8.

Solutions to Exercises (continued)

6.9. Answers:
(a) x2 9 = (x 3)(x + 3).

(b) x2 12 = (x 12)(x + 12) = (x 2 3)(x + 2 3). You did

simplify, didnt you?

(c) x2 17 = (x 17)(x + 17).

(d) 25 x2 = (5 x)(5 + x) = (x 5)(x + 5). We usually like the
x-term to come rst.
These factorizations are rather boring.

Exercise 6.9.

Solutions to Exercises (continued)

6.10. Answers:
(a) 4x2 9 = (2x 3)(2x + 3).

(b) 5x2 3 = ( 5 x 3)( 5 x + 3).

(c) x4 25 = (x2 5)(x2 + 5) = (x 5)(x + 5)(x2 + 5).

Exercise 6.10.

Solutions to Exercises (continued)

6.11. Solutions:
(a) x2 (x 1)2 = [x (x 1)][x + (x 1)] = [1][2x 1] = 2x 1
(b) x2 y 2 4 = (xy 2)(xy + 2)
(c) Factor:

(2x 1)2 (2x + 1)2

.
x
(2x 1)2 (2x + 1)2
x
[(2x 1) (2x + 1)][(2x 1) + (2x + 1)]
=
x
8x
[2][4x]
=

cancel the x!
=
x
x
= 8

That simplied down nicely!

Exercise 6.11.

Solutions to Exercises (continued)

6.12. Solution:
8x2 + 2x 1 = (4x 1)(2x + 1).
Note: You really dont need the answers, just multiply out your
factorization. If it expands to 8x2 + 2x 1, you are right!
Exercise 6.12.

Solutions to Exercises (continued)

6.13. Solution:
6x2 5x 6 = (3x + 2)(2x 3)
Exercise 6.13.

Solutions to Exercises (continued)

6.14. Answers:
(a) x3 1 = (x 1)(x2 + x + 1)
(b) 27x3 8 = (3x 2)(9x2 + 6x + 4) . (b = 3x and a = 2)
(c) 8y 6 + 27 = (2y 2 + 3)(4y 4 6y 2 + 9) (b = 2y 2 and a = 3)
Exercise 6.14.

Solutions to Exercises (continued)

6.15. Answers:
x3 1
(x 1)(x2 + x + 1)
=
= x2 + x + 1
x1
x1
(8x3 1)(x2 + 3x + 2)
(b) Factor and simplify:
.
x2 1
(a)

(8x3 1)(x2 + 3x + 2)
x2 1
(2x 1)(4x2 + 2x + 1)(x + 1)(x + 2)
=
(x 1)(x + 1)
=

(2x 1)(4x2 + 2x + 1)(x + 2)

(x 1)

4x2 + 6x + 9
8x3 27
2x 3)(4x2 + 6x + 9)
(c)
=
=
4x2 9
(2x 3)(2x + 3)
2x + 3

Exercise 6.15.

Solutions to Examples
6.1. Solution: The terms of the divisor, x 1, and the dividend,
2x3 3x2 + 6x 1, are already arranged in decreasing order. (Step
(a) of the Division Algorithm.
The calculations outlined in the Division Algorithm can be arranged into a convenient table format. The method of division and
the table is similar to long division of numbers.
2x2 x + 5
x 1 2x3 3x2 +6x4
2x3 2x2
x2 +6x4
x2 + x
5x4
5x5
1

the quotient

(b) divide 2x3 by x to get 2x2

(c) multiply 2x2 by x 1 and place it here

(c) subtract; (b) divide x2 by x to get x

(c) multiply x by x 1 and place it here

(c) subtract; (b) divide 5x by x to get 5

(c) multiply 5 by x 1 and place it here

(c) subtract; Done. This is the remainder

Solutions to Examples (continued)

Interpretation of Calculations: x 1 goes into 2x3 3x2 + 6x 4 . . .

2x2 x + 5 times with a remainder of 1. Thus,
2x3 3x2 + 6x 4
1
= 2x2 x + 5 +
x1
x1
Compare this equation with (2). The quotient is Q(x) = 2x2 x + 5
and the remainder is R(x) = 1. Note that deg(R(x)) = 0 < 1, as
advertised above.
The validity of the above equation can be veried by getting a common
denominator of the right-hand side of the equation and observing that
Example 6.1.
it results in the left-hand side!

Solutions to Examples (continued)

6.2. Problem (b) Divide:

3x3 2x2 + 7x + 1
.
x2 + 3x 2

Solution to (b)
3x 11
x + 3x 2 3x3 2x2 + 7x+ 1
3x3 + 9x2 6x
2

11x2 +13x+ 1
11x2 33x+22
46x21

the quotient

(b) divide 3x3 by x2 to get 3x

(c) multiply 3x by x2 + 3x 2

(c) subtract; then repeat (b)

(c) multiply 11 by x2 + 3x 2

(c) subtract; Done. The remainder

Thus,
3x3 2x2 + 7x + 1
46x 21
=
3x

11
+
x2 + 3x 2
x2 + 3x 2
Notice that the degree of the remainder is less than the degree of the
divisor.

Solutions to Examples (continued)

Solution to (d) Divide:

4x4 3x3 + 2x2 + 8x 3

x+3

4x3 15x2 + 47x 133

x + 3 4x4 3x3 + 2x2 + 8x 3
4x4 +12x3
15x3 + 2x2 + 8x 3
15x3 45x2
47x2 + 8x 3
47x2 +141x
133x 3
133x399
396

the quotient

(b) divide

(c) multiply

(c) subtract; (b) divide

(c) multiply

(c) subtract; (b) divide

(c) multiply

(c) subtract; (b) divide

(c) multiply

(c) subtract and Done.

Thus,
4x4 3x3 + 2x2 + 8x 3
396
= 4x3 15x2 + 47x 133 +
x+3
x+3
Example 6.2.

Solutions to Examples (continued)

6.3. Solution: Here the denominator, the divisor, is a monomial : a

single term. In this case, we dont have to carry out the elaborate
division process. We simply . . .
4x12 7x9 + 1
4x12
7x9
1
=

+ 3
3
3
3
x
x
x
x
1
= 4x9 7x6 + 3 .
x
That is, we divide by separation of fractions. Thus,
4x12 7x9 + 1
1
9
6
=
4x

7x
+
x3
x3
When a shorter method works . . . use the shorter method!
Example 6.3.

Solutions to Examples (continued)

6.4. Solutions:
(a) Factor x2 x 2. Here we seek two numbers r1 and r2 such that
r1 + r2 = 1 and r1 r2 = 1.
Solution: List all pairs of integers the product of which is 2.
r2
r1 r2
r1 + r2
r1
1
2
2
1
2
1
2
1 = This is it
Therefore, the factorization is for r1 = 2 and r2 = 1:
x2 x 2 = (x + r1 )(x + r2 )
= (x + (2))(x + 1)
= (x 2)(x + 1).
Or,
x2 x 2 = (x 2)(x + 1).

Solutions to Examples (continued)

(b) Factor x2 + 5x + 6.
Solution: We follow the strategy suggested above. List all pairs
of integers the product of which is 6, and we search for that pair
whose sum is 5.
r1
r1 r2
r1 + r2
r2
1
6
6
7
1
6
6
7
2
3
6
5 = This is it
Notice that I did not list out all possible combinations. I stopped
as soon as I found the proper pair: r1 = 2 and r2 = 3. The
factorization is
x2 + 5x + 6 = (x + 2)(x + 3).

Solutions to Examples (continued)

(c) Factor 4 3x x2 .
Solution: This has a slight twist. The coecient of the x2 term
is not one. We just factor out 1 to get
4 3x x2 = (x2 + 3x 4)
and factor x2 + 3x 4. Again, we follow the strategy suggested
above. List all pairs of integers the product of which is 4, and
we search for that pair whose sum is 3.
r1
r2
r1 r2
r1 + r2
1
4
4
3
1
4
4
3 = Found them!
The factorization is
4 3x x2 = (x2 + 3x 4) = (x 1)(x + 4).
Or, we could, perhaps write is as follows:
4 3x x2 = (1 x)(x + 4).
Example 6.4.

Solutions to Examples (continued)

6.5. Solution: This is not a pretty method. The problem is to factor

6x2 + x 1.
Trial 1: Guess a factorization of the form (6x+ r1 )(x+ r1 ). The values
of r1 and r2 are such that r1 r2 = 1.
Try: r1 = 1, r2 = 1:
Try: r1 = 1, r2 = 1:

(6x + 1)(x 1) = 6x2 5x 1

2

(6x 1)(x + 1) = 6x + 5x 1

Error!
Error!

Trial 2: Guess a factorization of the form (3x + r1 )(2x + r2 ). The

values of r1 and r2 are such that r1 r2 = 1.
Try: r1 = 1, r2 = 1:

(3x + 1)(2x 1) = 6x2 x 1

Error!

Try: r1 = 1, r2 = 1:

(3x 1)(2x + 1) = 6x2 + x 1

Success!

The factorization is,

6x2 + x 1 = (3x 1)(2x + 1).
Example 6.5.

Important Points

Important Points (continued)

It is stated in the denition that a polynomial is reducible if it can

written as a product of polynomials of smaller degree. In the factorization
1
x2 + 1 = (2x2 + 2),
2
1
it is true that 2 has smaller degree than x2 + 1, but the other factor,
2x2 + 2, has degree equal to that of x2 + 1. Therefore, the above
factorization does not mean x2 + 1 is reducibleits irreducible.
This is why the phrase of lesser degree was included in the denition
Important Point
of reducible.

Important Points (continued)

No. Simply factoring a polynomial by taking out a numerical constant

says nothing about whether that polynomial is reducible or not. This
particular polynomial 2x2 + 2x is reducible because
2x2 + 2x = 2x(x + 1).
We have factored a degree two polynomial into a product of two degree
1 polynomials. Each factor has degree less than the original polynoImportant Point
mial 2x2 + 2.