Module 1 Reactions in Aqueous Solutions

Aqueous reactions occur in water. 3 Types:

Precipitation reactions
Neutralization reactions
Oxidation-reduction reactions
Lesson 1 What is Solubility?
Explain solubility and precipitation at the particulate and symbolic levels
What occurs at the particulate level when 2 substances mix together? (If you could see the
particles, what would they be doing when forming a solution?)
Solution homogenous mixture composed of solvent + solute particles
Solvent dissolving medium (water); substance present in greater amount in a solution.
Solute the dissolved particle; present in lesser quantity in a solution
Solvation (dissolution) occurs when a solute dissolves in a solvent.
Process by which solvent particles surround and dissolve solute particles.
The nature of the particles determines whether solvation occurs and whether a solution
will form
Soluble dissolves in a specific solvent
Insoluble dissolves very little
All solutes are soluble to some degree
Solubility the amount of solute that will dissolve in a given quantity of solvent at a given
temperature
Properties of Solutions
Homogenous same throughout, solute and solvent evenly mixed
Stable solute will not settle out over time
Both (solute + solvent) will pass through a filter (cannot easily separate)
Solvents and solutes may be gases, liquids, or solids, as well as combos of these 3
Single phase (even if components were different phases before solution was formed)
Solubility Factors that affect:
1. Nature of the solute and solvent: like dissolves like
Polar and ionic solutes more soluble in polar solvents
Non-polar solutes more soluble in non-polar solvents
Water = polar molecule due to bent shape. One side of water molecule more positive, other, more
negative

2. Temperature solubility of solids increases in a liquid as temperature increases.

Due to increased kinetic energy of particles. For gases, decrease in temperature results in
increased solubility in liquids
3. Pressure solubility of a gas is directly proportional to the pressure of that gas above a
liquid. No big effect on solubility of solids and liquids
Eg. Opening a can of soda reduces gas pressure in the can and dissolves carbon
dioxide gas bubbles out of solution
Solution Process of Ionic Compounds
Ionic compounds charged ions held together by electrostatic forces of attraction. Solid,
crystalline structures at room temp. Solubility in water varies.
Water (solvent) needs to overcome the ions force of attraction to break the crystal
structure in order to form a solution.
o Eg. Sodium chloride (NaCl) soluble in water
o Eg. Silver chloride (AgCl) slightly soluble

Solvation (dissolution) surrounding the solute ions with solvent molecules

Polar water molecules arrange themselves around each exposed ion in the solid
o Positive end of water molecule is attracted to negatively charged chloride ion
pulling chloride ion away from crystal (now dissolved)
o Negative end of water molecule is attracted to positively charged sodium ion pulled
away and now dissolved
Solute soluble attraction between solvent and solute particles is greater than attraction within
solute crystal. Solute ions are pulled into the solvent and become surrounded by solvent
molecules. Salt is broken down into individual cations (Na+) and anions (Cl-)
Dissociation separation of ions
When ionic compounds dissolve in water the ions separate (dissociate) from each other and
mix with water molecules.
NaCl will readily dissolve in water to form a solution of sodium ions (Na+) and chloride ions
(Cl-), mixed with water molecules. Dissociation expressed:
NaCl(s) Na+(aq) + Cl- (aq)
In all aqueous reactions water is the solvent understood to be present
Precipitation Reactions
When 2 solutions mix during an aqueous reaction a substance with low solubility may form.
Forms a solid that separates from the solution, settles at the bottom
Attraction between ions is greater than attraction between water and individual ions
Not all mixtures of ions create a precipitation reaction

Example 1: Solutions of aqueous silver nitrate (AgNO3) and aqueous sodium chloride (NaCl)
Both appear homogenous before mixing
When mixed, silver (Ag+) and chloride (Cl-) ions form the compound silver chloride (AgCl)
settles to the bottom
Precipitation the process in which ions leave a solution and form an ionic solid
Sodium and nitrate ions remain in a solution do not participate in reaction
o stand around and watch
o Ions separate in a solution allowed to react separately
Spectator ions Ions that do not participate in a precipitation reaction and still remain moving
freely in a solution
o Eg. Sodium and nitrate ions in this example
Example 2: Solutions of lead (II) nitrate and potassium iodide will dissociate
Pb(NO3)2(aq) Pb2+(aq) + 2NO3-(aq)
KI(aq) K+(aq) + I-(aq)
Pb2+, NO3-, K+, I 2 new compounds form
o Lead iodide (PbI2) only slightly soluble in water will precipitate
o Potassium nitrate (KNO3)
o The balanced chemical equation shows lead iodide (PbI2) formed a solid
o Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2KI(aq) PbI2(s) + 2KNO3(aq)
Precipitate a solid that separates from a solution
Precipitation reaction the aqueous (dissolved) ions combine to form an insoluble solid
Lesson 2: Predicting Precipitate Formation
Use a table of solubility rules to predict the formation of a precipitate when ions wont stay in a
solution. Appendix E: Solubility Chart Table of Solubility Rules (make predictions)
Solubility Rules
Low solubility compounds that dissolve to some extent in water. Insoluble salts eg. AgBr
The force of attraction between ions is greater than the force water molecules can exert to
dissociate the ions
General rules about the solubility of ionic compounds in water at 25C in concentrations of
0.1 mol/L - rules vary if conditions change
Rules apply to compounds; individual ions cannot be soluble or insoluble
Positive ions always associated with negative ions in a compound
Predicting Solubility
Aqueous solutions solvent is water, H2O is not included in the chemical reaction.
When using the Appendix E chart to predict solubility: steps:
Find the negative ion (left column)
Find its partner positive ion (central column)
Find the solubility (right column)

The term all others means that the ion is soluble while on other lines it means the ion has
low solubility

Example 1: Use solubility rules to predict if sodium sulfate (Na2SO4) is water-soluble

Ion: sulfate (SO42-)
Soluble with: all others means sodium sulfate is soluble
Low solubility with: (Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+, Pb2+, Ra2+, Ag+)
Example 2
Use solubility rules to predict if silver nitrate (AgNO3) is water-soluble
Ion: nitrate (NO3-)
Soluble with: essentially all
Low solubility with:
Precipitation Reactions
Precipitation reaction aqueous (dissolved) ions from 2 compounds undergo a double
replacement reaction and, if any of the new products are insoluble, a solid drops out of solution.
o Prediction by consulting the solubility table for each possible product.
Precipitate the solid formed when 2 soluble compounds produce an insoluble product
o If a negative ion (anion) and a positive ion (cation) combine to form an ionic
compound with low solubility, precipitation will occur
Steps to predict the formation of a precipitate:
1. Write out the molecular equation includes the compounds in the original solutions as
reactants and the products of a double replacement
2. Consult the solubility table determine solubility
3. Write the total ionic equation similar to the molecular equation except that the reactants and
any soluble products are written as dissolved ions. The insoluble products are written in
molecular form. It helps to write out the dissociation reactions for each of the reactants and
soluble products first
4. Write out the net ionic equation cancel out all ions that appear on both sides of the total
ionic equation, these are spectator ions - not involved in the reaction
Example 1: Dilute solutions of the salt AgNO3 (solution 1) and NaCl (solution 2) are mixed.
Determine if there are any precipitates and write the net ionic reaction.
1. Start with a balanced equation, with unknown states for the products:
o AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) AgCl(?) + NaNO3(?)
2. Determine solubility of the products
o AgCl low solubility, will precipitate from the solution
o NaNO3 soluble
o AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq) [Balanced chemical equation]
3. Total ionic equation:

Write out the dissociation reactions for reactants and soluble products (all soluble)
o AgNO3(s) Ag+(aq) + NO3-(aq)
o NaCl(s) Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
o NaNO3(s) Na+(aq) + NO3-(aq)
Rewrite the balanced chemical equation substituting with these ions and the precipitate:
o Ag+(aq) + NO3-(aq) + Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) AgCl(s) + Na+(aq) + NO3-(aq)
[Total ionic equation]
4. Net ionic equation cancel out spectator ions (appear on both sides of equation)
o Ag+(aq) + NO3-(aq) + Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) AgCl(s) + Na+(aq) + NO3-(aq)
o Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) AgCl(s) [net ionic equation]

Example 2: Determine if a precipitate will form in the reaction between aqueous lead (II) nitrate
and aqueous potassium iodide. Write out the balanced chemical equation, total ionic, and net
ionic equations
1. Start with balanced chemical equation, with unknown states for the products:
o Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2KI(aq) PbI2(?) + 2KNO3(?)
2. Determine solubility of products and complete the balanced chemical equation
o Lead (II) ions low solubility with iodide ions, will form a precipitate
o Potassium nitrate soluble
o Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2KI(aq) PbI2(s) + 2KNO3(aq) [Balanced chemical equation]
3. Write out the total ionic equation write out the dissociation reactions for all soluble
(aqueous) compounds in the reaction
o Pb(NO3)2(aq) + Pb2+(aq) + 2KNO3-(aq)
o 2KI(aq) 2K+(aq) + 2I-(aq)
o 2KNO3(aq) 2K+(aq) + 2NO3-(aq)
Substitute the ions of the soluble compounds into the balanced chemical equation
o Pb2+(aq) + 2NO3-(aq) + 2K+(aq) + 2I-(aq) PbI2(s) + 2K+(aq) + 2NO3-(aq)
o [Total Ionic Equation]
4. Cancel out spectator ions and write out the net ionic equation
o Pb2+(aq) + 2NO3-(aq) + 2K+(aq) + 2I-(aq) PbI2(s) + 2K+(aq) + 2NO3-(aq)
o Pb2+(aq) + 2I-(aq) PbI2(s) [Net Ionic Equation]
Lesson 3: Neutralization Reactions
How are Acids Named?
Acids are formed when non-metal ions combine with hydrogen. 2 Types:
o Simple (also called binary)
o Polyatomic
Steps in Naming Acids with Simple Anions (Binary Acids)
1. Name the ionic compound as normal
2. Remove the ending (-ite, -ide, -ate) and add the suffix ic to the root word

3. Add the prefix hydro and the word acid

o Name: HCl
o 1. Hydrogen chloride
o 2. Hydrogen chloric
o 3. Hydrochloric acid

Naming Acids with Polyatomic Acid

o The suffix ic is added to the root word if the anion name ends in ate
o The suffix ous is added to the root word if the anion name ends in ite
HNO3
H2SO4
H+ ion and nitrate ion
Two H+ ions and sulfate ion
Nitric acid
Sulfuric Acid

Neutralization Reactions
A type of double replacement reaction between a strong acid and a strong base
Salt and water are formed as products
Type of aqueous reaction
neutralization the acid and base properties of H+ and OH- are neutralized
Resulting solution has no excess hydrogen or hydroxide ions
o Neither acid or base neutral
H+ ions (From acid) and OH- ions (from base) combine to form water molecules.
Salt produced in the reaction is not limited to common table salt
Salt any ionic, crystalline compound which can be produced from the neutralization of a
strong acid and strong base
General equation:

HX(aq) + YOH(aq) H2O(l) + YX (aq or s)

Acid
Base
Water Salt
Water is formed from the H+ ions of the acid (HX) and the OH- ions of the base (YOH)
H+(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O(l)
Negative ions of the acid will unite with the positive ions of the base to form a salt
Y+(aq) + X-(aq) YX(aq or s)
Example:
H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
Using Table of Solubility Rules confirm whether each product will be aqueous or solid
Make sure equation is balanced
If having difficulty predicting the products of a neutralization reaction:
o Write the total ionic equation
o Cancel spectator ions
o Net ionic equation
Total Ionic Equation
2H+(aq) + SO42-(aq) + 2OH-(aq) + 2Na+(aq) 2Na+(aq) + SO42-(aq) + 2H2O(l)
Net Ionic Equation
2H+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) 2H2O(l)

Reduce the coefficients

H+(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O(l)
NOTE: For future neutralization reactions, use only the balanced chemical equations

Strong Acids and Bases

Strong Acid will dissociate completely (100%) into ions
o Eg. 100 molecules of HCl dissolved in water
o 100 ions of H+ and 100 ions of Cl- produced
6 Strong Acids to be familiar
o Hydrochloric Acid (HCl)
o Hydrobromic Acid (HBr)
o Hydroiodic Acid (HI)
o Sulfuric Acid (H2SO4)
o Nitric Acid (HNO3)
o Perchloric Acid (HClO4)
Strong Base completely dissociates into ions
o Eg. 100 molecules of NaOH dissolved in water
o 100 Na+ ions and 100 OH- ions produced
Example of strong bases
o Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
o Potassium hydroxide (KOH)
o Rubidium hydroxide (RbOH)
o *Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2)
o *Barium hydroxide (Ba(OH)2)
*These bases are completely soluble in solutions of 0.01 mol/L or less.
Lesson 4: Stoichiometry of Neutralization
Concentrated and Dilute Vs. Weak and Strong

Concentrated and dilute refer to the number of moles of hydroxide (OH-) or hydrogen
ions (H+) dissolved in a given volume of solution. Solvent is always water.
Example: 4 mol/L is more concentrated than 0.04 mol/L as there are more moles in the same
volume of solution
Strong and weak refer to the extent of ionization of an acid or base.
o Relate to how easily molecules of acids or bases dissociate into ions
o A strong acid, such as HCl (hydrochloric acid) dissociates 100% into ions
o A strong base dissociates 100% into ions
o A concentrated solution of HCl or NaOH has a high number of moles dissolved in a
given volume of water.

o Regardless of volume, whether you have 25mL or 5L, it is still a concentrated acid or
a concentrated base.
o If the same sample of a strong acid or base is added to a large volume of water, the
solution becomes dilute.
Weak base (or acid): Eg: Ammonia is weak because a small percent of the molecules
dissociate into ions
o Solutions of ammonia can be either concentrated or dilute depending on the amount
of ammonia dissolved in a given volume of water.
You can have a weak acid or base that is concentrated.
o Acid or base does not dissociate 100% into ions, even though there may be a high
concentration of it in solution.
o Eg. 6.0 mol/L NH3 (6 moles of a weak base dissolved in 1L of water)
A strong acid or base can be dilute mean that there are few moles of the given acid or base
dissolved in the volume of water, but what there is dissociates 100% into ions.
o Eg. 0.1 mol/L HCl (0.1 moles of a strong acid dissolved in 1L of water).

pH
The pH scale is a logarithmic scale that measures the hydrogen ion concentration in acidic
and basic solutions. It extends from 0 through 14, but values outside this range are possible.
pH of 7 is considered neutral
Acidic solutions will have pH values below 7
Basic solutions will have pH values above 7
Titration
Hygroscopic compounds that absorb significant amounts of moisture when in solid form
Eg. Hydroxide
When mixing solutions with hygroscopic compounds, the added moisture means that mass
measurements are inaccurate and exact concentration of a solution will be unknown.
To determine exact concentration of such solution, standardization, a titration is performed
Titration a laboratory technique - a carefully measured volume of an aqueous reactant of an
unknown concentration is slowly added to a known volume of another reactant solution with a
known concentration
Titrant, stock reagent, or stock solution the known solution
Buret and stopcock specialized measuring tube with a valve on the bottom used for titrations.
Allows for careful, controlled addition of a reagent.
Equivalence Point - in analysis of acids and bases, a titration is conducted until the unknown
solution is completely neutralized.
o To assist in determining when the equivalence point is reached, an indicator (a
chemical that changes colour with pH) is often added.
End point the pH has reached a point where the indicator changes colour
o The indicator selected for a titration should have an end point that matches the
equivalence point.
A pH meter can also be used to collect data and then to create a graph of pH versus the
volume of titrant.
o Graph can be used to identify the equivalence point.

o A strong acid titrated with a strong base will produce a pH of 7 at the equivalence
point. True vise versa (base with acid)
o A sudden change in pH will occur when the equivalence point is reached on the
graph.

Titration Calculations
Concentration of an unknown solution can be determined with the following data:
o Balanced neutralization equation
o Volume of unknown solution used
o Volume of stock solution used to reach equivalence point
o Concentration of the stock solution
Eg. A student wants to standardize a solution of sodium hydroxide she just mixed. She places
25.0mL of NaOH solution in a flask and adds a few drops of bromothymol blue indicator
(changes from blue in basic solution to yellow at pH 7). The student adds 32.72mL of a 0.129
mol/L stock solution of hydrochloric acid before the solution changes colour. What was the
molarity (concentration) of the sodium hydroxide?
Balanced neutralization reaction:
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
There is a 1:1 mole ratio between the acid and base for neutralization to occur.

Using our known stock concentration and volume added; find the number of moles of HCl
used in the neutralization.
Concentration (HCl) = Moles(HCl)/Volume(HCl)
Therefore,
o Moles (HCl) = Concentration(HCl) x Volume (HCl)
o
= 0.129 mol/L x 0.03272 L
o
= 4.22 x 10-3 mol HCl
Using the mole ratio from the balanced equation, determine the moles of NaOH and calculate
the concentration.
o At neutralization: moles NaOH = moles HCl = 4.22 x 10-3 mol
o Concentration (NaOH) = Moles (NaOH)/Volume(NaOH)
o
= 4.22 x 10-3 mol NaOH/0.0250 L
o
= 0.169 mol/L
The concentration of the NaOH solution has been standardized at 0.169 mol/L

Titration the process of the addition of a known amount of a known solution to determine the
concentration of another solution. This is a controlled neutralization involving a strong acid and a
strong base.

Lesson 5: Calculating Concentration

Calculate concentration of volume of an acid or base from the concentration and volume of an
acid or base required for neutralization
Solving Neutralization Problems
If concentration or volume of an acid or base is known you can calculate the concentration
of volume of acid or base required to achieve neutralization.
When neutralization occurs between a base and an acid, the moles of H+ are equivalent to the
moles of OHo Moles of acid/base required = Moles of acid/base used
mol acid___
____mol base___
coefficient acid = coefficient base

The number of moles of base required to neutralize the acid present can be calculated by
multiplying:
o Moles of base (mol) = concentration of base (mol/L) x Volume of base (in litres)
Using the number of moles for the unknown acid or base, you can calculate its concentration
using:
o Concentration = moles/volume
Using the number of moles for the unknown acid or base, you can calculate its volume using:
o Volume = moles/C
Recall: 1000mL = 1.000L

Problem Solving Method

Use the following steps to better understand the relationship between volume and concentration
of acids and bases in a neutralization reaction.
1. Write the balanced chemical equation for the neutralization reaction
2. Under the balanced chemical equation, set up a cvn table to ensure that all quantities
are accounted for. Fill in all the known quantities.
C = concentration (mol/L)
V = volume (L) [Recall: 1L = 1000mL]
N = moles (mol)
3. Use the concentration and volume of the known acid or base to calculate the moles of the
known substance (acid or base)
4. Use the coefficients from the balanced equation to determine the moles of the unknown
substance (acid or base) using the formula:
Mol = C x V
5. Calculate the required volume or concentration of the acid or base using the formula:
C = mol/V
Example 1: In the reaction of 35.0mL of liquid drain cleaner containing NaOH, 50.08mL of
0.409 mol/L HCL must be added to neutralize the base. What is the concentration of the base in
the cleaner?

1. Write the balanced chemical equation. Include a cvn table and fill in the values given to you
in the problem.
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) H2O(l) + NaCl(aq)

C (mol/L)
V (L)
N (mol)

NaOH(aq)

HCl(aq)

0.586 mol/L
(step 4)
0.035 L

0.409 mol/L

0.0205 moles
(step 2)

0.0205 mol
(step 3)

0.05008 L

2. Calculate the number of moles of HCl using the formula:

Mol
=CxV
Mol HCl = (0.05008 L) x (0.409 mol/L)
= 0.0205 mol HCl
3. Use the balanced equation for the mole ration between HCl and NaOH, and solve for the
number of moles of NaOH
Mol NaOH = 0.0205 mol HCl x 1 mol NaOH
1 mol HCl
Mol NaOH = 0.0205 moles NaOH
4. Use the formula, C = mol/V to solve for the concentration of NaOH.
[NaOH] = 0.0205 moles = 0.586 mol/L
0.0350 L
Once all the cells in the CVN table are filled in, you know all the unknowns for the problem.
Example 2: Calculate the volume of 0.256 mol/L Ba(OH)2 that must be added to neutralize 46.0
mL of 0.407 mol/L HClO4
1. Write a balanced equation. Be sure to include a cvn table
Ba(OH)2(aq) + 2HClO4(aq) 2H2O(l) + BaCl2(aq)
Ba(OH)2(aq)
2HClO4(aq)
C (mol/L)

0.256 mol/L

0.407 mol/L

V (L)

0.0365 L
Step 4
0.00935 mol
Step 3

0.046 L

N (mol)

0.0187 mol
Step 2

2. Calculate the number of moles of HClO4 using the formula, mol = C x V

Mol HClO4 = (0.046 L) (0.407 mol/L)

= 0.0187 mol HClO4
3. Solve for the number of moles of Ba(OH)2 by setting up the ratio, number of moles:
coefficient, from a balanced equation.
0.0187 mol HClO4
2 mol HClO4

mol Ba(OH)2
1 mol Ba(OH)2

0.00935 mol Ba(OH)2 = mol Ba(OH)2

4. Use the formula, V = mol/C, to solve for the volume of Ba(OH)2
V = mol
C

0.00935 mol = 0.0365 L

0.256 mol/L

Volume of Ba(OH)2 = 36.5 mL

Lesson 6: Oxidation and Reduction
Oxidation Reduction
Oxidation used to mean the combining of oxygen with other elements
o Eg. Burning a substance (oxygen is being added to the elements being burned)
Reduction historically referred to the removal of oxygen from a compound.
o Will be a decrease (or reduction) in the mass of the material being reduced
The burning of magnesium metal is an example of combustion, or oxidation, through
burning:
2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s)
o Written in ionic form:
2Mg0 + O20 2(Mg2+O2-)
Magnesium has been oxidized to MgO (magnesium oxide) by the reaction with oxygen gas.
o Magnesium went from a 0 charge to a 2+ charge
o Oxygen gas went from a 0 charge to a 2- charge.
Noting these changes, chemists redefined oxidation and reduction based on loss and gain of
electrons.
Oxidation-reduction reaction, or Redox reaction is a reaction in which electrons are
transferred (lost or gained) between reactants
What is an Oxidation Reaction?
First defined as the combination of oxygen with another element to produce oxides
Redefined: oxidation the process by which electrons are removed from an atom or ion
If electrons are removed, the charge of the atom or ion increase (or become more positive) as
a result of being oxidized.
o 2Mg0 Mg2+ + 2eo Went from charge of 0 to charge of 2+
o 2 electrons were lost (or removed) in the process
o Now Magnesium has two more protons than electrons.

o This charge imbalance results in the formation of a positively charged ion (cation)
Elements become more positive by losing electrons, not gaining protons.
Note: when dealing with redox reactions only, the states are unknown and, as a result, are left
off.
When an atom goes from a 0 charge to a positive charge, electrons have been removed.
When an atom or ion becomes more positively charged, oxidation has taken place.

Example 1
Iron turns to rust according to the following reaction: 2Fe(s) + 3O2(g) 2Fe2O3(s)
If written in ionic form:
2Fe0 + 3O20 2Fe3+2O2-3
Iron oxidizes (gains oxygen) to form iron oxide.
Iron went from a charge of 0 to a charge of 3+ : 3 electrons were lost (or removed)
Iron now has 3 more protons than electrons, resulting in a charge of 3+
Example 2
Carbon burns in air according to the following reaction:
C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)
Ionic form:
C0 + O20 C4+O2-O2 Carbon oxidizes (gain oxygen) to form carbon dioxide.
Carbon went from a charge 0 to a charge of 4+ (4 electrons lost/removed)
Carbon ion now has four more protons than electrons, resulting in a charge of 4+
LEO GER
L loss of
E electrons is
O Oxidation
G gain of
E electrons is
R - Reduction
What is a Reduction Reaction?
Reduction reactions first defined as the loss of oxygen from a compound
Reduction redefined, is the process by which electrons are added to an atom or ion.
o If electrons are added then the charge of the atom or ion decrease (becomes more
negative) as a result of being oxidized.
o Magnesium oxide reaction example:
2Mg0 + O20 2(Mg2+O2-)
o Isolating the oxygen:
O20 + 4e- 2O2o Oxygen went from a charge of 0 to a charge of 2- (2 electrons gained in the process, 2
more electrons than protons)
o This charge imbalance results in the formation of a negatively charged ion (anion)
When an atom goes from a 0 charge to a negative charge, electrons are gained.
When an atom or ion becomes more negatively charged, reduction has taken place
Eg. A change from +3 to +2 is a gain of an electron and is, therefore, reduction.

On the left, there is a net charge of 4-. On the right there are two oxygen ions, each with a 2charge, for a net of 4-.
The charge must be conserved on both sides of the equation.
The number of electrons lost must equal the number of electrons gained.

Example 3:
Iron ore is reduced to its metallic iron by the removal of oxygen.
o 2Fe2O3(s) + 3C(s) 4Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)
Ionic form:
o 2(Fe23+O32-) + 3C0 4Fe0 + 3(C4+O2- O2-)
Iron went from a charge of 3+ to a charge of 0 (3 electrons gained)
Iron ion now has an equal number of protons and electrons, resulting in a charge of 0.
Assigning Oxidation Numbers
Oxidation number a positive or negative number assigned to an atom according to a set of
rules.
o Values assigned to individual atoms within molecules or ions for the purpose of
tracking ownership of electrons within the species.
o Based on the assumption that an electron belongs entirely to one atom and not to any
other adjacent atom in the species.
Charge of an ion is written as 2+
An oxidation number is written as +2
Change in the oxidation number of an atom or ion indicates a redox reaction has
occurred.
Oxidation numbers are also used to help balance the redox reaction
A set of oxidation rules:
Rule 1: The oxidation number of any elemental atom (or multiple of itself) which is not an ion is
0.
Example: C = 0
H2 = 0
O2 = 0
Rule 2: An ions (or complex ions) oxidation number is its charge.
Example: Na+ = +1
P3+ = +3
S2- = -2
CO32- = -2
Rule 3: Hydrogens oxidation number is +1 except in metal hydrides where H is the anion and it
is -1.
Example: CaH2 or LiH
Rule 4: The oxidation number of oxygen is -2, except in peroxides (ie, H2O2, Na2O2) where it is
-1 and in combination with fluorine (O = +2)
Rule 5: In a compound, the sum of all of the oxidation numbers of each part must equal the total
charge of that compound or complex ion.
Examples
NaCl
CaCl2
SO42-

Na

Cl

Overall
Oxidation
Number

Ca

+1

-1

=0

+2

Cl2

Overall
Oxidation
Number

O4

Overall
Oxidatio
n
Number
= -2

-1x2=
=0
+6
-2 x 4
-2
= -8
There arent rules for all atoms, particularly those in compounds or complex ions.
Most atoms have more than one oxidation state.
To determine oxidation numbers for atoms in these cases, we first assign oxidation
numbers for atoms for which we have rules.Then assign oxidation numbers to the
unknown atoms by following rules 2 and 5.
A small table can be useful for determining oxidation numbers.
In the following examples, you are determining oxidation number of the element written
in red.

Example 1: HNO3
Rule 3: Oxidation number of H1+ = +1
Rule 4: O = -2
These numbers can be written above the atoms in the table as indicated
Total oxidation number is calculated on the bottom by multiplying the oxidation number by
the number of each atom present
o For H, +1x1 atom = +1
o For O, -2x3 atoms = -6
Rule 5: the sum of the oxidation numbers in the bottom row must be zero because this is a
neutral molecule
o Thus, the ? on the bottom line must be +5
o Since there is only one N, the oxidation number of N must be +5
+1

-2

O3

+1

?
(+5)

-6

The Individual oxidation numbers are written on top

The total oxidation numbers are written on the bottom

Example 2: Na3PO4
Rule 2: the oxidation number of Na1+ = +1
Rule 4: O2- = -2
The total oxidation number is calculated on the bottom
o O, -2x4 = -8
o Na, +1x3 = +3
Rule 5: the sum of the bottom oxidation numbers must be 0

o Thus the ? on the bottom line must be +5

Since there is only one P atom, the oxidation number of P must be +5

+1

-2

Na3

O4

+3

?
(+5)

-8

The Individual oxidation numbers are written on top

The total oxidation numbers are written on the bottom

Example 3: Cr2O72 This is a complex ion with an overall charge of 2-. This time, the bottom oxidation numbers
must total -2.
o Rule 4 tells us O = -2
o Rule 5: -14+? = -2, therefore the ? below the chromium atom must be +12
o However, there are 2 Cr atoms, therefore the oxidation number of each Cr must be +6
?
-2
Cr2

O7

?
(+12
)

-14

Lesson 7: Identifying Redox Reactions

Oxidation and reduction always accompany one another to form a complete reaction.
Redox reaction: electrons gained = electrons lost

Example 1
Consider the following redox reaction
o Mg + S MgS
o Mg0 + S0 Mg2+S2- oxidation numbers assigned.
Mg is the substance being oxidized because it is losing electrons.
o Mg0 Mg2+ + 2e S0 is the substance being reduced because it is gaining electrons.
o S0 + 2e- S2 Mg0 = oxidized substance. If a substance gives up electrons readily it is also called a reducing
agent - it is allowing another substance to be reduced.
o Mg causes S to be reduced.
S = reduced substance and the oxidizing agent - it causes Mg to be oxidized. If a substance
gains electrons readily it is an oxidizing agent.
Example 2: Consider the following redox reaction

o 2Na + S Na2S
o 2Na0 + S0 Na2+S2Na is oxidized from Na0 to Na+ it has lost electrons to produce the Na+ ion
o Na = reducing agent, it causes S0 to be reduced.
S is reduced from S0 to S2- as it has gained electrons to produce the S2- ion.
o S = oxidizing agent, it causes Na0 to be oxidized.

Oxidation Number Changes

Changes in oxidation numbers indicate that a redox reaction has taken place
In a redox reaction the oxidation number of one element will increase whereas the oxidation
number of another element will decrease.
Not all aqueous reactions are redox reactions.
Double replacement reactions and acid-base reactions are not redox reactions.
Many single-replacement reactions, combination reactions, decomposition reactions, and
combustion reactions are redox reactions.
An increase in the oxidation number of an atom signifies a loss of electrons and,
therefore, oxidation
A decrease in the oxidation number of an atom signifies a gain of electrons and,
therefore, reduction.
Example 3:
Ion equation:
o Cu(s) + 2AgNO3(aq) Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2Ag(s)
In this reaction, identify the following:
1. What is reduced?
Ag+ gains an electron and is reduced
2. What is oxidized?
Cu0 loses two electrons and is oxidized
3. What is the reducing agent? Cu0 is the electron donor and is the reducing agent
4. What is the oxidizing agent? Ag+ is the electron acceptor and is the oxidizing agent
a. Net ionic equation: Cu0(s) + 2Ag+(aq) Cu2+(aq) + 2Ag0(s)

b.
c.
d.
e.

A reducing agent causes the reduction of another species

An oxidizing agent causes the oxidation of another species
The substance being reduced, Ag+, is the oxidizing agent (an electron acceptor)
The substance being oxidized, Cu0, is the reducing agent (an electron donor)

Example 4: Sample problem with Steps

For the reaction, Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)
1. State whether it is a redox or non-redox reaction.
2. If it is a redox reaction, identify the oxidized substance, the reduced substance, the oxidizing
agent, and the reducing agent.
Solution
Step 1: Assign oxidation numbers to each substance based on the rules for assigning oxidation
numbers.
0
+2
+2
0
2+
2+
Zn(s) + Cu (aq) Zn (aq) + Cu(s)
Step 2: Check to see which reactant is losing electrons. This will be the oxidized substance

Zn is losing 2 electrons to form Zn2+. Therefore, Zn is oxidized and is also the reducing agent as
it supplies electrons to the reactant getting reduced.
Step 3: Check to see which reactant is gaining electrons. This will be the reduced substance.

Cu2+ is gaining 2 electrons to form Cu. Therefore, Cu2+ is reduced and also the oxidizing agent as
it takes away electrons from the reactant being oxidized.
Step 4: Check to see if a reduction and an oxidation occur. If both processes occur, then it is a
redox reaction.
- Steps 2 and 3 confirm that this is a redox reaction.
Lesson 8: Balancing Redox Reactions Using the Oxidation-Number Change Method
Atoms are conserved in a chemical reaction the number of atoms in the reactants is equal to
those in the products formed.
The number of electrons is also conserved the number lost is equal to the number gained.
These changes can be identified by comparing oxidation numbers.
Balancing Electrons
Example that shows importance of balancing electrons lost and gained in redox equations.
o Cu + Cl2 Cu+ + Cl If you balance this equation by inspection, you would balance the Cl and obtain the
following:
o Cu + Cl2 Cu+ + 2Cl Now assign oxidation numbers and look at the electrons lost and gained.

o
Notice that the atoms are balanced, but the electrons are not balanced. When you balance the
electrons you get the following:

o
The charges are now balanced. Both sides are now neutral
The left side has no charge while the right side as 2 positives and 2 negatives.
Balance Redox reactions by comparing the increases and decreases in oxidation numbers.
This balancing method: Oxidation-Number Change Method, based on the fact that the total
number of electrons gained in reduction must equal the total number of electrons lost in
oxidation
o Comparing the increases and decreases in oxidation numbers.

Example 1:
Follow the steps given to balance the chemical equation
o P(s) + HNO3(aq) + H2O(l) NO(g) + H3PO4(aq)
1. Assign oxidation numbers to all the atoms in the equation. Write the number above the
appropriate atoms.
o 0 +1 +5 -2 +1 -2
+2 -2 +1 +5 -2
o P(s) + HNO3(aq) + H2O(l) NO(g) + H3PO4(aq)
2. Identify which atoms are oxidized and which are reduced. Use a line to connect the atoms
that undergo oxidation and those that undergo reduction. Write the number of electrons
lost/gained at the mid-point of each line.

o
3. Make the total increase in oxidation number equal to the total decrease in oxidation
number by using appropriate coefficients.

o
4. Place the coefficient 3 in front of the P(s) and H3PO4 and place the coefficient 5 in front of
HNO3 and NO.
o 3P(s) + 5HNO3(aq) + H2O(l) 5NO(g) + 3H3PO4(aq)
5. Balance all other atoms as you normally would and do a final check to see if all atoms and
charges are balanced. In this case, we need to add a coefficient of 2 in front of the water.
o 3P(s) + 5HNO3(aq) + 2H2O(l) 5NO(g) + 3H3PO4(aq)

Balancing Redox Reactions: The Half-Reaction Method

When balancing redox reactions in an acidic (H+) or basic (OH-) medium.
Half-reaction method = no need to assign oxidation numbers.
Whether acidic or basic, this method follows the same steps with an additional step at the
end.
Balancing Redox Reactions in Acidic Environments Sample Problem:
Balance this redox reaction which occurs in acidic conditions
o I-(aq) + KClO3(aq) I2(aq) + KCl(aq)
Step 1: Write the net ionic equation for the reaction and remove any spectator ions. (We can
remove state symbols for now).
o I- + K+ + ClO3- I2 + K+ + Cl

Step 2: Write the reduction half-reaction and the oxidation half-reaction separately

Note: If unsure which reaction is which, assign oxidation numbers. Leave plenty of space
between reactions and between molecules
o Oxidation: I- I2
o Reduction: ClO3- Cl-

Step 3: Balance all atoms except any oxygen or hydrogen.

o Oxidation: 2I- I2
o Reduction: ClO3- Cl-

Step 4: Balance any oxygen by adding H2O and then any hydrogen by adding H+
o Oxidation: 2I- I2
o Reduction: 6H+ + ClO3- Cl- + 3H2O

Step 5: Total up the charge on both sides of each half-reaction, and add electrons (e-) to
balance the charges.

o
Step 6: Multiply each half reaction by an appropriate number to balance the number of
electrons between them.
o In this case, the oxidation reaction has 2 electrons and the reduction reaction has 6.
We need to multiply the oxidation reaction by 3 in order to balance the electrons.

o
Step 7: Add the oxidation and reduction reactions to obtain an overall reaction. Cancel
electrons and any terms that appear on both sides.

o You can do a final check by adding up charges on both sides to see if they balance:
o 6I- + 6H+ + KClO3 3I2 + KCl + 3H2O
o (6x1-)
o 6- + 6+ + 0
=
0 +
0 + 0
o Both sides add up to a charge of 0. This reaction is balanced.
Step 8: Add any spectator ions you removed in step 1 and balance atoms, if needed.
o Balanced Redox Reaction:
o 6I- + 6H+ KClO3 3I2 + KCl + 3H2O

Balancing Redox Reactions in Basic Environments

Follow the same steps as for acidic solutions.
Need to add the same number of OH- ions as H+ ions to both sides of the equation.
The H+ ions form water. H+ + OH- H2O
In this method, an acidic substance contains H+, while a basic solution contains OHTo summarize, the steps for balancing redox reactions in acidic environments:
1. Write the net ionic equation for the reaction and remove spectator ions.
2. Write the reduction half-reaction and the oxidation half-reaction separately.
3. Balance all atoms except oxygen or hydrogen.
4. Balance oxygen using H2O, then any hydrogen using H+
5. Total up the charge on each side of each half-reaction and add electrons (e-) to balance
the charges.
6. Multiply each half-reaction by an appropriate number to balance the number of electrons
between them.
7. Add the oxidation and reduction reactions to obtain an overall reaction. Cancel electrons
and any terms that appear on both sides.
For basic environments, add the following steps:
8. Add OH- ions to neutralize the H+ ions, forming water. Add the same number of OH- ions
to the other side of the equation.
9. Cancel out H2O molecules.
10. Add any spectator ions you removed in step 1.
Example: Balance the following redox reaction which occurs in a basic environment.
o MnO4-(aq) + C2O42-(aq) MnO2(s) + CO32-(aq)
Step 1: Write the net ionic equation for the reaction and remove any spectator ions. (In this
case, this reaction is already written in net ionic form.)
o MnO4- + C2O42- MnO2 + CO32 Step 2: Write the reduction half-reaction and the oxidation half-reaction separately
o Note: If you are unsure which reaction is which you can assign oxidation numbers.

o
Step 3: Balance all atoms except any oxygen or hydrogen.
o Oxidation: C2O42- 2CO32o Reduction: MnO4- MnO2
Step 4: Balance any oxygen first by adding H2O and then any hydrogen by adding H+
o Oxidation: 2H2O + C2O42- 2CO32- + 4H+
o Reduction: 4H+ + MnO4- MnO2 + 2H2O
Step 5: Total up the charge on both sides of each half-reaction, and add electrons (e-) to
balance the charges.

o
Step 6: Multiply each half reaction by an appropriate number to balance the number of
electrons between them.
o In this case, the oxidation reaction has 2 electrons and the reduction reaction has 3
electrons. We need to multiply the oxidation reaction by 3 and the reduction reaction
by 2 in order to balance the electrons.
o

Step 7: Add the oxidation and reduction reactions to obtain an overall reaction. Cancel
electrons and any terms that appear on both sides.

Step 8: Add OH- ions to neutralize the H+ ions. The same amount of OH- is added to the other
side.
o In this case, we add 4OH- to each side.

o
Step 9: Cancel out H2O

o
o Do a final check by adding up the charges on both sides to see if they balance:

o
o Both sides add up to 12-. This reaction is balanced.
Step 10: Add any spectator ions you removed in step 1.
o (We didnt have any in this case)
Balanced Redox Reaction:
o 4OH- + 3C2O42- + 2MnO4- 6CO32- + 2MnO2

+ 2H2O

Summary:
Balance redox reactions by comparing the increases and decreases in oxidation numbers
(Oxidation-Number Change Method). This method is based on the total number of electrons
gained in reduction must equal the total number of electrons lost in oxidation.
Lesson 1.9: Practical applications of redox reactions.