纯液压技术英文版讲义 PDF

Hydraulics
Basic Level
Textbook
m
32/22 x 200
1A
1Z1
1V3
NG6
P
1V1
1V2
100 kPa
(1 bar)
5000 kPa
(50 bar)
P
0Z2
6000 kPa
(60 bar)
0P1
T
2.8 cm
0M1
1.1 kW
0Z1
50 l
093281 EN
Order No.:
Description:
Designation:
Edition:
Author:
Graphics:
Layout:
093281
HYDRAUL.LEHRB
D:LB-TP501-1-GB
11/2003
D. Merkle, B.Schrader, M. Thomes
D. Schwarzenberger
25.11.2003, M. Gttfert, G. Heigl, W. Schreiner
Festo Didactic GmbH & Co. KG, 73770 Denkendorf/Germany, 2003

Internet: www.festo.com/didactic
e-mail: did@festo.com
The copying, distribution and utilization of this document as well as the
communication of its contents to others without expressed authorization is
prohibited. Offenders will be held liable for the payment of damages. All rights
reserved, in particular the right to carry out patent, utility model or ornamental
design registration.
Table of contents
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
Tasks of a hydraulic installation __________________________________ 7

Stationary hydraulics____________________________________________ 8
Mobile hydraulics _____________________________________________ 10
Comparison of hydraulics with other control media __________________ 11
2
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
2.11
2.12
2.13
2.14
2.15
Fundamental physical principles of hydraulics _____________________

Pressure _____________________________________________________
Pressure transmission __________________________________________
Power transmission ____________________________________________
Displacement transmission _____________________________________
Pressure transfer ______________________________________________
Flow rate_____________________________________________________
Continuity equation ____________________________________________
Pressure measurement _________________________________________
Temperature measurement______________________________________
Measurement of flow rate _______________________________________
Types of flow _________________________________________________
Friction, heat, pressure drop ____________________________________
Energy and power _____________________________________________
Cavitation ____________________________________________________
Throttle points ________________________________________________
13
13
18
19
21
23
25
26
30
31
31
31
35
41
51
53
3
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
Hydraulic fluid________________________________________________
Tasks for hydraulic fluids _______________________________________
Types of hydraulic fluid _________________________________________
Characteristics and requirements_________________________________
Viscosity _____________________________________________________
57
57
58
59
60
4
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
Components of a hydraulic system _______________________________

Power supply section __________________________________________
Hydraulic fluid ________________________________________________
Valves _______________________________________________________
Cylinders (linear actuators) ______________________________________
Motors (rotary actuators) _______________________________________
67
67
67
68
70
71
Festo Didactic GmbH & Co. KG TP 501
Table of contents
5
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
5.10
Graphic and circuit symbols_____________________________________

Pumps and motors_____________________________________________
Directional control valves _______________________________________
Methods of actuation __________________________________________
Pressure valves _______________________________________________
Flow control valves ____________________________________________
Non-return valves _____________________________________________
Cylinders ____________________________________________________
Transfer of energy and conditioning of the pressure medium __________
Measuring devices_____________________________________________
Combination of devices _________________________________________
73
73
74
75
76
78
79
80
82
83
83
6
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
Design and representation of a hydraulic system ___________________

Signal control section __________________________________________
Hydraulic power section ________________________________________
Positional sketch ______________________________________________
Circuit diagram________________________________________________
Components plus technical data__________________________________
Function diagram ______________________________________________
Function chart ________________________________________________
85
86
87
90
91
92
94
95
7
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
Components of the power supply section __________________________ 97

Drive ________________________________________________________ 97
Pump _______________________________________________________ 99
Coupling ____________________________________________________ 107
Reservoir ___________________________________________________ 107
Filters ______________________________________________________ 109
Coolers _____________________________________________________ 120
Heaters_____________________________________________________ 122
8
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
Valves______________________________________________________
Nominal sizes________________________________________________
Design _____________________________________________________
Poppet valves________________________________________________
Spool valves_________________________________________________
Piston overlap _______________________________________________
Control edges________________________________________________
123
123
125
126
127
129
134
Table of contents
9
9.1
9.2
Pressure valves ______________________________________________ 137

Pressure relief valves _________________________________________ 137
Pressure regulators ___________________________________________ 144
10
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
Directional control valves______________________________________

2/2-way valve _______________________________________________
3/2-way valve _______________________________________________
4/2-way valve _______________________________________________
4/3-way valve _______________________________________________
149
153
157
159
162
11
11.1
11.2
11.3
Non-return valves ____________________________________________

Non-return valve _____________________________________________
Piloted non-return valve _______________________________________
Piloted double non-return valve _________________________________
167
168
172
175
12
12.1
12.2
12.3
Flow control valves ___________________________________________

Restrictors and orifice valves ___________________________________
One-way flow control valve _____________________________________
Two-way flow control valve _____________________________________
179
180
184
185
13
13.1
13.2
13.3
13.4
13.5
13.6
13.7
13.8
13.9
Hydraulic cylinders ___________________________________________

Single-acting cylinder _________________________________________
Double-acting cylinder ________________________________________
End position cushioning _______________________________________
Seals_______________________________________________________
Types of mounting ____________________________________________
Venting _____________________________________________________
Characteristics _______________________________________________
Buckling resistance ___________________________________________
Selecting a cylinder ___________________________________________
193
194
196
199
200
202
202
203
205
207
14
Hydraulic motors_____________________________________________ 211
Table of contents
15
15.1
15.2
15.3
15.4
15.5
15.6
15.7
Accessories _________________________________________________
Flexible hoses _______________________________________________
Pipelines____________________________________________________
Sub-bases __________________________________________________
Bleed valves_________________________________________________
Pressure gauges _____________________________________________
Pressure sensors _____________________________________________
Flow measuring instruments____________________________________
16
Appendix ___________________________________________________ 233
215
217
223
226
228
229
230
231
1. Tasks of a hydraulic installation
What do we mean
by hydraulics?
Hydraulic systems are used in modern production plants and manufacturing

installations.
By hydraulics, we mean the generation of forces and motion using hydraulic fluids.
The hydraulic fluids represent the medium for power transmission.
The object of this book is to teach you more about hydraulics and its areas of
application. We will begin with the latter by listing the main areas for the application
of hydraulics.
The place held by hydraulics in (modern) automation technology illustrates the wide
range of applications for which it can be used. A basic distinction is made between:
stationary hydraulics
and mobile hydraulics
Mobile hydraulic systems move on wheels or tracks, for example, unlike stationary
hydraulic systems which remain firmly fixed in one position. A characteristic feature
of mobile hydraulics is that the valves are frequently manually operated. In the case
of stationary hydraulics, however, mainly solenoid valves are used.
Other areas include marine, mining and aircraft hydraulics. Aircraft hydraulics
assumes a special position because safety measures are of such critical importance
here. In the next few pages, some typical examples of applications are given to
clarify the tasks which can be carried out using hydraulic systems.
1.1
Stationary hydraulics
The following application areas are important for stationary hydraulics:

Production and assembly machines of all types
Transfer lines
Lifting and conveying devices
Presses
Injection moulding machines
Rolling lines
Lifts
Machine tool construction is a typical application area.
Lathe
In modern CNC controlled machine tools, tools and work pieces are clamped by
means of hydraulics. Feed and spindle drives may also be effected using hydraulics.
Press with elevated reservoir
1.2
Mobile hydraulics
Typical application fields for mobile hydraulics include:

Construction machinery
Tippers, excavators, elevating platforms
Lifting and conveying devices
Agricultural machinery
There is a wide variety of applications for hydraulics in the construction machinery
industry. On an excavator, for example, not only are all working movements (such as
lifting, gripping and swivelling movements) generated hydraulically, but the drive
mechanism is also controlled by hydraulics. The straight working movements are
generated by linear actuators (cylinders) and the rotary movements by rotary
actuators (motors, rotary drives).
Mobile hydraulics
10
1.3
Comparison of hydraulics
with other control media
There are other technologies besides hydraulics which can be used in the context of
control technology for generating forces, movements and signals:
Mechanics
Electricity
Pneumatics
It is important to remember here that each technology has its own preferred
application areas. To illustrate this, a table has been drawn up on the next page
which compares typical data for the three most commonly used technologies
electricity, pneumatics and hydraulics.
This comparison reveals some important advantages of hydraulics:
Transmission of large forces using small components, i.e. great
power intensity
Precise positioning
Start-up under heavy load
Even movements independent of load, since liquids are scarcely
compressible and flow control valves can be used
Smooth operation and reversal
Good control and regulation
Favourable heat dissipation
Compared to other technologies, hydraulics has the following disadvantages:
Pollution of the environment by waste oil (danger of fire or accidents)
Sensitivity to dirt
Danger resulting from excessive pressures (severed lines)
Temperature dependence (change in viscosity)
Unfavourable efficiency factor
11
Electricity
Leakage
Hydraulics
Pneumatics
Contamination
No disadvantages apart from

energy loss
Environmental
Risk of explosion in certain areas,
Sensitive in case of temperature
Explosion-proof,
influences
insensitive to temperature.
fluctuation, risk of fire in case of

leakage.
insensitive to temperature.
Energy storage
Difficult, only in small quantities

using batteries.
Limited, with the help of gases.
Easy
Energy transmission
Unlimited with power loss.
Up to 100 m,
Up to 1000 m,
flow rate v = 2 6 m/s,

signal speed up to 1000 m/s.
flow rate v = 20 40 m/s,

signal speed 20 40 m/s.
v = 0.5 m/s
v = 1.5 m/s
Operating speed
Power supply costs
Low
0.25
Linear motion
High
:
Very high
2.5
Difficult and expensive, small
Simple using cylinders, good speed
Simple using cylinders, limited
forces, speed regulation only

possible at great cost
control, very large forces.
forces, speed extremely, loaddependent.
Rotary motion
Simple and powerful.
Simple, high turning moment, low

speed.
Simple, inefficient, high speed.
Positioning accuracy
Precision to 1 m and easier to

achieve
Precision of up to 1 m can be
Without load change precision of

1/10 mm possible.
Very good values can be achieved
High, since oil is almost
using mechanical links.
incompressible, in addition, the
Stability
achieved depending on
expenditure.
Low, air is compressible.
pressure level is considerably

higher than for pneumatics.
Forces
12
Not overloadable.
Protected against overload, with
Protected against overload,
Poor efficiency due to downstream
high system pressure of up to 600
forces limited by pneumatic
mechanical elements.
Very high forces can be realized.
bar, very large forces can be

generated F < 3000 kN.
pressure and cylinder diameter

F < 30 kN at 6 bar.
2. Fundamental physical principles of hydraulics
2.1
Pressure
Hydraulics is the science of forces and movements transmitted by means of liquids.

It belongs alongside hydro-mechanics. A distinction is made between hydrostatics
dynamic effect through pressure times area and hydrodynamics dynamic effect
through mass times acceleration.
Hydro-mechanics
Hydrostatic pressure
Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure which rises above a certain level in a liquid
owing to the weight of the liquid mass:
ps = h g
T
ps
h
g
T
= hydrostatic pressure (gravitational pressure)

= level of the column of liquid
= density of the liquid
= acceleration due to gravity
[Pa]
[m]
[kg/m3]
[m/s2]
T
In accordance with the SI international system of units, hydrostatic pressure is given

in both Pascal and bar. The level of the column of liquid is given the unit metre,
the density of the liquid kilograms per cubic metre and the acceleration due to
gravity metres per second squared.
13
The hydrostatic pressure, or simply pressure as it is known for short, does not
depend on the type of vessel used. It is purely dependent on the height and density
of the column of liquid.
Hydrostatic pressure
Column: h = 300 m
= 1000 kg/m3
g = 9.81 m/s2 = 10 m/s2
T
pS = h g = 300 m 1000
T
kg
m
m kg m
N
10 2 = 3 000 000
= 3 000 000 2
3
3
2
m
s
m s
m
pS = 3 000 000 Pa = 30 bar

T
Reservoir: h = 15 m
= 1000 kg/m3
g = 9.81 m/s2 = 10 m/s2
T
pS = h g = 15 m 1000
T
kg
m
m kg m
N
10 2 = 150 000
= 150 000 2
3
3
2
m
s
m s
m
pS = 150 000 Pa = 1,5 bar

T
Elevated tank: h = 5 m
= 1000 kg/m3
g = 9.81 m/s2 = 10 m/s2
T
pS = h g = 5 m 1000
T
kg
m
m kg m
N
10 2 = 50 000
= 50 000 2
3
3
2
m
s
m s
m
pS = 50 000 Pa = 0,5 bar

T
14
Every body exerts a specific pressure p on its base. The value of this pressure is
dependent on the force due to weight F of the body and on the size of the area A on
which the force due to weight acts.
F
F
A1
A2
Force, area
The diagram shows two bodies with different bases (A1 and A2). Where the bodies
have identical mass, the same force due to weight (F) acts on the base. However, the
pressure is different owing to the different sizes of base. Where the force due to
weight is identical, a higher pressure is produced in the case of a small base than in
the case of a larger base (pencil or concentrated effect).
T
This is expressed by the following formula:

p=
F
A
Unit: 1 Pa = 1
N
m2
1 bar = 100 000
N
= 105 Pa
2
m
T
p = Pressure
Pascal [Pa]
F = Force
Newton [N]
A = Area
Square metre [m2]
1N=1
kg m
s2
Rearrangement of the formula produces the formulae for calculating force and area:
15
Example
A cylinder is supplied with 100 bar pressure, its effective piston surface is equal to
7.85 cm2. Find the maximum force which can be attained.
T
Given that:
p = 100 bar = 1000 N/cm2

A = 7.85 cm2
T
F=pA=
Example
1000N 7.85cm2
= 7850 N
cm2
A lifting platform is to lift a load of 15 000 N and is to have a system pressure of

75 bar.
How large does the piston surface A need to be?
Given that:
F = 15 000 N
P = 75 bar = 75 105 Pa
T
A=
Example
F
15 000N
N m2
0
.
002
=
=
= 0.002 m2 = 20 cm2
p 75 105 Pa
N
T
Instead of making calculations it is possible to work with a diagram. The stiction in

the cylinder is not taken into consideration.
Given that:
Force F = 100 kN
Operating pressure p = 350 bar.
What is the piston diameter?

Reading: d = 60 mm
16
Force
3000
kN
350 bar
300 bar
2000
1500
200 bar
1000
900
800
700
600
500
160 bar
125 bar
100 bar
80 bar
400
50 bar
(5000 kPa)
300
200
150
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
15
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
400
250
mm
200
150
50
60
70
80
90
100
40
25
30
20
15
10
3
2.5
Piston diameter
Piston diameter, force and pressure
17
2.2
Pressure transmission
If a force F1 acts via an area A1 on an enclosed liquid, a pressure p is produced which

extends throughout the whole of the liquid (Pascals Law). The same pressure
applies at every point of the closed system (see diagram).
T
Pressure transmission
Owing to the fact that hydraulic systems operate at very high pressures, it is
possible to neglect the hydrostatic pressure (see example). Thus, when calculating
the pressure in liquids, the calculations are based purely on pressure caused by
external forces. Thus, the same pressure acts on the surfaces A2, A3 as on A1. For
solid bodies, this is expressed by means of the following formula:
T
p=
Example
18
F
A
Given that:
p=
A1 = 10 cm2 = 0.001 m2
F = 10 000 N
T
F 10 000 N
N
=
= 10 000 000 2 = 100 105 Pa (100 bar)
2
A 0.001 m
m
T
Example
P = 100 105 Pa
A2 = 1 cm2 = 0.0001 m2
Given that:
F = p A = 100 105 Pa 0.0001 m2 = 1000
2.3
Power transmission
N m2
= 1000 N
m2
The same pressure applies at every point in a closed system. For this reason, the
shape of the container has no significance.
Power transmission
Where a container is formed as shown in the diagram, it is possible to transmit

forces. The fluid pressure can be described by means of the following equations:
p1 =
F1
A1
p2 =
and
F2
A2
The following equation applies when the system is in equilibrium:

p1 = p2
T
When the two equations are balanced, the following formula is produced:
F1
F
= 2
A1 A2
The values F1 and F2 and A1 and A2 can be calculated using this formula.
T
19
For example, F1 and A2 are calculated as shown here:

T
F1 =
A 1 F2
A2
and
A2 =
A 1 F2
F1
Small forces from the pressure piston can produce larger forces by enlarging the
working piston surface. This is the fundamental principle which is applied in every
hydraulic system from the jack to the lifting platform. The force F1 must be sufficient
for the fluid pressure to overcome the load resistance (see example).
T
Example
A vehicle is to be lifted by a hydraulic jack. The mass m amounts to 1500 kg.

What force F1 is required at the piston?
T
Power transmission
Given that:
Load m = 1500 kg
Force due to weight F2 = m g = 1500 kg 10

T
Given that:
m
= 15 000 N
s2
A1 = 40 cm2 = 0.004 m2
A2 = 1200 cm2 = 0.12 m2
T
F1 =
20
A 1 F2
0.004 m2 15 000 N
=
= 500 N
A2
0.12 m2
Example
It has been proved that the force F1 of 100 N is too great for actuation by hand lever.
What must the size of the piston surface A2 be when only a piston force of F1 = 100 N
is available?
T
A 1 F2
A2
F1 =
A2 =
2.4
Displacement
transmission
A 1 F2 0.004 m2 15 000 N
=
= 0.6 m2
F1
100 N
If a load F2 is to be lifted a distance s2 in line with the principle described above, the
piston P1 must displace a specific quantity of liquid which lifts the piston P2 by a
distance s2.
T
Displacement transmission
The necessary displacement volume is calculated as follows:

V1 = s1 A1
T
and
V2 = s2 A 2
T
Since the displacement volumes are identical (V1 = V2), the following equation is
valid:
s1 A1 = s2 A2
From this it can be seen that the distance s1 must be greater than the distance s2
since the area A1 is smaller than the area A2.
21
The displacement of the piston is in inverse ratio to its area. This law can be used to
calculate the values s1 and s2. For example, for s2 and A1.
s2 =
s1 A 1
A2
and
A1 =
s2 A 2
s1
Displacement transmission example
Given that:
A1 = 40 cm2
A2 = 1200 cm2
s1 = 15 cm
T
s2 =
s1 A 1 15 40 cm cm2
=
= 0.5 cm2
A2
1200 cm2
Given that:
A1 =
22
A2 = 1200 cm2
s1 = 30 cm
s2 = 0.3 cm
T
s2 A 2 0.3 1200 cm cm2

=
= 12 cm2
A2
30
cm
2.5
Pressure transfer
Pressure transfer
The hydrostatic pressure p1 exerts a force F1 on the area A1 which is transferred via
the piston rod onto the small piston. Thus, the force F1 acts on the area A2 and
produces the hydrostatic pressure p2. Since piston area A2 is smaller than piston
area A1, the pressure p2 is greater than the pressure p1. Here too, the following law
applies:
p=
F
A
From this, the following equations can be formulated for the forces F1 and F2:
F1 = p1 A1
and
F2 = p2 A2
Since the two forces are equal (F1 = F2), the equations can be balanced:
P1 A1 = p2 A2
The values p1, A1 and A2 can be derived from this formula for calculations.
For example, the following equations result for p2 and A2:
p2 =
p1 A 1
A2
and
A2 =
p1 A 1
p2
23
In the case of the double-acting cylinder, excessively high pressures may be

produced when the flow from the piston rod area is blocked:
Pressure transfer by double-acting cylinder
Given that:
P1 = 10 105 Pa
A1 = 8 cm2 = 0.0008 m2
A2 = 4.2 cm2 = 0.00042 m2
T
p2 =
p1 A 1 10 105 0.0008 N m2
=
= 19 105 Pa ( 19 bar )
A2
0.00042
m2 m2
Given that:
p1 = 20 105 Pa
p2 = 100 105 Pa
A1 = 8 cm2 = 0.0008 m2
T
A2 =
24
p1 A 1 20 105 0.0008 Pa m2
=
= 0.00016 m2 = 1.6 cm2
p2
Pa
100 105
2.6
Flow rate
Flow rate is the term used to describe the volume of liquid flowing through a pipe in
a specific period of time. For example, approximately one minute is required to fill a
10 litre bucket from a tap. Thus, the flow rate amounts to 10 l/min.
Flow rate
In hydraulics, the flow rate is designated as Q. The following equation applies:

Q=
V
t
Q = Flow rate
V = Volume
t = time
[m3/s]
[m3]
[s]
T
The equations for the volume (V) and the time (t) can be derived from the formula for
the flow rate. The following equation is produced:
V=Qt
25
Example
Given that:
V=Qt=
Q = 4.5 l/s
t = 10 s
4.2 10 l s min
= 0.7 l
60
min s
Result
A flow rate of 4.2 litres per minute produces a volume of 0.7 litres in 10 seconds.
Example
Given that:
t=
V = 105 l
Q = 4.2 l/min
V 105 l min
=
= 25 min
Q 4.2
l
Result
25 minutes are required to transport a volume of 105 litres at a flow rate of 4.2 litres
per minute.
2.7
Continuity equation
If the time t is replaced by s/v (v = s/t) in the formula for the flow rate (Q = V/t) and
it is taken into account that the volume V can be replaced by As, the following
equation is produced:
Q=Av
Q = Flow rate
v = Flow velocity
A = Pipe cross-section
[m3/s]
[m/s]
[m2]
T
From the formula for the flow rate, it is possible to derive the formula for calculating
the pipe cross-section and flow velocity. The following equation applies for A or v.
A=
26
Q
v
results in
v=
Q
A
Example
Given that:
Q = 4.21 l/min =
4.2 dm3
m3
= 0.07 10 3
60 s
s
v = 4 m/s
A=
Result
Q 0.07 10 3 m3 s
= 0.00002 m2 = 0.2 cm2
=
v
4
s m
T
To achieve a flow velocity of 4 m/s with a flow rate of 4.2 l/min, a pipe cross-section
of 0.2 cm2 is required.
T
Example
Q = 4.2 l/min = 0.07 10-3 m3/s

A = 0.28 cm2 = 0.28 10-4 m2
Given that:
v=
Result
Q 0.07 10 3 m3
0.7
m
=
=
101 = 2.5 m/ s
A 0.28 10 4 s m2 0.28
s
In a pipe with a cross-section of 0.28 cm2, a flow rate of 4.2 l/min brings about a flow
velocity of 2.5 m/s.
T
Cylinder
If in the formula for the flow rate

Q=
V
t
the volume replaced by the displacement volume V

V=As
results in
Q=
A s
t
27
Example
Given that:
Q=
Result
A = 8 cm2
s = 10 cm
t = 1 min
T
A s 8 10 cm2 cm
cm3
cm3
=
= 80
= 0.08
t
1
min
min
min
If a cylinder with a piston surface of 8 cm2 and a stroke of 10 cm is to extend in one

minute, the power supply must generate a flow rate of 0.08 l/min.
T
The flow rate of a liquid in terms of volume per unit of time which flows through a
pipe with several changes in cross-section is the same at all points in the pipe (see
diagram). This means that the liquid flows through small cross-sections faster than
through large cross-sections. The following equation applies:
Q1 = A1 v1
Q2 = A2 v2
Q3 = A3 v3
etc.
As within one line the value for Q is always the same, the following equation of
continuity applies:
A1 v1 = A2 v2 = A3 v3 =
etc...
s3
s1
s2
Q
A1
Time (t)
A2
A3
Flow rate
28
Example
Given that:
v1 = 4 m/s
v2 = 100 m/s
A1 = 0.2 cm2 = 0.2 10-4 m2
A2 = 0.008 cm2 = 0.008 10-4 m2
T
Q
Q1
Q2
Q
=Av
= 0.2 10-4 m2 4 m/s
= 0.008 10-4 m2 100 m/s
= 0.8 10-4 m3/s
T
A2
V2
A1
V1
Cylinder
Example
Given that:
l
dm3
cm3 10 10 3 cm3
= 10
= 10 10 3
=
min
min
min
60
s
Inlet internal diameter d1 = 6 mm
Piston diameter
d2 = 32 mm
Q = 10
Pump delivery
To be found:
Flow velocity v1 in the inlet pipe

Extension speed v2 of the piston
Q = v1 A1 = v2 A2
d2 0.6 2 cm2
=
= 0.28 cm2
4
4
d2 3.22 cm2
A2 =
=
= 8.0 cm2
4
4
10 10 3 cm3
Q
10 10 3
cm3
cm
m
60 s
=
=
=
= 595
= 5.95
v1 =
2
2
A1
60
0
.
28
s
s
0.28 cm
cm s
A1 =
10 10 3 cm3
Q
10 10 3
cm3
cm
m
60 s
v2 =
=
=
=
= 20.8
= 0.21
2
2
A2
60 8
s
s
8 cm
cm s
29
2.8
Pressure measurement
To measure pressures in the lines or at the inputs and outputs of components, a

pressure gauge is installed in the line at the appropriate point.
A distinction is made between absolute pressure measurement where the zero point
on the scale corresponds to absolute vacuum and relative pressure measurement
where the zero point on the scale refers to atmospheric pressure. In the absolute
system of measurement, vacuums assume values lower than 1, in the relative
system of measurement, they assume values lower than 0.
pe in bar
pabs in bar
4
Pressure above
atmospheric pressure
Measurement scale
1
Atmospheric pressure
Vacuum
Absolute
pressure measurement
p = general pressure
pabs = absolute pressure
pe = relative pressure
-1
Measurement
scale
Relative
pressure measurement
Absolute pressure, relative pressure
p
7
bar
pe = 4 bar
5
pabs = 5 bar
4
3
2
5% atmospheric approx.
1
0
pe = -0.3 bar
pabs = 0.7 bar
Example
30
2.9
Temperature measurement
The temperature of hydraulic fluid in hydraulic installations can either be measured

using simple measuring devices (thermometers) or else by means of a measuring
device which sends signals to the control section. Temperature measurement is of
special significance since high temperatures (> 60 degrees) lead to premature
ageing of the hydraulic fluid. In addition, the viscosity changes in accordance with
the temperature.
The measuring devices may be installed in the hydraulic fluid reservoir. o keep the
temperature constant, a pilotherm or thermostat is used which switches the cooling
or heating system on as required.
2.10
Measurement of flow rate
The simplest method of measuring flow rate is with a measuring container and a
stop watch. However, turbine meters are recommended for continuous
measurements. The speed indicated provides information about the value of the
flow rate. Speed and flow rate behave proportionally.
Another alternative is to use an orifice. The fall in pressure recorded at the orifice is
an indication of the flow rate (pressure drop and flow rate behave proportionally),
measurement by orifice is scarcely influenced by the viscosity of the hydraulic fluid.
2.11
Types of flow
A distinction is made between laminar and turbulent flow.
vm
vmax
laminar
turbulent
Laminar and turbulent flow
31
In the case of laminar flow, the hydraulic fluid moves through the pipe in ordered
cylindrical layers. The inner layers of liquid move at higher speeds than the outer
layers. If the flow velocity of the hydraulic fluid rises above a certain point (known as
the critical speed), the fluid particles cease to move in ordered layers. The fluid
particles at the centre of the pipe swing out to the side. As a result, the fluid
particles affect and hinder one another, causing an eddy to be formed; flow becomes
turbulent. As a consequence of this, power is withdrawn from the main flow.
A method of calculating the type of flow in a smooth pipe is enabled by the
Reynolds number (Re). This is dependent on
the flow velocity of the liquid v (m/s)
the pipe diameter d (m)
and the kinetic viscosity (m2/s)
Re =
v d
The physical variable kinematic viscosity is also referred to simply as viscosity.

A value for Re calculated with this formula can be interpreted as follows:
laminar flow:
Re < 2300
turbulent flow: Re > 2300
The value 2300 is termed the critical Reynolds number (Recrit) for smooth round
pipes.
Turbulent flow does not immediately become laminar on falling below (Recrit).
The laminar range is not reached until 1/2 (Recrit).
32
80
70
60
50
40
100
80
70
60
50
40
3 10
4
2 10
1
2
3
4
5
30
20
15
2000
10
8
7
6
5
4
1000
20
30
500
50
5
20
5000
10
10
30
10
200
100
100
200
300
50
1
Flow
velocity
of the
liquid
Pipe
diameter
d
-6
[mm]
[cSt = 10 m /s]
Reynolds'
number
Flow
rate
Re
[-]
[dm /min]
Determining of the Reynolds number (Prof. Charchut)
Example
Q
d
Re
= 50 dm3/min
= 25 mm
= 36 cSt
= 1165
T
The critical velocity mentioned above is the velocity at which the flow changes from
laminar to turbulent.
v krit =
Recrit 2300
=
d
d
33
To prevent turbulent flow causing considerable friction losses in hydraulic systems,

(Recrit ) should not be exceeded.
The critical speed is not a fixed value since it is dependent on the viscosity of the
hydraulic fluid and the diameter of the pipe. Therefore, empirically determined
values are generally used in practice. The following standard values for vcrit are valid
for the flow velocity in lines.
Pressure line: to 50 bar operating pressure:
to 100 bar operating pressure:
Suction line: 1.5 m/s
Return line: 2.0 m/s
4.0 m/s
4.5 m/s
5.0 m/s
5.5 m/s
6.0 m/s
Types of flow
34
Example
Given that:
v1 = 1 m/s
= 40 mm2/s
d1 = 10 mm
v3 = 4 m/s
v4 = 100 m/s
d3 = 5 mm
d4 = 1 mm
The type of flow at cross-sections A1, A3, A4 is to be found.

v d1
1000 mm 10 mm s
Re1 =
= 250
s 40 mm2
Re =
Re 3 =
4000 mm 5 mm s
= 500
s 40 mm2
Re4 =
100 000 mm 1 mm s
= 2500
s 40 mm2
Result
The flow is only turbulent at cross-section A4 since 2500 > 2300. The flow becomes
laminar again at cross-section A3 after the throttling point as 500 < 1150. However,
this is only after a steadying period.
2.12
Friction, heat,
pressure drop
Friction occurs in all devices and lines in a hydraulic system through which liquid
passes.
This friction is mainly at the line walls (external friction). There is also friction
between the layers of liquid (internal friction).
The friction causes the hydraulic fluid, and consequently also the components, to be
heated. As a result of this heat generation, the pressure in the system drops and,
thus, reduces the actual pressure at the drive section.
The size of the pressure drop is based on the internal resistances in a hydraulic
system. These are dependent on:
Flow velocity (cross-sectional area, flow rate),
Type of flow (laminar, turbulent),
Type and number of cross-sectional reductions in the system of lines (throttles,
orifices),
Viscosity of the oil (temperature, pressure),
Line length and flow diversion,
Surface finish,
Line arrangement.
35
The flow velocity has the greatest effect on the internal resistances since the
resistance rises in proportion to the square of the velocity.
p
16
bar
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
v
0
m/s
Influence of flow velocity on pressure loss
36
Flow resistance
in pipelines
The friction between the flowing layers of liquid and the adhesion of the liquid to the
pipe wall form a resistance which can be measured or calculated as a drop in
pressure.
Since the flow velocity has an influence on the resistance to the power of two, the
standard values should not be exceeded.
Flow resistance in pipelines per 1 m length

For hydraulic fluid with =850 kg/m
3
T
(K) at approx. 15 C ( = 100 mm /s); (W) at approx. 60 C ( = 20 mm /s)

T
v (m/s)
0.5
d (mm)
Re
30
150
60
300
120
600
240
1200
360
1800
2.5
0.5
2.25
0.25
0.625
0.125
0.312
0.0625
0.21
0.04
0.44
0.09
0.88
0.177
1.77
0.35
3.54
0.70
5.3
1.02
Re
50
250
100
500
200
1000
400
2000
600
3000
1.5
0.3
0.75
0.15
0.375
0.075
0.187
0.037
0.125
0.043
0.16
0.03
0.32
0.064
0.64
0.13
1.27
0.25
1.9
0.65
Re
100
500
200
1000
400
2000
800
4000
1200
6000
0.75
0.15
0.375
0.075
0.187
0.037
0.093
0.04
0.062
0.036
0.04
0.008
0.08
0.016
0.16
0.03
0.32
0.136
0.47
0.275
Re
150
750
300
1500
600
3000
1200
6000
1800
9000
0.5
0.1
0.25
0.05
0.125
0.043
0.062
0.036
0.042
0.032
0.017
0.003
0.035
0.007
0.07
0.024
0.14
0.082
0.214
0.163
bar/m
10
bar/m
20
bar/m
30
bar/m
37
Flow resistance in pipelines per 1 m length (Continuation)

3
For hydraulic fluid with =850 kg/m

2
2
(K) at approx. 15 C (=100 mm /s); (W) at approx. 60 C (=20 mm /s)
T
v (m/s)
0.5
d (mm)
Re
200
1000
400
2000
800
4000
1600
8000
2400
12000
0.375
0.075
0.187
0.037
0.093
0.04
0.047
0.033
0.045
0.03
p
bar/m
0.01
0.002
0.02
0.004
0.04
0.017
0.08
0.056
0.172
0.114
Re
250
1250
500
2500
1000
5000
2000
10000
3000
15000
0.3
0.06
0.15
0.045
0.075
0.037
0.037
0.031
0.043
0.028
p
bar/m
0.006
0.001
0.013
0.004
0.025
0.012
0.05
0.042
0.13
0.085
Re
300
1500
600
3000
1200
6000
2400
12000
3600
18000
0.25
0.05
0.125
0.043
0.062
0.036
0.045
0.03
0.04
0.027
p
bar/m
0.004
0.0008
0.009
0.003
0.017
0.01
0.05
0.034
0.1
0.007
40
50
60
Example for calculating

the values in the table
A flow with a velocity of v = 0.5 m/s flows through a pipeline with a nominal width of
6 mm.
The kinematic velocity amounts to = 100 mm2/s at 15 C.
The density = 850 kg/m3.
Calculate the pressure loss p for 1 m length.
T
l
p = v 2
d 2
Figure for resistance of pipes =
75
(resistance value)
Re
In order to calculate the friction value , it is first necessary to calculate the

Reynolds number Re:
Re =
38
v d
Given that:
Re =
= 100 mm2/s = 1 10-4 m2/s

d = 6 mm = 0.006 m
v = 0.5 m/s
T
0.5 0.006
= 30 (comp. with table)
1 10 4
Figure for resistance of pipes =
75 75
=
= 2.5 (comp. with table)
Re 30
l
1000 mm 850 kg
kg m
p = v 2 = 2.5
( 0.5m/ s )2 = 44270 2 2
3
d 2
6 mm
2m
m s
p = 44270 N/ m2 = 0.4427 bar (comp. with table)
kg m
= 1N
s2
kg m
1 2 2 = 1N / m2
m s
105 bar = 1bar
Pressure losses
through formed parts
Flow reversal causes a considerable drop in pressure in curved pipes, T-pieces,

branches and angle connections. The resistances which arise are chiefly dependent
on the geometry of the formed parts and the flow value.
These pressure losses are calculated using the form coefficient for which the most
common shapes are set as a result of experimental tests.
p =
v2
2
Since the form coefficient is heavily dependent on the Reynolds number, a

correction factor b corresponding to the Re number is taken into consideration.
Thus, the following applies for the laminar range:
p = b
v2
2
Table for correction factor b

Re
25
50
100
250
500
1000
1500
2300
30
15
7.5
1.5
1.25
1.15
1.0
39
T-piece
90 bend
Double angle
1.3
0.5 - 1
90 angle
1.2
Valve
5 ... 15
Table for the form coefficient
Example
Calculate the pressure drop p in an elbow with the nominal size 10 mm.
Given that:
Flow speed
Density of the oil
Viscosity
v = 5 m/s
= 850 kg/m3
= 100 mm2/s at 150 C
T
First Re is calculated:
Re =
v d 5m 0.01m s
=
= 500
s 0.0001m2
Factor from the table
b = 1.5
Form coefficient from the table

p = b
Pressure losses in
the valves
40
= 1.2
v2
850 kg 25m2
= 12 1.5
= 19125 N/ m2 = 0.19 bar
2
m3 s 2 2
The pressure loss in the valves can be derived from the p-Q-characteristics of the
manufacturer.
2.13
Energy and power
The energy content of a hydraulic system is made up of several forms of energy. As

stated in the law of conservation of energy, the total energy of a flowing liquid is
constant. It only changes when energy in the form of work is externally supplied or
carried away. The total energy is the sum of the various forms of energy:
Static
Potential energy
Pressure energy
Dynamic Motion energy
Thermal energy
Potential energy
Potential energy is the energy which a body (or a liquid) has when it is lifted by a
height h. Here, work is carried out against the force of gravity. In presses with large
cylinders, this potential energy is used for fast filling of the piston area and for pilot
pressure for the pump. The amount of energy stored is calculated on the basis of an
example.
Diagram press with elevated reservoir
41
W=mgh
W
m
g
h
= Work
= mass of the liquid
= acceleration due to gravity
= height of the liquid
[J]
[kg]
[m/s2]
[m]
from:
W = Fs
F = mg
is produced: W = mgh
s=h
unit:
1 kgm/s2m = 1 Nm = 1 J = 1 W/s
Given that:
m = 100 kg
g = 9.81 m/s2 10 m/s2
h=2m
W = m g h = 100 kg 10 m/ s2 2 m = 2000
Pressure energy
[1 J = 1 Joule, 1 W = 1 Watt]
kg m m
= 2000 Nm = 2000 J
s2
If a liquid is pressurized, its volume is reduced, the amount by which it is reduced

being dependent on the gases released. The compressible area amounts to 1-3 % of
the output volume. Owing to the limited compressibility of the hydraulic fluid,
i.e. the relatively small V, the pressure energy is low. At a pressure of 100 bar V
amounts to approx. 1 % of the output volume. A calculation based on these values is
shown overleaf.
Pressure energy
42
W = p V
p = Liquid pressure
V = Liquid volume
[Pa]
[m3]
from:
W=Fs
and
is produced: W = p A s
F=pA
As is replaced by V, producing: W = pV
Unit:
1 N/m2m3 = 1 Nm = 1 J
Example
Given that:
p = 100 105 Pa
V = 0.001 m3
W = p V = 100 105 Pa 0.001 m3 = 0.1 105
N m3
= 10 000 J
m2
Pressure energy is obtained from the resistance with which the fluid volume meets
the compression.
All matter is compressible, i.e., if the initial pressure p0 is increased by the value p,
the initial volume V0 is reduced by the value V. This compressibility is increased
even further by the gases dissolved in the oil (to 9%) and by the rising temperature.
In the case of precision drives, the compressibility of the oil must not be neglected.
The characteristic value for this is the compression modulus K which is also often
referred to as the modulus of elasticity for oil = Eoil. This modulus can be calculated
in the usual pressure range using the following approximate formula.
K V0
p
V
[N/ m
or N / cm2
V0 = output volume
V = volume reduction
The value K represents air-free oil at 50 C 1.56 105 N/cm2. Since the oil generally
contains air, the K value of 1.0 to 1.2 105 N/cm2 is used in practice.
43
Example
200 bar counter pressure is applied to the oil volume for a cylinder with a diameter
of 100 mm and a length of 400 mm (l0). By how many mm is the piston rod pushed
back?
Compression modulus
The area ratio piston side to piston rod side amounts to 2:1 and the compression
modulus K = 1.2 105 N/cm2 (the elasticity of the material and the expansion of the
cylinder barrel are not taken into consideration).
Solution
The area ratio 2:1 produces an additional 100 bar of pressure on the constrained oil
volume.
From: K = V0
p
V
is produced: V = V0
A l = A l 0
l = l 0
p
K
V = A l
V0 = A l 0
p
K
p
1000N/ cm2
= 400 mm
= 3.33 mm
K
1.2 105 N/ cm2
Therefore, the piston rod is pushed back by 3.33 mm. For this calculation, the
increase in volume caused by changes in temperature was not taken into
consideration. This is because the changes in pressure are generally so fast that an
adiabatic change in status (i. e. one proceeding without heat exchange) may be
assumed.
44
This example shows that compressibility can be neglected in many cases (e. g. in
presses). However, it is advisable to keep pipe lines and cylinders as short as
possible.
Thus, instead of long cylinders, spindle drives or similar devices which are driven by
hydraulic motors are used for linear movements on machine tools.
Motion energy
Motion energy (also known as kinetic energy) is the energy a body (or fluid particle)
has when it moves at a certain speed. The energy is supplied through acceleration
work, a force F acting on the body (or fluid particle).
The motion energy is dependent on the flow velocity and the mass.
Motion energy
45
1
W = m v 2
2
v = velocity [m/s]
a = acceleration [m/s2]
W=Fs=mas
F=ma
s=
1
a t2
2
v=at
1
1
1
W = m a a t 2 = m a2 t 2 = m v 2
2
2
2
Unit: 1 kg(m/s)2 = 1 kg m2/s2 = 1 Nm = 1 J
Example
Given that:
m = 100 kg
v1 = 4 m/s
1
1
kg m2
W = m v 2 = 100 kg ( 4 m/ s )2 = 800
= 800 J
2
2
s2
1
1
kg m2
W = m v 2 = 100 kg ( 100 m/ s )2 = 500 000
= 500 000 J
2
2
s2
Every change in the flow velocity (in the case of a constant flow rate) automatically
results in a change in the motion energy. Its share of the total energy increases
when the hydraulic fluid flows faster and decreases when the speed of the hydraulic
fluid is reduced.
Owing to varying sizes of line cross-section, the hydraulic fluid flows in a hydraulic
system at various speeds as shown in the diagram since the flow rate, the product of
the flow velocity and the cross-section are constant.
46
Thermal energy
Thermal energy is the energy required to heat a body (or a liquid) to a specific
temperature.
In hydraulic installations, part of the energy is converted into thermal energy as a
result of friction. This leads to heating of the hydraulic fluid and of the components.
Part of the heat is emitted from the system, i.e. the remaining energy is reduced. The
consequence of this is a decrease in pressure energy.
The thermal energy can be calculated from the pressure drop and the volume.
Thermal energy
W = p V
p = Pressure loss through friction
m3
Unit: 1 Pa m3 = 1 N 2 = 1 Nm = 1 J
m
Example
Given that:
p = 5 105 Pa
V = 0.1 m3
W = p V = 5 105 Pa 0.1 m3 = 0.5 105
[Pa]
N 3
m = 50 000 J
m2
47
Power
Power is usually defined as work or a change in energy per unit of time. In hydraulic
installations, a distinction is made between mechanical and hydraulic power.
Mechanical power is converted into hydraulic power, transported, controlled and
then converted back to mechanical
power.
Hydraulic power is calculated from the pressure and the flow rate.
The following equation applies:
P=pQ
P = Power (W)
P = Pressure
Q = Flow rate
[Nm/s]
[Pa]
[m3/s]
Load
Mechanical
power
P=Fv
Electrical
power
in watts
Ts
Mechanical
power
P = 2n M
M = Turning
moment (Nm)
Hydraulic
power
P=pQ
Power
48
Example
p = 60 105 Pa
Given that:
4,2
10 3 m3 / s = 0,07 10 3 m3 / s
60
Nm3
P = p Q = 60 105 Pa 0,07 10 3 m3 / s = 4,2 10 2 2 = 420 W
ms
Q = 4,2l / min = 4,2 10 3 m3 / min =
The following applies if the equation is changed around to express the pressure:
p=
Example
P
Q
Given that:
P = 315 W
Q = 4.2l / min =
Example
p =
315
0.07 10 3
Q=
P
p
Given that:
Q =
Efficiency
4. 2 3
dm / s = 0.07 10 3 m3 / s
60
Nm s
= 4500 10 3 N/ m2 (Pa ) = 45 105 Pa ( 45 bar )
s m3
P = 150 W
p = 45 105 Pa
150 W
Nm m2
= 3.3 10 5
= 3.3 10 5 m3 / s = 0.033 dm3 / s = 2 l / min
5
s N
45 10 Pa
The input power in a hydraulic system does not correspond to the output power
since line losses occur. The ratio of the output power to the input power is
designated as efficiency (h).
Efficiency =
output power
input power
In practice, distinction is made between volumetric power loss caused by leakage

losses and hydro-mechanical power loss caused by friction.
49
In the same way, efficiency is divided into:

Volumetric efficiency (vol):
This covers the losses resulting from internal and external leakage losses in the
pumps, motors, and valves.
Hydro-mechanical efficiency (hm):
This covers the losses resulting from friction in pumps, motors, and cylinders.
The total losses occurring in pumps, motors, and cylinders during power conversion
are given as the total efficiency (tot) and calculated as follows:
tot = vol hm
The following example illustrates how the different types of efficiency need to be
taken into consideration when calculating the input and output power in a hydraulic
system. The values given are experimental values which need to be replaced by
manufacturers values for practical application.
MO
nO
Output power of the motor:
(~330 W at PI = 467 W)
PO = 2nO MO
F
Output power of the cylinder:

(~350 W at PI = 467 W)
PO = F v
70% / 75%
25% / 30%
hydr. power
loss
Output power
PO
5% cylinder or
10% motor
B
10% valves and
lines
T
P=pQ
Hydraulic
power
10% pump
T
T
Ts
5% electric motor
PI = 2nI MI
Input power which
the motor delivers
to the pump
Input power PI
Electrical power
Calculation of input and output power
50
2.14
Cavitation
Cavitation (Lat. cavitare = to hollow out) refers to the releasing of the smallest
particles from the surface of the material. Cavitation occurs on the control edges of
hydraulic devices (pumps and valves). This eroding of the material is caused by local
pressure peaks and high temperatures. Flash temperatures are sudden, high
increases in temperature.
What causes the pressure drop and the flash temperatures?
Motion energy is required for an increase in flow velocity of the oil at a narrowing.
This motion energy is derived from the pressure energy. Because of this, pressure
drops at narrow points may move into the vacuum range. From a vacuum of
pe - 0.3 bar onwards, dissolved air is precipitated. Gas bubbles are formed. If the
pressure now rises again as a result of a reduction in speed, the oil causes the gas
bubbles to collapse.
Pressure
bar
Pressure drop
Pressure collapse
1
0.7
Relative
vacuum
Pressure drop at the narrow point
51
-0.3 bar
v3
v4
v3 < v4
Cavitation
After the narrowing, the pressure rises again, the bubbles burst and the following
cavitation effects might occur:
Pressure peaks
Small particles are eroded from the pipe wall at the point where the cross-section
is enlarged. This leads to material fatigue and often to fractures. This cavitation
effect is accompanied by considerable noise.
Spontaneous ignition of the oil/air mixture
When the air bubbles burst, the oil displaces the bubbles. Owing to the high
pressure after the narrowing, very high temperatures are produced as a result of
compression of the air on the bubbles bursting. As with a diesel engine, this may
lead to spontaneous ignition of the oil/air mixture in the bubbles (diesel effect).
There are various explanations for the presence of air in a hydraulic system:
Liquids always contain a certain quantity of air. Under normal atmospheric
conditions, hydraulic oils contain approx. 9 % air vol. in soluble form. However, this
proportion varies according to the pressure, temperature, and type of oil. Air can
also get into the hydraulic system from outside, particularly at leaky throttle points.
In addition, it is possible that hydraulic oil taken in by the pump already contains air
bubbles. This may be caused by the return line running incorrectly into the oil
reservoir, by the hydraulic oil being kept in the oil reservoir for too short a time, or
by insufficient air releasing properties in the hydraulic oil.
52
2.15
Throttle points
The subjects covered in this chapter types of flow, friction, heat, pressure drop,
energy, power, and cavitation are all illustrated by examples based on a throttle
point:
Throttle point
At throttle points, the value of the Reynolds figure is far above 2300. The reason for
this is the cross-sectional narrowing which, owing to the constant flow rate, results
in an increase in flow velocity. Thus, the critical speed at which the flow changes
from laminar to turbulent is achieved very quickly.
The Law of Conservation of Energy states that the total energy in a system always
remains constant. Therefore, if the motion energy increases as a result of a higher
flow velocity, one of the other types of energy must be reduced. Energy conversion
takes place from pressure energy into motion energy and thermal energy. The
increase in the flow velocity causes the friction to rise; this leads to heating of the
hydraulic fluid and an increase in thermal energy. Part of the heat is emitted from
the system. Consequently, the flow rate after the throttle point has the same flow
velocity as before the throttle point. However, the pressure energy has been
reduced by the amount of the thermal energy resulting in a fall in pressure after the
throttle point.
53
The decrease in energy at throttle points leads to power losses. These can be
determined by measuring the pressure loss and the increase in temperature.
Pressure losses are dependent on:
viscosity
flow velocity
type and length of throttle
type of flow (laminar, turbulent).
Poiseuilles formula:
Q = AD
2 p
= Flow reference number

AD = Throttle cross-section
p = Pressure drop
= Density of the oil
Q = Volumetric flow rate
[m2]
[Pa]
[kg/m3]
[m3/s]
can be expressed more simply by leaving out the constants:

Q p
Flow through a throttle is dependent on the pressure difference.
Pressure
bar
Pressure drop
Pressure collapse
1
0.7
Relative
vacuum
Pressure drop
54
If the pressure at the throttle point drops into the vacuum range, the air exits from
the oil and bubbles are formed which are filled with oil gas and air (cavitation).
If the pressure increases again after the throttle point at the transition to the
enlarged cross-section, the bubbles burst. This leads to cavitation effects eroding
of the material in the area of the cross-sectional enlargement and, potentially, to
spontaneous ignition of the hydraulic oil.
55
56
3. Hydraulic fluid
In principle, any liquid can be used to transfer pressure energy. However, as in

hydraulic installations, other characteristics are also required of hydraulic fluids, the
number of suitable fluids is considerably restricted.
As a hydraulic fluid, water causes problems related to corrosion, boiling point,
freezing point and low viscosity.
Hydraulic fluids with a mineral oil base also known as hydraulic oils fulfil most
normal requirements (e.g. for machine tools). They are used very widely.
Hydraulic fluids with low inflammability are required for hydraulic systems with high
risk of fire such as, for example:
hard coal mining
die-casting machines
forging presses
control units for power station turbines
and steel works and rolling mills.
In all these applications, there is a risk that hydraulic fluids based on mineral oils
will catch fire on intensively heated metal parts. Oil mixtures containing water or
synthetic oils are used here in place of standard oils.
3.1
Tasks for hydraulic fluids
The hydraulic fluids used in hydraulic installations must fulfil very varied tasks:
pressure transfer,
lubrication of the moving parts of devices,
cooling, i.e. diversion of the heat produced by energy conversion
(pressure losses),
cushioning of oscillations caused by pressure jerks,
corrosion protection,
scuff removal,
signal transmission.
57
3. Hydraulic fluid
3.2
Types of hydraulic fluid
Within these two groups hydraulic oils and hydraulic fluids with low inflammability
there are various types of fluid with different characteristics. These characteristics
are determined by a basic fluid and small quantities of additives.
Hydraulic oils
In DIN 51524 and 51525 hydraulic oils are divided according to their characteristics
and composition into three classes:
Hydraulic oil HL
Hydraulic oil HLP
Hydraulic oil HV.
The designations for these oils are composed of the letter H for hydraulic oil and an
additional letter for the additives. The code letter is supplemented by a viscosity
code defined in DIN 51517 (ISO viscosity classes).
Designation
Special characteristics
Areas of application
HL
Increased corrosion
Systems in which high thermal
protection and ageing

stability
demands are made or corrosion

through immersion in water is possible.
Increased wearing protection
Like HL oil, also for use in systems
HLP
where variable high friction occurs

owing to design or operating factors.
HV
Improved
Like HLP oil, for use in widely
viscosity-temperature
characteristics
fluctuating and low ambient

temperatures.
Hydraulic oil for hydraulic systems
Hydraulic oil HLP 68
58
H
L
P
68
hydraulic oil
with additives to increase corrosion protection and/ or ageing stability
with additives to reduce and/or increase load carrying, ability
Viscosity code as defined in DIN 51517
3. Hydraulic fluid
Hydraulic fluids with

low inflammability
Where these hydraulic fluids are concerned, a distinction is made between hydrous
and anhydrous synthetic hydraulic fluids. The synthetic hydraulic fluids are
chemically composed so that their vapour is not flammable.
The table shown here provides an overview of hydraulic fluids with low flammability
(HF liquids). They are also described in VDMA standard sheets 24317 and 24320.
Abbreviated code
VDMA standard
Composition
Water content in %
sheet no.
HFA
24 320
Oil-water emulsions
80 98
HFB
24 317
Water-oil emulsions
40
HFC
24 317
Hydrous solutions,
35 55
e.g. water-glycol
HFD
24 317
Anhydrous liquid,
e.g. phosphate ether
0 0.1
Hydraulic fluids with low flammability
3.3
Characteristics and
requirements
For hydraulic oils to be able to fulfil the requirements listed above, they must exhibit
certain qualities under the relevant operating conditions. Some of these qualities
are listed here:
lowest possible density;
minimal compressibility;
viscosity not too low (lubricating film);
good viscosity-temperature characteristics;
good viscosity-pressure characteristics;
good ageing stability;
low flammability;
good material compatibility;
In addition, hydraulic oils should fulfil the following requirements:
air release;
non-frothing;
resistance to cold;
wear and corrosion protection;
water separable.
The most important distinguishing feature of hydraulics is viscosity.
59
3. Hydraulic fluid
3.4
Viscosity
The word viscosity can be defined as resistance to flow. The viscosity of a liquid
indicates its internal friction, i.e. the resistance which must be overcome to move
two adjacent layers of liquid against each another. Thus, viscosity is a measure of
how easily a liquid can be poured.
The international system of standards defines viscosity as kinematic viscosity
(unit: mm2/s).
T
It is determined by a standardised procedure, e.g.:

DIN 51562: Ubbelohde viscometer;
DIN 51561: Vogel-Ossag viscometer.
The ball viscometer can also be used to determine kinematic viscosity. It can be
used to measure viscosity values precisely across a broad area. Measurements are
made to determine the speed with which a body sinks in a liquid under the influence
of gravity. To find the kinematic viscosity, it is necessary to divide the value
determined using the ball viscometer by the density of the fluid.
Ball viscometer
60
3. Hydraulic fluid
One important method of identifying hydraulic oils is the specification of viscosity

class. The ISO standard and the new draft of DIN 51524 explain that the viscosity
classes lay down the minimum and maximum viscosity of hydraulic oils at 40 C.
ISO
viscosity classes
kinematic viscosity (mm/s) at 40 C

max.
min.
ISO VG 10
9.0
11.0
ISO VG 22
19.8
24.2
ISO VG 32
28.8
35.2
ISO VG 46
41.4
50.6
ISO VG 68
61.2
74.8
ISO VG 100
90.0
110.0
Viscosity classes (DIN 51502)
Thus, six different viscosity classes are available for the various types of hydraulic
oil HL, HLP and HV. The table below specifies areas of application for the different
viscosity classes; it is necessary here to match the viscosity class to the ambient
temperatures.
For storage reasons, high-grade motor or gear lubricating oil is also used in
hydraulic installations. For this reason, the SAE viscosity classification is also listed
here. However, this classification allows fairly large tolerance zones as can be seen
from a comparison between the two methods of classification.
61
3. Hydraulic fluid
SAE classes
ISO-VG
30
100
Areas of application
Stationary installations in closed areas

at high temperatures
20, 20 W
68
10 W
46
5W
32
At normal temperatures
22
For open air applications mobile hydraulics
(15)
In colder areas
10
SAE viscosity classification
In practice viscosity margins play an important role:

Where viscosity is too low (very fluid), more leakages occur. The lubricating film is
thin and, thus, able to break away more easily resulting in reduced protection
against wear. Despite this fact, fluid oil is preferred to viscous oil since pressure and
power losses are small owing to the lower friction. As viscosity increases, the
internal friction of the liquid increases and, with that, the pressure and power loss
caused by the heat also increases.
High viscosity results in increased friction leading to excessive pressure losses and
heating particularly at throttle points. This makes cold start and the separation of air
bubbles more difficult and, thus, leads to cavitation.
62
3. Hydraulic fluid
Kinematic viscosity
Lower limit
10
Ideal viscosity range
mm2
s
mm2
s
15 100
Upper limit
750
mm2
s
Viscosity limits
When using hydraulic fluids, it is important to consider their viscosity-temperature

characteristics, since the viscosity of a hydraulic fluid changes with changes in
temperature. These characteristics are shown in the Ubbelohdes viscositytemperature diagram. If the values are entered on double logarithmic paper, a
straight line is produced.
10000
5000
2
mm /s
1000
500
over-pressure
(bar)
1400
1200
1000
800
100
50
600
400
20
200
0
10
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
Temperature
Ubbelohdes viscosity temperature diagram
63
Festo Didactic GmbH & Co. TP501
3. Hydraulic fluid
The viscosity index (VI) is used as a reference value for viscosity-temperature

characteristics.
It is calculated in accordance with DIN ISO 2909. The higher the viscosity index of a
hydraulic oil, the less the viscosity changes or the greater the temperature range in
which this hydraulic oil can be used. In the viscosity-temperature diagram, a high
viscosity index is shown as a level characteristic line.
Mineral oils with a high viscosity index are also referred to as multigrade oils. They
can be used anywhere where very changeable operating temperatures arise; such as
for mobile hydraulics, for example. Where oils with a low viscosity index are
concerned, a distinction must be made between summer oils and winter oils:
Summer oils:
with higher viscosity so that the oil does not become too fluid causing the
lubricating film to break up.
Winter oils:
with lower viscosity so that the oil does not become too thick and a cold start is
possible.
The viscosity-pressure characteristics of hydraulic oils are also important since the
viscosity of hydraulic oils increases with increasing pressure. These characteristics
are to be noted particularly in the case of pressures from a p of 200 bar.
At approx. 350 to 400 bar the viscosity is generally already double that at 0 bar.
Kinem.
viscosity
1000000
2
mm /s
100000
40C
100C
0C
10000
1000
100
200C
10
1
0.1
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
bar
10000
Pressure
Viscosity-pressure characteristics
64
3. Hydraulic fluid
If the characteristics of hydraulic fluids described in this chapter are summarized,

the following advantages and disadvantages of hydraulic fluids with low
flammability result when compared to hydraulic oils on a mineral oil base:
Advantages
Greater density
Disadvantages
Difficult intake conditions for
pumps.
Low compressibility
Hydraulic oil less fluid
Higher pressure peaks possible.
Unfavourable air venting
Increase dwell time in reservoir by
properties
using larger reservoirs.
Limited operating
temperatures
50 C may not be exceeded as
Favourable viscosity
temperature characteristics
otherwise too much water

vaporises.
In the case of HFC liquids, the
In the case of HFD liquids, the
viscosity changes less sharply
viscosity changes with

temperature fluctuations.
in case of temperature
fluctuations.
Wearing properties
HFD liquids erode conventional

bunan seals, accumulator
diaphragms and hoses.
Price
Characteristics of HFD liquids

correspond to those of
HFD liquids are more expensive

than hydraulic oils.
hydraulic oil when

appropriate cooling and
heating equipment is in use.
Advantages and disadvantages of hydraulic fluids with low flammability
65
66
4. Components of a hydraulic system
The modules and devices used in hydraulic systems are explained in some detail in
this chapter.
4.1
Power supply section
The power supply unit provides the necessary hydraulic power by converting the
mechanical power from the drive motor.
The most important component in the power supply unit is the hydraulic pump. This
draws in the hydraulic fluid from a reservoir (tank) and delivers it via a system of
lines in the hydraulic installation against the opposing resistances. Pressure does
not build up until the flowing liquids encounter a resistance.
The oil filtration unit is also often contained in the power supply section. Impurities
can be introduced into a system as a result of mechanical wear, oil which is hot or
cold, or external environmental influences. For this reason, filters are installed in the
hydraulic circuit to remove dirt particles from the hydraulic fluid. Water and gases in
the oil are also disruptive factors and special measures must be taken to remove
them.
Heaters and coolers are also installed for conditioning the hydraulic fluid. The
extent to which this is necessary depends on the requirements of the particular
exercise for which the hydraulic system is being used.
The reservoir itself also plays a part in conditioning the hydraulic fluid:
Filtering and gas separation by built-in baffle plates,
Cooling through its surface.
4.2
Hydraulic fluid
This is the working medium which transfers the prepared energy from the power
supply unit to the drive section (cylinders or motors). Hydraulic fluids have a wide
variety of characteristics. Therefore, they must be selected to suit the application in
question. Requirements vary from problem to problem. Hydraulic fluids on a mineral
oil base are frequently used; these are referred to as hydraulic oils.
67
4.3
Valves
Valves are devices for controlling the energy flow. They can control and regulate the
flow direction of the hydraulic fluid, the pressure, the flow rate and, consequently,
the flow velocity.
There are four valve types selected in accordance with the problem in question.
Directional control valves
These valves control the direction of flow of the hydraulic fluid and, thus, the
direction of motion and the positioning of the working components. Directional
control valves may be actuated manually, mechanically, electrically, pneumatically
or hydraulically. They convert and amplify signals (manual, electric or pneumatic)
forming an interface between the power control section and the signal control
section.
Directional control valve
68
Pressure valves
These have the job of influencing the pressure in a complete hydraulic system or in a
part of the system. The method of operation of these valves is based on the fact that
the effective pressure from the system acts on a surface in the valve. The resultant
force is balanced out by a counteracting spring.
Pressure relief valve
Flow control valves
These interact with pressure valves to affect the flow rate. They make it possible to
control or regulate the speed of motion of the power components. Where the flow
rate is constant, division of flow must take place. This is generally effected through
the interaction of the flow control valve with a pressure valve.
Flow control valve
69
Non-return valves
In the case of this type of valve, a distinction is made between ordinary non-return
valves and piloted non-return valves. In the case of the piloted non-return valves,
flow in the blocked direction can be released by a signal.
Non-return valve
4.4
Cylinders
(linear actuators)
Cylinders are drive components which convert hydraulic power into mechanical
power. They generate linear movements through the pressure on the surface of the
movable piston. Distinction is made between the following types of cylinder:
Single-acting cylinders
The fluid pressure can only be applied to one side of the piston with the result that
the drive movement is only produced in one direction. The return stroke of the
piston is effected by an external force or by a return spring.
Examples:
Double-acting cylinders
The fluid pressure can be applied to either side of the piston meaning that drive
movements are produced in two directions.
Examples:
70
Hydraulic ram
Telescopic cylinder
Telescopic cylinder
Differential cylinder
Synchronous cylinder
Double-acting cylinder
4.5
Motors
(rotary actuators)
Like cylinders, hydraulic motors are drive components controlled by valves. They too
convert hydraulic power into mechanical power with the difference that they
generate rotary or swivel movements instead of linear movements.
Hydraulic motor (gear motor)
71
72
5. Graphic and circuit symbols
Simple graphic and circuit symbols are used for individual components to enable
clear representation of hydraulic systems in diagrams. A symbol identifies a
component and its function, but it does not provide any information about its
design. The symbols to be used are laid down in DIN ISO 1219. The most important
symbols are dealt with in this chapter.
Note
An arrow drawn at an angle through the symbol indicates that setting possibilities
exist.
5.1
Pumps and motors
Hydraulic pumps and motors are represented by means of a circle which shows
where the drive or output shaft is located. Triangles within the circle give
information about the direction of flow. These triangles are filled in, since hydraulic
fluids are used for hydraulics. If a gaseous pressure medium were being used, as is
the case in pneumatics, the triangles would not be filled in. The symbols for
hydraulic motors and hydraulic pumps can only be distinguished from one another
by the fact that the arrows indicating the direction of flow are drawn pointing one
way for the pumps and the other for the motors.
Hydraulic pumps with fixed displacement
with one flow direction
with two flow directions
Hydraulic motors with fixed displacement
with single direction of rotation
with two directions of rotation
Fluids
Gases
Fixed displacement hydraulic pumps and motors
73
5.2
Directional control valves are shown by means of several connected squares.

The number of squares indicates the number of switching positions possible for a
valve.
Arrows within the squares indicate the flow direction.
Lines indicate how the ports are interconnected in the various switching
positions.
There are two possible methods of port designation. One method is to use the
letters P, T, A, B and L, the other is to label ports alphabetically A, B, C, D, etc. The
former method is generally preferred. Ports should always be labelled with the valve
in the rest position. Where there is no rest position, they are allocated to the
switching position assumed by the valve when the system is in its initial position.
The rest position is defined as the position automatically assumed by the valve on
removal of the actuating force.
When labelling directional control valves, it is first necessary to specify the number
of ports followed by the number of switching positions. Directional control valves
have at least two switching positions and at least two ports. In such an instance, the
valve would be designated a 2/2-way valve. The following diagrams show other
directional control valves and their circuit symbols.
Number of ports
Number of switching positions
Port designations
A
2/2 way valve
P
pressure port
return port
A
A
3/2 way valve
L
P
4/2 way valve

P
4/3 way valve
pressure port
return port
D
L
leakage oil
or:
C
A
power ports
power ports
leakage oil
74
5.3
Methods of actuation
The switching position of a directional control valve can be changed by various

actuation methods. The symbol for the valve is elaborated by the addition of the
symbol indicating the actuation method. In the case of some of the actuation
methods shown, such as push button, pedal, lever with detent, a spring is always
necessary for resetting. Resetting may also be achieved by switching the valve a
second time, e.g. in the case of a valve with hand lever and detent setting.
Listed below are the symbols for the most important actuation methods. Refer to
DIN ISO 1219 for other methods of actuation.
general symbol with spring return and bleed port
by push button with spring return
by lever
by lever with detent setting
by pedal and spring return
Mechanical actuation
by stem or push button
by spring
by roller stem
Mechanical actuation (continuation)
75
* Type of actuation to be specified

where no standard symbol exists
General symbol
5.4
Pressure valves
Pressure valves are represented using squares. The flow direction is indicated by an
arrow. The valve ports can be labelled P (pressure port) and T (tank connection) or A
and B.
The position of the valve within the square indicates whether the valve is normally
open or normally closed.
open
T
closed
flow from
P to A
T closed
Pressure valves
A further distinction is made between set and adjustable pressure valves. The latter
are indicated by a diagonal arrow through the spring.
set
adjustable
Pressure valves
76
Pressure valves are divided into pressure relief valves and pressure regulators:
pressure valves
P(A)
T(B)
pressure relief valve
P(A)
A(B)
3-way pressure regulator
Pressure valves
In the normally closed position the control pressure is detected at the input. This
pressure acts on a valve via the control passage coming from the input on a piston
surface which is held against the control pressure by a spring. If the force resulting
from the pressure and the effective piston surface exceeds the spring force, the
valve opens. In this way, it is possible to set the limiting pressure to a fixed value.
Pressure regulator
In the case of a normally open pressure regulator, the control pressure is detected at
the output. This pressure is effective in the valve via the control passage on a piston
surface and generates a force. This force works against a spring. The valve begins to
close when the output pressure is greater than the spring force. This closing process
causes a pressure drop from the input to the output of the valve (caused by the flow
control). When the output pressure reaches a specified value, the valve closes
completely. The specified maximum system pressure is set at the input of the valve,
the reduced system pressure at the output. Thus, the pressure regulator can only be
set to a smaller setting value than that set at the pressure relief valve.
77
5.5
Flow control valves
In the case of flow control valves, a distinction is made between those affected by
viscosity and those unaffected. Flow control valves unaffected by viscosity are
termed orifices. Throttles constitute resistances in a hydraulic system.
The 2-way flow control valve consists of two restrictors, one setting restrictor
unaffected by viscosity (orifice) and one adjustable throttle. The adjustable throttle
gap is modified by changes in pressure. This adjustable throttle is also known as a
pressure balance. These valves are depicted as a rectangle into which are drawn the
symbol for the variable throttle and an arrow to represent the pressure balance. The
diagonal arrow running through the rectangle indicates that the valve is adjustable.
There is a special symbol to represent the 2-way flow control valve.
set
B
set
adjustable
B
adjustable
Throttle
Orifice
Throttle and orifice
adjustable
with throttle
adjustable
with orifice
in detail
2-way flow control valve
78
5.6
Non-return valves
The symbol for non-return valves is a ball which is pressed against a sealing seat.
This seat is drawn as an open triangle in which the ball rests. The point of the
triangle indicates the blocked direction and not the flow direction. Pilot controlled
non-return valves are shown as a square into which the symbol for the non-return
valve is drawn. The pilot control for the valve is indicated by a control connection
shown in the form of a broken line. The pilot port is labelled with the letter X.
Shut-off valves are shown in circuit diagrams as two triangles facing one another.
They are used to depressurise the systems manually or to relieve accumulators. In
principle, wherever lines have to be opened or closed manually.
spring loaded
unloaded
Non-return valve
shut-off valve
pilot-controlled non-returned valve
Shut-off valve and pilot-controlled non-return valve
79
5.7
Cylinders
Cylinders are classified as either single-acting or double-acting.
Single acting cylinder
Single acting cylinders just have one port, i.e. only the full piston surface can be
pressurised with hydraulic fluid. These cylinders are returned either by the effect of
external forces indicated by the symbol with the open bearing cap or by a spring.
The spring is then also drawn into the symbol.
single acting cylinder,

return by external force
single acting cylinder,

with spring return
single acting telescopic cylinder
Double acting cylinder
Double acting cylinders have two ports for supplying either side of the piston with
hydraulic fluid.
It can be seen from the symbol for a double acting cylinder with single piston rod
that the piston area is greater than the annular piston surface.
Conversely, the symbol for the cylinder with a through piston rod shows that these
areas are of the same size (synchronous cylinder).
The symbol for the differential cylinder can be distinguished from that for the
double-acting cylinder by the two lines added to the end of the piston rod. The area
ratio is 2:1.
Like single-acting telescopic cylinders, double-acting ones are symbolized by
pistons located one inside the other.
In the case of the double-acting cylinder with end position cushioning, the
cushioning piston is indicated in the symbol by a rectangle.
80
double-acting cylinder
with single piston rod
with through piston rod
differential cylinder
double-acting telescopic cylinder
with single end position cushioning
with end position cushioning at both ends
double acting cylinder

with adjustable end position cushioning
at both ends
Double-acting cylinders
81
5.8
Transfer of energy and
conditioning of the
pressure medium
The following symbols are used in circuit diagrams for energy transfer and
conditioning of the pressure medium.
hydraulic pressure source
electric motor
non-electric drive unit
M
M
pressure, power, return line
control (pilot) line
flexible line
lines crossing
exhaust, continuous
quick-acting coupling connected
with mechanically opening non-return valves
reservoir
filter
cooler
heater
Energy transfer and conditioning of the pressure medium
82
5.9
Measuring devices
Measuring devices are shown in the circuit diagrams by the following symbols:
pressure gauge
thermometer
flow meter
filling level indicator
5.10
Combination of devices
If several devices are brought together in a single housing, the symbols for the
individual devices are placed into a box made up of broken lines from which the
connections are led away.
T
Ts
Hydraulic power pack
B1
B2
A1
A2
Pilot-operated double non-return valve
83
84
6. Design and representation of a hydraulic system
A hydraulic system can be divided into the following sections:

The signal control section
The power section
Hydr. power section
Drive section
Signal
input
Signal
processing
Control energy supply
Power
control
section
Power flow
Signal control section
Power supply
section
Energy conversion
Pressure medium
preparation
Diagrammatic representation of the structure of a hydraulic system
85
6.1
The signal control section is divided into signal input (sensing) and signal
processing (processing).
Signal input may be carried out:
manually
mechanically
contactlessly
Signals can be processed by the following means:
by the operator
by electricity
by electronics
by pneumatics
by mechanics
by hydraulics
Hydr. power section

A
P
Drive section
T
P
Interface
A
Signal
input
Signal
processing
Power
control
section
Power flow

Signal
output
P
T
Power supply
section
Energy conversion
Pressure medium
preparation
Hydraulic system (Design)
86
6.2
Hydraulic power section
The hydraulic power can be divided up into the power supply section, the power
control section and the drive section (working section). The power supply section is
made up of the energy conversion part and the pressure medium conditioning part.
In this part of the hydraulic system, the hydraulic power is generated and the
pressure medium conditioned. The following components are used for energy
conversion converting electrical energy into mechanical and then into hydraulic
energy:
Electric motor
Internal combustion engine
Coupling
Pump
Pressure indicator
Protective circuitry
The following components are used to condition the hydraulic fluid:
Filter
Cooler
Heater
Thermometer
Pressure gauge
Hydraulic fluid
Reservoir
Filling level indicator
87
Hydr. power section

A
P
Drive section
T

Signal
processing
pressure
relief
valve
Power flow
Signal
input
Power
control
section
pressure gauge
Power supply
section
Energy conversion
Pressure medium
preparation
filling level
indicator
pump
M
motor
filter
Hydraulic system (Design)
The power is supplied to the drive section by the power control section in
accordance with the control problem. The following components perform this task:
directional control valves
flow control valves
pressure valves
non-return valves.
The drive section of a hydraulic system is the part of the system which executes the
various working movements of a machine or manufacturing system. The energy
contained in the hydraulic fluid is used for the execution of movements or the
generation of forces (e. g. clamping processes). This is achieved using the following
components:
cylinders
motors
88
Hydr. power section

non-return valve
Drive section
A
P
flow control valve

T
pressure valve

Power
control
section
Signal
processing
directional control
valve
Power flow
Signal
input
pressure gauge
T
Power supply
section
Energy conversion
Pressure medium
preparation
filling level
indicator
pump
M
motor
filter
Hydraulic system ( Design)
A suitable type of representation is required in order to reproduce movement

sequences and operating statuses of working elements and control elements clearly.
The following types of representation are of importance:
positional sketch
circuit diagram
displacement-step diagram
displacement-time diagram
function diagram
function chart.
89
6.3
Positional sketch
The positional sketch is a drawing or schematic diagram of a production installation

or machine etc. It should be easily understandable and should include only the most
important information. It shows the spatial arrangement of the components.
The positional sketch in the Figure shows the position of cylinder Z1 and its function:
Z1 is intended to lift the hood of the tempering furnace.
Z1
Positional sketch
90
6.4
Circuit diagram
The circuit diagram describes the functional structure of the hydraulic system.
m
Drive
section
1A
1Z1
1V3
Signal
input
P
Power
control
section
P
1V2
1V1
T
P
0Z2
0P1
0M1
Power
supply
section
0Z1
50l
Designation of the components
The power supply section of the system with filter (0Z1), pressure-relief valve (0Z2),
pump (0P1) and electric motor (0M1) is depicted in the lower part of the circuit
diagram shown for the hydraulic device of the tempering furnace.
The power control section with the non-return valve (1V1), the 3/2-way valve (1V3)
and the pressure-relief valve (1V2) is located in the centre of the circuit diagram. The
3/2-way valve (1V3) with the hand lever for signal input forms the system-person
interface.
Like the drive section, the power control section is assigned to the power section. In
this hydraulic device, the drive section consists of the single-acting cylinder 1A.
91
6.5
Components plus
technical data
In the circuit diagram, the technical data are often additionally specified with the
devices in accordance with DIN 24347.
m
32/22 x 200
1A
1Z1
1V3
NG6
P
1V1
1V2
100 kPa
(1 bar)
5000 kPa
(50 bar)
P
0Z2
6000 kPa
(60 bar)
0P1
T
2.8 cm
0M1
1.1 kW
0Z1
50 l
Circuit diagram with technical data
92
Furthermore, the circuit diagram can be supplemented by tables:
Equipment
Specifications
Example values
Reservoirs
Volume in litres to the highest

permissible oil level
Max. 50 l
Type of hydraulic fluid
ISO VG 22 type Al or HLP
Rated capacity in kW
1.1 kW
Rated speed in rpm
1420 rpm
Geometric delivery rate in cm
Gear pump 2.8 cm/revolution
Pressure valves
Set pressure in bar or permissible

pressure range for the system
Operating pressure 50 bar
Non-return valve
Opening pressure
1 bar
Cylinder inner diameter/piston rod
32/22 200
Electric motors
Fixed displacement
pumps and variabledisplacement pumps
Cylinder
diameter stroke in mm.

The function (e. g. clamping,
1A lifting
lifting, flat turning etc.) must be

entered above every cylinder
Filter
Nominal flow rate in l/min

...at p...bar
Flexible hose
Nominal diameter (inner diameter)

in mm
6 mm
Hydraulic motor
Capacity in cm
v = 12.9 cm
Speed in rpm
n = 1162.8 rpm
at
Q = 15 cm/min
M = 1 Nm
Nominal size
NG 6
93
6.6
Function diagram
Function diagrams of working machines and production installations can be

represented graphically in the form of diagrams. These diagrams are called function
diagrams. They represent statuses and changes in status of individual components
of a working machine or production installation in an easily understood and clear
manner.
The following example shows a lifting device controlled by electromagnetic
directional control valves.
Time
Components
Designation
Pump
Identification
Signal
0P1
On
Off
Directional control
valve
1V1
Step
1
10
Y2
Y1
Cylinder
1A
S1
S0
0
Directional control
valve
2V1
Y4
Y3
Cylinder
2A
1
0
B1
B0
Function diagram
94
6.7
Function chart
A function chart is a flow chart in which the control sequence is strictly divided into
steps. Each step is executed only after the previous step has been completed and all
step enabling conditions have been fulfilled.
A4
Start 1S3
&
Step
4.1: 1S1
Action
Acknowledgement
signal
Close gripper 3A+
3S2
Swivel 1A+
1S2
Open gripper 3A-
3S1
Swivel back 1A-
1S1
1.1: 3S2
Transmission
condition
2.1: 1S2
3.1: 3S1
A1
Function chart
95
96
7. Components of the power supply section
The power supply section provides the energy required by the hydraulic system. The
most important components in this section are:
drive
pump
pressure relief valve
coupling
reservoir
filter
cooler
heater
In addition, every hydraulic system contains service, monitoring and safety devices
and lines for the connection of hydraulic components.
Hydraulic power unit
7.1
Drive
Hydraulic systems (with the exception of hand pumps) are driven by motors (electric
motors, combustion engines). Electrical motors generally provide the mechanical
power for the pump in stationary hydraulics, whilst in mobile hydraulics combustion
engines are normally used.
In larger machines and systems, the central hydraulics are of importance. All
consuming devices in a system with one or several hydraulic power supply units and
with the help of one or more reservoirs are supplied via a common pressure line. The
hydraulic reservoir stores hydraulic power which is released as required. The
reservoir is dealt with in greater detail in the TP502 Advanced Course.
Pressure, return and waste oil lines are all ring lines. Space and power requirements
are reduced by employing this type of design.
97
This diagram shows a processing station from a transfer line.
S3
S3
A
P
Pressure line
Return line
Waste oil line
Circuit diagram
98
7.2
Pump
The pump in a hydraulic system, also known as a hydraulic pump, converts the
mechanical energy in a drive unit into hydraulic energy (pressure energy).
The pump draws in the hydraulic fluid and drives it out into a system of lines. The
resistances encountered by the flowing hydraulic fluid cause a pressure to build up
in the hydraulic system. The level of the pressure corresponds to the total resistance
which results from the internal and external resistances and the flow rate.
External resistances:
come about as a result of maximum loads and mechanical friction and static load
and acceleration forces.
Internal resistances:
come about as a result of the total friction in the lines and components, the
viscous friction and the flow losses (throttle points).
Thus, the fluid pressure in a hydraulic system is not predetermined by the pump. It
builds up in accordance with the resistances in extreme cases until a component is
damaged. In practice, however, this is prevented by installing a pressure relief valve
directly after the pump or in the pump housing at which the maximum operating
pressure recommended for the pump is set.
The following characteristic values are of importance for the pump:
Displacement volume
The displacement volume V (also known as the volumetric displacement or working

volume) is a measure of the size of the pump. It indicates the volume of liquid
supplied by the pump per rotation (or per stroke).
The volume of liquid supplied per minute is designated as volumetric flow rate Q
(delivery). This is calculated from the displacement volume V and the number of
rotations n:
Q=nV
99
Example
Calculation of the delivery of a gear pump.

Given that:
Number of rotations
Displacement volume
n = 1450 min-1
V = 2.8 cm3 (per rev.)
T
To be found: Delivery Q
Q = n V = 1450 r.p.m. 2.8 cm3 = 4060
Operating pressure
cm3
dm3
= 4.06
= 4.06 l / min
min
min
The operating pressure is of significance for the area of application of pumps. Peak
pressure is specified. However, this should arise only briefly (see diagram) as
otherwise the pump will wear out prematurely.
Pressure
p
Duty cycle
Peak pressure
p3
Maximum
pressure p2
Continuous
pressure p1
Time t
Operating pressure
A pressure relief valve is installed in some pumps for safety reasons.
Speeds
100
The drive speed is an important criterion for pump selection since the delivery Q of a
pump is dependent on the number of rotations n. Many pumps are only effective at a
specific r.p.m. range and may not be loaded from a standstill. The most usual
number of rotations for a pump is n = 1500 r.p.m. since pumps are mainly driven by
three-phase asynchronous motors whose number of rotations is not dependent on
the supply frequency.
Efficiency
Mechanical power is converted by pumps into hydraulic power resulting in power

losses expressed as efficiency.
When calculating the total efficiency tot of pumps, it is necessary to take into
consideration the volumetric (vol) and the hydro-mechanical (hm) efficiency.
T
tot = vol hm
T
In practice, characteristic lines are made use of in the evaluation of pumps. VDI
recommendation 3279 provides a number of characteristic lines, for example for:
delivery Q
power P
and efficiency as a function of the pressure at a constant speed.
The characteristic line for the delivery as a function of the pressure is designated the
pump characteristic. The pump characteristic shows that the effective pump delivery
(Qeff) is reduced according to pressure build-up. The actual delivery (Qw) can be
determined when the waste oil from the pump (QL) is taken into consideration. A
minimum leakage in the pump is necessary to maintain lubrication.
T
The following information can be derived from the pump characteristic:

where p = 0, the pump supplies the complete delivery Q.
where p > 0, Q is reduced owing to the leakage oil.
The course of the characteristic line provides information about the volumetric
efficiency (vol) of the pump.
T
101
In the diagram, the pump characteristic for a pump in working order and for a worn
(defective) pump.
Volumetric flow rate

Q
Pump in working order
13%
< 7%
10.0
3
dm /min
9.6
9.4
9.2
Defective pump
9.0
8.8
8.6
0
0
50
100
150
200
bar
250 Pressure
p
Pump characteristic
Characteristic for the new pump: The leakage oil from the pump amounts to 6.0 % at
230 bar. This results in:
Q(p = 0)
Q(p = 230)
QL
T
vol =
= 10.0 dm3/min
= 9.4 dm3/min
= 0.6 dm3/min
T
9.4 dm3 / min

= 0.94
10.0 dm3 / min
Characteristic for the defective pump: The leakage oil from the pump amounts to
14.3 % at 230 bar. This results in:
Q(p = 0)
Q(p = 230)
QL
T
vol =
102
= 10.0 dm3/min
= 8.7 dm3/min
= 1.3 dm3/min
T
8.7 dm3 / min

= 0.87
10.0 dm3 / min
Therefore, on the basis of the pump characteristic, there is a possibility of

calculating the volumetric efficiency (vol) of a pump.
In order to be able to use pumps correctly, the characteristic values and curves
which have been described must be known. Using this information, it is easier to
compare devices and select the most suitable pump.
T
Other design features of a pump may also be of significance:

type of mounting
operating temperatures
noise rating
hydraulic fluid recommendations
pump type.
Three basic types of hydraulic pump can be distinguished on the basis of the
displacement volume:
constant pumps: fixed displacement volume
adjustable pumps: adjustable displacement volume
variable capacity pumps: regulation of pressure, flow rate or power, regulated
displacement volume.
Hydraulic pump designs vary considerably; however, they all operate according to
the displacement principle. The displacement of hydraulic fluid into the connected
system is effected, for example, by piston, rotary vane, screw spindle or gear.
Hydraulic pumps
Gear pump
Rotary vane pump
Piston pump
External gear pump
Internally pressurized
Radial piston pump
Internal gear pump
Externally pressurized
Axial piston pump
Annular gear pump
Screw pump
Constant pump
Constant, adjustable and variable capacity pumps
Hydraulic pump
103
Example
Hydraulic pump: gear pump

Gear pumps are fixed displacement pumps since the displaced volume which is
determined by the tooth gap is not adjustable.
Operation principle of the gear pump
The gear pump shown in the diagram is in section. The suction area S is connected
to the reservoir. The gear pump operates according to the following principle:
One gear is connected to the drive, the other is turned by the meshing teeth. The
increase in volume which is produced when a tooth moves out of a mesh causes a
vacuum to be generated in the suction area. The hydraulic fluid fills the tooth gaps
and is conveyed externally around the housing into pressure area P. The hydraulic
fluid is then forced out of the tooth gaps by the meshing of teeth and displaced into
the lines.
Fluid is trapped in the gaps between the teeth between suction and pressure area.
This liquid is fed to the pressure area via a groove since pressure peaks may arise
owing to compression of the trapped oil, resulting in noise and damage.
104
The leakage oil from the pump is determined by the size of the gap (between
housing, tips of the teeth and lateral faces of the teeth), the overlapping of the
gears, the viscosity and the speed.
These losses can be calculated from the volumetric efficiency since this indicates the
relationship between the effective and the theoretically possible delivery.
Owing to the minimal permissible flow velocity, the suction area in the suction lines
is greater than the pressure area. The result of an undersize suction pipe crosssection would be a higher flow velocity since the following is valid for v:
v=
Q
A
Where there is a constant flow rate and a smaller cross section, an increase in the
flow velocity results. Consequently, pressure energy would be converted into motion
energy and thermal energy and there would be a pressure drop in the suction area.
Since, whilst hydraulic fluid is being drawn into the suction area, there is a vacuum
in the suction area, this would increase resulting in cavitation. In time, the pump
would be damaged by the effects of cavitation.
The characteristic values and pump characteristics are of importance for the correct
selection and application of pumps.
The table below lists the characteristic values for the most common constant pumps.
Characteristic values for other hydraulic pumps are contained in VDI recommendation 3279.
105
Types of design
Speed range
r.p.m.
Displacement
Nominal
volume
3
(cm )
pressure
(bar)
Gear pump,
externally toothed
500 3500
1.2 250
63 160
0.8 0.91
Gear pump,
internally toothed
500 3500
4 250
160 250
0.8 0.91
Screw pump
500 4000
4 630
25 160
0.7 0.84
Rotary vane pump
960 3000
5 160
100 160
0.8 0.93
Axial piston pump
. 3000
100
200
0.8 0.92
750 3000
750 3000
25 800
25 800
160 250
160 320
0.82 0.92
0.8 0.92
960 3000
5 160
160 320
0.90
Radial piston pump
106
Total
efficiency
7.3
Coupling
Couplings are located in the power supply section between the motor and the pump.
They transfer the turning moment generated by the motor to the pump.
In addition, they cushion the two devices against one another. This prevents
fluctuations in the operation of the motor being transferred to the pump and
pressure peaks at the pump being transferred to the motor. In addition, couplings
enable the balancing out of errors of alignment for the motor and pump shaft.
Examples:
7.4
Reservoir
rubber couplings
spiral bevel gear couplings
square tooth clutch with plastic inserts.
The tank in a hydraulic system fulfils several tasks. It:

acts as intake and storage reservoir for the hydraulic fluid required for operation
of the system;
dissipates heat;
separates air, water and solid materials;
supports a built-in or built-on pump and drive motor and other hydraulic
components, such as valves, accumulators, etc.
Oil reservoir (tank)
107
From these functions, the following guidelines can be drawn up for the
design of the reservoir.
Reservoir size
Reservoir size, dependent on:

pump delivery
the heat resulting from operation in connection with the maximum permissible
liquid temperature
the maximum possible difference in the volume of liquid which is produced when
supplying and relieving consuming devices (e.g. cylinders, hydraulic fluid
reservoirs)
the place of application
the circulation time.
The volume of liquid supplied by the pump in 3 to 5 minutes can be used as a
reference value for deciding the size of reservoir required for stationary systems. In
addition, a volume of approx. 15% must be provided to balance out fluctuations
in level.
Since mobile hydraulic reservoirs are smaller for reasons of space and weight, they
alone are not able to perform the cooling operations (other cooling equipment is
necessary).
Reservoir shape
High reservoirs are good for heat dissipation, wide ones for air separation.
Intake and return lines
These should be as far away from one another as possible and should be located as
far beneath the lowest oil level as possible.
Baffle and separating plate
This is used to separate the intake and return areas. In addition, it allows a longer
settling time for the oil and, therefore, makes possible more effective separation of
dirt, water and air.
Base plate
The base of the tank should slope down to the drain screw so that the deposited
sediment and water can be flushed out.
108
Ventilation and exhaust

(air filter)
To balance the pressure in case of a fluctuating oil level, the reservoir must be
ventilated and exhausted. For this purpose, a ventilation filter is generally integrated
into the filler cap of the feed opening.
Ventilation and exhaust are not necessary in the case of closed reservoirs as used
for mobile hydraulics. There, a flexible bladder which is prestressed by a gas cushion
(nitrogen) is built into the air-tight container. Because of this, there are fewer
problems with pollution through contact with air and water and premature ageing of
the hydraulic fluid with these containers. At the same time, prestressing prevents
cavitation in the intake line since there is a higher pressure in the reservoir.
7.5
Filters
Filters are of great significance in hydraulic systems for the reliable functioning and
long service life of the components.
HIGH PRESSURE
Detail Z
Valve seat
Dirt particles
Piston clearance
LOW PRESSURE
Effects of polluted oil
Contamination of the hydraulic fluid is caused by:

Initial contamination during commissioning by metal chips, foundry sand, dust,
welding beads, scale, paint, dirt, sealing materials, contaminated hydraulic fluid
(supplied condition).
Dirt contamination during operation owing to wear, ingress via seals and tank
ventilation, filling up or changing the hydraulic fluid, exchanging components,
replacing hoses.
109
It is the task of the filter to reduce this contamination to an acceptable level in order
to protect the various components from excessive wear. It is necessary to use the
correct grade of filter and a contamination indicator is required in order to check the
efficiency of the filter. Systems are often flushed using economical filters before
commissioning.
Selection and positioning of the filter is largely based on the sensitivity to dirt of the
hydraulic components in use.
Grade of filtration
Dirt particles are measured in m, the grade of filtration is indicated accordingly.

Distinction is made between:
Absolute filter fineness
indicates the largest particle able to pass through a filter
Nominal filter fineness
particles of nominal pore size are arrested on passing through everal times
Average pore size
measurement of the average pore size for a filter medium as defined in the
Gaussian process
-value
indicates how many times more particles above a specific size are located in the
filter intake than in the filter return
Example
50 = 10 means that 10 x as many particles larger than 50 m are located in the filter
intake than in the filter outlet.
T
Proposed grade of
Type of hydraulic system
filtration x in m,
where x = 100
12
To prevent the most fine degree of contamination in highly sensitive systems

with an exceptionally high level of reliability; mainly used for aeronautics or
laboratory conditions.
25
Sensitive, powerful control and regulating systems in the high pressure range;
frequently used for aeronautics, robots and machine tools.
5 10
Expensive industrial hydraulic systems offering considerable operational

reliability and a planned service life for individual components.
10 20
General hydraulic and mobile hydraulic systems, average pressure and size.
15 25
Systems for heavy industry or those with a limited service life.
20 40
Low pressure systems with considerable play. Grades of filtration and areas of
application
Grades of filtration and areas of application
110
Return filtering
Return filters are built straight onto the oil reservoir, return power filters are
installed in the return line. The housing and filter insert must be designed in such a
way as to stand up to pressure peaks which may occur as a result of large valves
opening suddenly or oil being diverted directly to the reservoir via a by-pass valve
with fast response. The complete return flow is to flow back through the filter. If the
return flow is not concentrated in a common line, the filter may also be used for he
partial flow (in the by-pass flow). Return filtering is cheaper than high pressure
filtering.
Important characteristic values

Operating pressure
depending on design, up to max. 30 bar
Flow rate
up to 1300 l/min (in the case of filters for reservoir installation)

up to 3900 l/min (large, upright filters for pipeline installation)
Grade of filtration
10 25 m
Perm. Differential
Up to approx. 70 bar, dependent on the design of the filter element.
pressure p
Double filters are used to avoid down times for filter maintenance. In this type of
design, two filters are arranged parallel to one another. If the system is switched
over to the second filter, the contaminated one can be removed without the system
having to shut down.
Filter unit, reversible
111
Suction filters
These filters are located in the suction line of the pump; as a result, the hydraulic
fluid is drawn from the reservoir through the filter. Only filtered oil reaches the
system.
Important characteristic
values
Grade of filtration: 60 100 m

These filters are mainly used in systems where the required cleanliness of the
hydraulic fluid cannot be guaranteed. They are purely to protect the pump, and
exhibit a low degree of filtration as particles of 0.06 -0.1 mm are still able to pass
through the filter. In addition, they aggravate pump intake as a result of a
considerable fall in pressure or an increased degree of filter contamination.
Consequently, these filters must not be equipped with fine elements as a vacuum
would be built up by the pump leading to cavitation. In order to ensure that these
intake problems do not occur, suction filters are equipped with by-pass valves.
Suction filter with by-pass
Pressure filters
These filters are installed in the pressure line of a hydraulic system ahead of devices
which are sensitive to dirt, e.g. at the pressure port of the pump, ahead of valves or
flow control valves. Since this filter is subjected to the maximum operating pressure,
it must be of robust design. It should not have a by-pass but should have a
contamination indicator.
Important characteristic values
112
Operating pressure
Up to 420 bar
Flow
up to 300 l/min
Grade of filtration
3 5 m
Perm. Differential
pressure p
Up to 200 bar, depending on the design of the filter element.
Filter arrangement
Hydraulic filters can be arranged in various different positions within a system.

A distinction is made between
filtering of the main flow: return, inlet and pressure filtering
filtering of the by-pass flow: only one part of the delivery is filtered.
By-pass flow filtering
Filtering of the main flow

Return flow filter
Pump inlet filter
Pressure line filter
Circuit diagram
Advantages
economical
simple maintenance
protects pump from

contamination
smaller pore size

possible for valves
sensitive to dirt
smaller filter possible as an

additional filter
Disadvantages
contamination can only

be checked having
passed through the
hydraulic components
difficult access,
inlet problems with
fine pored filters.
Result: cavitation
expensive
lower dirt-filtering capacity
Remarks
frequently used
can also be used

ahead of the pump
as a coarse filter
requires a pressure-tight
housing and
contamination indicator
only part of the delivery is filtered
Filtering of the main flow and By-pass flow filtering
The various possible filter arrangements are listed in the diagram above. The most
favourable filter arrangement is decided by considering the sensitivity to dirt of the
components to be protected, the degree of contamination of the hydraulic fluid and
the costs involved
113
Hydraulic devices
Filtration
principle
Arrangement of the
filter in the circuit
Nominal filter
in m
Axial piston machine
Full flow filter
Return line and/or

pressure line
25
Low pressure line
25 (10)
Gear pumps, radial piston

pumps.
Full flow filter
Return line
63
directional control valves,
Partial flow filter
Inlet line
63
pressure valves, flow valves,

non-return valves
(additional)
Return line
25
working cylinders
Average speed hydraulic
motors
Full flow filter
Recommended grades of filtration
Surface filters
These filters consist of a thin layer of woven fabric, e.g. metal gauze, cellulose or
plastic fabric. These are disposable filters which are suitable for flushing processes
and for commissioning a system.
Deep-bed filters
These may be made of compressed or multi-layered fabric, cellulose, plastic, glass

or metal fibres or may contain a sintered metal insert. These filters have a high dirt
retention capacity across the same filter area.
114
Surface filter
Deep-bed filter
Filter design
Filters generally have star-shaped folds in the filter material. In this way, a very large
filter area is achieved with a very small volume.
115
Specific characteristics are determined by the filter material, the grade of filtration
and the application possibilities. These are shown in the table below.
Element type
Grade of filtration
(m)
Application characteristics
Absolute filter
x= 75
3, 5, 10, 20
Safeguards operation and service life of sensitive

components, e.g. servo and proportional valves.
Nominal filter
Polyester
1, 5, 10, 20
Paper Mat/web
Metal Web
Safeguards operation and service life of less

sensitive components; low flow resistance; good
dirt retention capacity.
Wire gauze
25
Braid weave
25, 50, 100

Water and liquids which are difficult to ignite,
employing special steel filter material; high
differential pressure resistance; high dirt retention
capacity.
Operating temperature of 120 C possible in
special design.
Selection criteria for filter components (HYDAC Co.)
Every filter causes a pressure drop. The following reference values apply here:
Main stream filtering
116
Pressure filter
Return line filter
Intake filter 1
p ~ 1 to 1.5 bar
p ~ 0.5 bar
p ~ 0.05 to 0.1 bar
at operating temperature
By-pass flow filtering
The by-pass pump delivery should be approx. 10% of the tank content. To keep
pressure losses low, the filter should be made sufficiently large. Viscosity also has
an effect on total pressure loss as does the grade of filtration and flow rate.
The viscosity factor f and the pressure loss p from the housing and filter element
are specified by the manufacturer.
The total differential pressure of the complete filter is calculated as
follows:
ptotal = phousing + f pelement
T
Example
Determining the differential pressure for a pressure filter

A pressure loss ptotal is to be calculated for a flow rate of 15 l/min. Filter fineness is
to be 10 m, kinematic viscosity = 30 mm2/s. The following diagrams are shown as
examples of company specifications.
T
2.0
bar
1.6
1.2
0.8
0.4
0
0
10
15
20
25 l/min 30
Housing characteristic
117
3m
2.0
bar
5m
1.6
10m
1.2
20m
0.8
0.4
0
0
10
15
20
25 l/min 30
Pressure filter-element characteristic
30
20
15
10
Factor f
5
3
1
0.1
10
30 50 70 100 200 300 mm /s 1000

Operating viscosity
Viscosity factor f
118
Using these tables, the following values are read off:

phousing = 0.25 bar
pelement = 0.8 bar
f = 1.2
T
This results in a total pressure difference (pressure loss) of

ptotal = 0.25 + 1.2 0.8 bar = 1.21 bar
T
If the reference value for pressure filters amounts to a p of ~ 1 to 1.5 bar, the filter
has been correctly selected.
Contamination indicators
It is important that the effectiveness of the filter can be checked by a contamination

indicator. The contamination of a filter is measured by the drop in pressure. As the
contamination increases, the pressure ahead of the filter rises. This pressure acts on
a spring-loaded piston. As the pressure increases, the piston is pushed against the
spring.
There are a number of different display methods. Either the piston movement is
visible or else it is converted into an electrical or optical indicator by electrical
contacts.
Flow direction
Contamination indicator
119
7.6
Coolers
In hydraulic systems, friction causes energy losses when the hydraulic fluid flows
through the lines and components. This causes the hydraulic fluid to heat up. To a
certain extent, this heat is given off to the environment via the oil reservoir, the lines
and other components.
Operating temperature should not exceed 50 60 C. Where there is a high
temperature, the viscosity of the oil falls by an unacceptable amount, leading to
premature ageing. It also shortens the service life of seals.
If the cooling system of the installation is not powerful enough, the cooler is
generally switched on by thermostat keeping the temperature within specified
limits.
The following cooling devices are available:
Air cooler: difference in temperature of up to 25 C possible;
Water cooler: difference in temperature of up to 35 C possible;
Oil cooling by means of air fan cooler: when large quantities of heat must be
dissipated.
Coolers are almost always necessary for mobile hydraulics since the reservoirs are
too small to ensure adequate removal of the heat emitted from the system.
Air cooler (Lngerer & Reich)
120
Water cooler (Lngerer & Reich)
Description
Air cooler
Water cooler
The hydraulic fluid flows from
Pipes conveying oil are

by-passed by coolant.
the return through a pipe which

is cooled by a fan.
Advantages
Disadvantages
Low running costs.

Easy installation.
Larger heat losses can be
Disturbing noise.
Higher operating costs.
diverted.
No disturbing noises.
Susceptible to contamination
and corrosion (coolant).
121
7.7
Heaters
Heaters are often required to ensure that the optimum operating temperature is
quickly attained. The aim of this is to ensure that when the system is started up, the
hydraulic fluid quickly reaches the optimum viscosity. Where the viscosity is too
high, the increased friction and cavitation lead to greater wear.
Heating elements or flow preheaters are used for heating and preheating hydraulic
fluid.
Heating element (Lngerer & Reich)
Estimated hydraulic
fluid temperatures
122
Stationary systems:
Mobile systems:
35 55 C in the oil reservoir

45 65 C in the oil reservoir
8. Valves
In hydraulic systems, energy is transferred between the pump and consuming device
along appropriate lines. In order to attain the required values force or torque,
velocity or r.p.m. and to maintain the prescribed operating conditions for the
system, valves are installed in the lines as energy control components. These valves
control or regulate the pressure and the flow rate. In addition, each valve represents
a resistance.
8.1
Nominal sizes
The nominal sizes of valves are determined by the following characteristic

values:
Nominal size NW
Nominal diameter in mm
4; 6; 10; 16; 20; 22; 25; 30; 32; 40; 50; 52; 63; 82; 100; 102
Nominal pressure NP:

(operating pressure)
Pressure in bar (Pascal) at which hydraulic devices and systems are designed to
work under defined operating conditions; Pressure stages as defined in VDMA
24312: 25; 40; 63; 100; 160; 200; 250; 315; 400; 500; 630
Nominal flow Qn
Quantity of oil (l/min) that flows through the valve at a pressure loss of p = 1 bar
(oil viscosity 35 mm2/s at 40 C)
Maximum flow Qmax
The largest quantity of oil (l/min) which can flow through the valve with
correspondingly large pressure losses.
Viscosity range
e.g. 20 230 mm2/s (cSt);
Hydraulic fluid
temperature range
e.g. 10 80 C;
123
8. Valves
Example
32
l/min
28
26
24
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
P
T
B
A
A; B
: 25C
2
: 20mm /s (cST)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 bar 14
p
p-Q characteristic curve for a 4/2-way valve NW 6
Actuating force
In the case of some types of poppet valve, the actuating force, which is dependent
on pressure and area, may be very great. To avoid this, there must be pressure
compensation at the valves (right-hand diagram).
However, in most cases, it is not possible to design poppet valves to incorporate
pressure compensation. For this reason, high switching forces are required for
actuation which must be overcome by lever transmission or pilot control.
124
8. Valves
The control edges of the valve are by-passed by oil causing dirt particles to be
washed away (self-cleaning effect). As a result, poppet valves are relatively
insensitive to dirt. However, if dirt particles are deposited on the valve seat, the
valve only partially closes resulting in cavitation.
Various aspects are taken into consideration when classifying valves:
Function
Design
Method of actuation.
A selection is made between the following types of valve based on the tasks they
perform in the hydraulic system:
Pressure valves
Non-return valves
Flow control valves.
8.2
Design
Poppet valves and piston slide valves are distinguished from one another by the
difference in their design. Overlapping and the geometry of the control edges are
also of significance for the switching characteristics of the valve.
Poppet principle and Slide principle
125
8. Valves
8.3
Poppet valves
In poppet valves a ball, cone, or occasionally a disk, is pressed against the seat area
as a closing element. Valves of this design form a seal when they are closed.
Valve type
Ball poppet valves
Sectional diagram
Advantages and disadvantages/use

simple manufacture; tendency for
ball to vibrate when flow is passing
through producing noise;
Non-return valves
Cone poppet valves
considerable precision is required

to manufacture the cones,
good sealing properties;
Disk poppet valves
only small stroke area;

Shut-off valves
Poppet valves
According to the poppet principle, a maximum of three paths can be opened to a

device by a control element. Overlapping is negative. This means that a valve which
has more than three paths must be constructed from a number of control elements.
Example
126
A 4/2-way valve on the poppet principle may consist internally of two 3/2-way
valves.
8. Valves
8.4
Spool valves
A distinction is made between longitudinal and rotary slide valves. A rotary slide
valve is made up of one or more pistons which are turned in a cylindrical bore.
as a rule, shorter than

longitudinal slide valves,
when used as directional
control valves.
Rotary slide valve
The elongated spool valve consists of one or more connected pistons which are
axially displaced in a cylindrical drilled hole. Moving these pistons within the spool
valves can open up, connect together or close any number of connection channels.
Example
Both a 3-way pressure regulator and a 6/4-way directional control valve can be
realised by this principle.
Elongated spool valve
127
8. Valves
To actuate elongated spool valves, it is only necessary to overcome the frictional

and spring forces. Forces resulting from the existing pressure are balanced out by
the opposing surfaces.
Actuating force
A spool must be installed with a certain amount of clearance. This clearance results
in continuous leakage which causes losses in the volumetric flow rate at the valve.
The spring chamber therefore must be connected with a leakage oil line. To prevent
the piston being pressed against the side, the piston skirt area is provided with
circular grooves. When the piston is shifted, only fluid friction arises.
If the hydraulic oil is contaminated, dirt particles appear between the spool and
bore. They act as abrasives and cause the bore to be enlarged. This results in
increased leakage.
Spool principle
Poppet principle
flow leakage
good sealing
sensitive to dirt
non-sensitive to dirt
simple construction even in the case of multiposition valves
complicated design as multi-position valves
pressure-compensated
pressure compensation must be achieved
long actuation stroke
short actuation stroke
Comparison of valve constructions
128
8. Valves
8.5
Piston overlap
The switching characteristics of a valve are decided by the piston overlap. A

distinction is made between positive, negative and zero overlap. The type of overlap
for the piston control edges can also be varied.
positive
>0
negative
<0
zero
=0
Piston overlap
In addition to determining piston clearance, the piston overlap also determines

the oil leakage rate.
Overlapping is significant for all types of valve. The most favourable overlap is
selected in accordance with the application:
Positive switching overlap
During the reversing procedure, all ports are briefly closed against one another;
no pressure collapse (important in the case of systems with reservoirs);
switching impacts resulting from pressure peaks; hard advance;
Negative switching overlap
During the reversing procedure, all ports are briefly interconnected; pressure
collapses briefly (load drops down);
Pressure advanced opening
The pump is first of all connected to the power component, then the power
component is discharged to the reservoir;
Outlet advanced opening
The outlet of the power component is first discharged to the reservoir before the
inlet is connected to the pump;
Zero overlap
Edges meet. Important for fast switching, short switching paths.
129
8. Valves
In the case of multi-position valves, piston overlapping within a valve may vary with
the application. Even switching overlaps are adapted to requirements. When repairs
are necessary, it is important to ensure that the new piston has the same overlaps.
The effect of positive and negative overlap is shown below based on the example of
a single-acting cylinder, triggered by a 3/2-way valve.
130
8. Valves
50 bar
P
50 bar
T
Port P A is opened
only after A T is closed.
A
50 bar
P
50 bar
T
A
Positive switching overlap
System pressure affects the cylinder immediately, hard advance.
131
8. Valves
50 bar
P
50 bar
T
Port P A is opened
although port A T is
not closed yet.
Thus, all ports are
briefly interconnected.
~0 bar
P
50 bar
T
A
Negative switching overlap
Pressure is reduced during the reversing procedure, gentle build-up of pressure for
approach.
132
8. Valves
As with spool valves, any switching overlap can be achieved with 2/2-way poppet
valves.
x1
x2
x3
x4
Switching overlap with poppet valves
In the case of spool valves, the switching overlap is decided by the geometry of the
control edge and the inflexible connection of the control piston.
Where poppet valves are concerned, the desired switching overlap is achieved by
varying response times of the various valves and can be changed, if required, by
altering the switching times.
133
8. Valves
8.6
Control edges
The control edges of the piston are often either sharp, chamfered or notched. This
profiling of the control edge has the effect that there is gradual rather than sudden
throttling of the flow on switching.
sharp control edge
chamfered control edge
control edge with axial notches
Control edges
Actuating force
The pressure in the valve causes the piston to be pressed against the bore in the
housing. This results in considerable frictional forces and, consequently, high
actuating forces being produced. The pressure is balanced out by annular grooves
on the piston circumference. The piston is then supported on a film of oil. On
actuation, only the fluid friction needs to be overcome.
Annular grooves
There are various methods of actuation for valves. In addition, valves may also be
electrically, pneumatically or hydraulically actuated.
134
8. Valves
Port designations
There are two methods of port designation. The ports can be labelled either with the
letters P, T, A, B and L or they can be labelled alphabetically.
Valves have several switching positions. The following rule is applied to determine
which ports are interconnected and which ones are closed against each other:
A horizontal line between the letters for the ports (e.g. P-A) means that the ports
are connected together;
An individual letter separated by a comma (e.g. P-A, T) signifies that this port
(here: T) is blocked.
Examples
P-A-B-T: all ports are interconnected.
P-A-B, T: P, A and B are connected, T is blocked.
135
136
9. Pressure valves
Pressure valves have the task of controlling and regulating the pressure in a
hydraulic system and in parts of the system.
Pressure relief valves
The pressure in a system is set and restricted by these valves. The control
pressure is sensed at the input (P) of the valve.
Pressure regulators
These valves reduce the output pressure where there is a varying higher input
pressure. The control pressure is sensed at the output of the valve.
The symbols for the different pressure valves are shown below.
P(A)
T(B)
A(B)
P(A)
A(B)
P(A)
Pressure valves
9.1
Pressure relief valves
Pressure relief valves are designed in the form of poppet or slide valves. In the
normal position,
a compression spring presses a sealing element onto the input port
or
a slide is pushed over the opening to the tank connection.
137
9. Pressure valves
P
P
T
Ts
Pressure relief valves (circuit diagram)
Pressure relief valves (sectional diagram)
138
9. Pressure valves
Pressure relief valves operate according to the following principle: The input
pressure (p) acts on the surface of the sealing element and generates the force
F = p1 A1.
T
The spring force with which the sealing element is pressed onto the seat is
adjustable.
If the force generated by the input pressure exceeds the spring force, the valve
starts to open. This causes a partial flow of fluid to the tank. If the input pressure
continues to increase, the valve opens until the complete pump delivery flows to the
tank.
Resistances at the output (tank line, return line filter, or similar) act on the surface
A2. The resultant force must be added to the spring force. The output side of the
valve may also be pressure-compensated (see pressure relief valve with cushioning
and pressure compensation).
T
Cushioning pistons and throttles are often installed in pressure relief valves to
eliminate fluctuations in pressure. The cushioning device shown here causes:
fast opening
slow closing of the valve.
By these means, damage resulting from pressure surges is avoided (smooth valve
operation). Pressure knocks arise when the pump supplies the hydraulic oil to the
circuit in an almost unpressurised condition and the supply port is suddenly closed
by a directional control valve.
In the circuit diagram shown here, the total pump delivery flows at maximum
pressure via the pressure relief valve to the tank. When the directional control valve
is switched, the pressure in the direction of the cylinder decreases and the
cushioned pressure relief valve closes slowly. An uncushioned valve would close
suddenly and pressure peaks might occur.
139
9. Pressure valves
P
P
T
Ts
Pressure relief valve (circuit diagram)
Pressure relief valve with cushioning (sectional diagram)
140
9. Pressure valves
Pressure relief valves are used as:

Safety valves
A pressure relief valve is termed a safety valve when it is attached to the pump,
for example, to protect it from overload. The valve setting is fixed at the
maximum pump pressure. It only opens in case of emergency.
Counter-pressure valves
These counteract mass moments of inertia with tractive loads. The valve must be
pressure-compensated and the tank connection must be loadable.
Brake valves
These prevent pressure peaks, which may arise as a result of mass moments of
inertia on sudden closing of the directional control valve.
Sequence valves (sequence valves, pressure sequence valves)
These open the connection to other consuming devices when the set pressure
is exceeded.
There are both internally and externally controlled pressure relief valves.
Pressure relief valves of poppet or slide design may only be used as sequence
valves when the pressure is compensated and loading at the tank connection has
no effect on the opening characteristics.
160 bar
(16 MPa)
T
P
100 bar
Break valve
T
P
T
Ts
Application example: brake valve
141
9. Pressure valves
The diagram below shows a cushioned pressure valve of poppet design.
Pressure relief valve, internally controlled, cushioned
Pressure relief valve, externally controlled
142
9. Pressure valves
P
m
T
Counter-balance valve
20 bar
System pressure limit

100 bar
P
P
T
Ts
Safety valve
160 bar
Application example: counter-balance valve
143
9. Pressure valves
9.2
Pressure regulators
Pressure regulators reduce the input pressure to a specified output pressure.

They are only used to good effect in systems where a number of different pressures
are required. To clarify this, the method of operation is explained here with the help
of an example with two control circuits:
The first control circuit operates on a hydraulic motor via a flow control valve in
order to drive a roller. This roller is used to stick together multi-layer printed
wiring boards.
The second control circuit operates on a hydraulic cylinder which draws a roller
towards the boards at a reduced, adjustable pressure. The roller can be lifted
with a cylinder to allow the boards to be inserted (piston rod extends).
FPulling
A
P
P
P
T
Ts
Example: 2-way pressure regulator
144
9. Pressure valves
The pressure regulator in the circuit diagram operates according to the following
principle:
The valve is opened in the normal position. The output pressure at (A) is transmitted
to the piston surface (1) via a control line (3). The resultant force is compared to the
set spring force. If the force of the piston surface exceeds the set value, the valve
starts to close as the valve slide moves against the spring until an equilibrium of
forces exists. This causes the throttle gap to be reduced and there is a fall in
pressure. If the pressure at output (A) increases once again, the piston closes
completely. The pressure present in the first control circuit prevails at output (A).
Pressure regulators of poppet design open and close very quickly in the case of
short strokes and may as a result flutter with fast changes in pressure; this is
prevented by adding cushioning.
In the case of slide valves, it is also possible to influence opening characteristics by

having control edges shaped in such a way that the opening gap increases slowly.
This will result in greater control precision and lead to improvements in the
oscillation characteristics of the valve.
145
9. Pressure valves
The 2-way pressure regulator dealt with earlier might be used, for example, when a
constant low pressure is required for a clamping device in a by-pass circuit of the
hydraulic installation.
Example
In the example shown here, however, problems may arise with the 2-way pressure
regulator.
A
P
P
P
T
Ts
Circuit with 2-way pressure regulator
If the 2-way pressure regulator closes, thickening of the workpiece material causes a
further pressure increase at output (A) of the pressure regulator. This increase in
pressure above the set value is not desired. One method of rectifying this would be
to install a pressure relief valve at the output.
146
9. Pressure valves
The 2-way pressure regulator is rarely used in practice. Its design does not permit a
reduction from a high set pressure to a low pressure.
A(B)
P(A)
Pressure relief valve to prevent increases in pressure
This pressure relief valve can be set in various ways:

PRV setting greater than that for pressure regulator;
PRV setting equal to that of pressure regulator;
PRV setting lower than that of pressure regulator.
These settings produce various characteristics in the pressure regulator.
Another method of reducing these increases in pressure is to use a 3-way pressure
regulator.
The method of operation of a 3-way pressure regulator is identical to that of a 2-way

pressure regulator with respect to flow from P to A.
However, an increase in pressure above that which has been set at output (A)
causes a further shift of the piston. The built-in pressure relief function comes into
force and opens a passage from A to T.
147
9. Pressure valves
A
T
P
P
T
Ts
Circuit diagram for a 3-way pressure regulator
Note
In the case of the 3-way pressure regulator, the overlap forms part of the design.
However, where a 2-way pressure regulator is combined with a pressure relief valve,
the overlap is adjustable.
As external forces act on the cylinder in this pressure roller, a 3-way pressure
regulator or a 2-way pressure regulator combined with a pressure-relief valve should
be installed.
It is a good idea to use the 3-way pressure regulator with negative overlap (T opens
before P closes). Where a 2-way pressure regulator is combined with a pressure
relief valve, the pressure relief valve should be set to a lower pressure than the
pressure regulator.
148
10. Directional control valves
Directional control valves are components which change, open or close flow paths
in hydraulic systems. They are used to control the direction of motion of power
components and the manner in which these stop. Directional control valves are
shown as defined in DIN ISO 1219.
2/2-way valve
149
Symbols for directional

control valves
The following rules apply to the representation of directional control valves:

Each different switching position is shown by a square.
Flow directions are indicated by arrows.
Blocked ports are shown by horizontal lines.
Ports are shown in the appropriate flow direction with line arrows.
Drain ports are drawn as a broken line and labelled (L) to distinguish them from
control ports.
Each individual switching position is shown in a square
Flow paths are indicated by means of arrows within the square
Closed position
Two flow paths
Two ports are connected, two are closed
Three ports are connected, one is closed
All ports are connected
Switching positions
Examples: switching positions
150
There are two types of directional control valve: continually operating and binary*
directional control valves.
(* two values possible (0 or 1): 1 = output present, 2 = output not present)
Continuously operating
In addition to two end positions, these valves can have any number of intermediate
switching positions with varying throttle effect. Proportional and servo valves which
are discussed in the TP 700 training books are examples of this type of valve.
Digitally operating
These always have a fixed number (2, 3, 4, ...) of switching positions. In practice,
they are known simply as directional control valves. They are central to hydraulics
and form an important part of the subject matter of this book.
Directional control valves are classified as follows according to the number of ports:
2/2-way valve
3/2-way valve
4/2-way valve
5/2-way valve
4/3-way valve.
The diagram on the following page shows the symbols used for directional control
valves. For the sake of simplicity, the actuation methods have been omitted.
Many other designs are available for use in particular fields of application.
151

A
Normal position
"closed" (P, A)
P
2/2-WV
Normal position
"flow" (P A)
P
A
Normal position
"closed" (P, T A)
3/2-WV
Normal position
"flow" (P A, T)
4/2-WV
5/2-WV
Normal position
"flow" (P B, A T)
Normal position
"flow" (A R, P B, T)
4/3-WV
4/3-WV
4/3-WV
4/3-WV
4/3-WV
T
P
Mid position
"closed" (P, A, B, T)
Mid position "Pump

re-circulating" (P T, A, B)
"H" mid position

(P A B T)
Mid position "working lines

de-pressurised"
(P, A B T)
Mid position
"By-pass" (P A B, T)
152
10.1
2/2-way valve
The 2/2-way valve has a working port (A) and a pressure port (P) (see diagram). It
controls the delivery by closing or opening the passage. The valve shown here has
the following switching positions:
A
L
2/2 way valve, spool design
Normal position:
Actuated position:
P to A closed
Flow from P to A
2/2-way valve, poppet design
153
Symbols for poppet valves are often drawn to include the symbol for the valve seat.
This representation is not standard. This valve is also available with flow from P to
A in the rest position.
Symbol, poppet valve
T
P
T
Ts
Triggering a single acting cylinder (circuit diagram)
154
A P
T
P
T
Ts
Triggering a single acting cylinder (sectional diagram)
Other possible applications:

As a by-pass, e.g. rapid traverse feed circuit, pressurizes pump by-pass;
Switching on or off various flow or pressure valves;(pressure stage circuit)
Triggering a motor in a single direction.
155
Further application possibilities
156
10.2
3/2-way valve
The 3/2-way valve has a working port (A), a pressure port (P) and a tank connection
(T). It controls the flow rate via the following switching positions:
Normal position: P is closed and A to T is open;
Actuated position: Outlet T is closed, flow from P to A.
3/2-way valve can be normally open, i.e. there may be a flow from P to A.
3/2-way valve
T
Ts
Triggering a single acting cylinder
157
Triggering a single acting cylinder, sectional diagram
2 l/min
4 l/min
Heizer
Khler
In use as shunt
158
10.3
4/2-way valve
The 4/2-way valve has two working ports (A, B), a pressure port (P) and a tank
connection (T).
Normal position: flow from P to B and from A to T;
Actuated position: flow from P to A and from B to T.
4/2-way valve with three control pistons
T
Ts
Triggering a double acting cylinder circuit diagram
159
Triggering a double acting cylinder sectional diagram
4/2-way valves are also constructed with just two control pistons. These valves do
not require any drain ports. It should be borne in mind that tank connection T and
working ports A and B are routed via the end cap of the valve in this design.
For this reason, in data sheets about these valves, a smaller maximum pressure is
specified from the tank connection than for the pressure side because the pressure
at this port is effective at the cover cap.
4/2-way valve with two control pistons
The simplest type of design for 4/2-way valves is that of the spool valve. 4/2-way
valves of poppet design, on the other hand, are complicated as they are put together
from two 3/2-way or four 2/2-way valves.
160
Overlapping positions
Overlapping positions are an important consideration in the selection of valves. For

this reason, they are often indicated in detailed representations of the symbol. As no
actual switching positions are shown, the relevant box in the diagram is drawn with
thinner, broken lines.
Symbol: positive switching overlap
Symbol: negative switching overlap
Overlapping position 4/2-way valve
Possible applications of the 4/2-way valve:

Triggering of double-acting cylinders;
Triggering of motors with either clockwise or anti-clockwise rotation;
Triggering of two circuits.
A 5/2-way valve may also be used in place of the 4/2-way valve.
5/2-way valve
161
10.4
4/3-way valve
4/3-way valves constructed as spool valves are of simple construction, whilst those
constructed as poppet valves are complex in design. 4/3-way valves of poppet valve
design may be composed, for example, of four individual two-way valves.
Mid position pump by-pass
Mid position closed
H mid position
Mid position working lines de-pressurised
Mid position by-pass
4/3-way valves
The overlapping positions are specified for 4/3-way valves:
Overlap positions example
The 4/3-way valve shown here has positive overlap in the mid position. Left-hand
and right-hand overlap positions are a combination of positive and negative overlap.
162
The mid position is decided by the control problem. Multi-position valves are also
constructed as 5-way valves.
5/3-way valve
4/3-way valve with pump by-pass (re-circulating)
163
Only one control loop system can be driven by this valve.
T
Ts
Pump by-pass
Pump by-pass, sectional diagram
164
4/3-way valve, mid position closed
165
If a number of control circuits are to be powered, 4/3-way valves with mid position
closed can be used to trigger individual control circuits. When an operational system
is to be switched to pump by-pass, a 2/2-way valve is used.
Application examples
One of the main applications of 4/3-way valves consists in triggering double acting
cylinders and motors (stop, clockwise rotation, anticlockwise rotation).
166
11. Non-return valves
Non-return valves block the flow in one direction and permit free flow in the other.
As there must be no leaks in the closed direction, these valves are always of poppet
design and are constructed according to the following basic principle:
The sealing element (generally a ball or cone) is pressed against an appropriately
shaped seat. The valve is opened by volumetric flow in the flow direction, the sealing
element being lifted from the seat.
Non-return valves are distinguished as follows:
Non-return valves (unloaded, spring-loaded)
Lockable and unlockable non-return valves.
Non-return valve, unloaded
Non-return valve, spring-loaded
Lockable non-return valve,

opening of the valve is prevented by
a pilot air supply or hydraulic supply
A
B
De-lockable non-return valve,
closing of the valve is prevented by
a pilot air supply or hydraulic supply
A
Shuttle valve
B1
B2
De-lockable (piloted) double non-return valve
A1
A2
Non-return valves
167
11.1
Non-return valve
Symbol:
Pressure spring
Sealing cone
Flow blocked
p2
p1
Flow open
pF
ACone
Spring loaded non-return valve
If a pressure (p1) operates on the sealing cone, this is lifted from its seat releasing
the flow when the valve is not spring-loaded. Counter pressure p2 must be overcome
here. As the non-return valve shown here is spring-loaded, the spring force operates
on the sealing cone in addition to the counter pressure p2 and flow is produced
when:
T
P1 > p2 + pF
T
The following equation is valid for the pressure exercised by the spring:
pF =
168
Fspring
A cone
Festo Didactic GmbH & Co. TP501
Possible applications
The diagrams show possible applications of non-return valves.
T
Ts
Pump protection
169
T
Ts
Pump protection
When the electric motor is switched off, the load pressure cannot drive the pump
backwards. Pressure peaks which occur in the system do not affect the pump but are
diverted by the pressure relief valve.
170
Flow valve only effective

in one direction
By-passing contaminated filter

(opening pressure 0.5 3 bar)
By pass
flow regulator
By pass
PRV as brake valve
Suction retaining valve
for a press
Suction retaining valve for

a rotating mass
Graetz-rectifer circuit
Applications
171
11.2
Piloted non-return valve
In piloted non-return valves, flow can be released in the closed position by pilot
control of the valve poppet. This takes place according to the following principle:
Flow is possible from A to B, flow is blocked from B to A.
Flow blocked from B to A
Flow from A to B
Flow from B to A
If the hydraulic fluid is to flow from B to A, the valve poppet with the de-locking
piston must be lifted away from its seat. The de-locking piston is pressurised via
control port X.
172
For reliable de-locking of the valve, the effective surface on the pilot piston must
always be greater than the effective surface on the sealing element. The area ratio is
generally 5 : 1. Piloted non-return valves are also made with pre-discharge.
Method of operation
The method of operation of a piloted non-return valve in a hydraulic system is

explained below using circuit diagrams:
T
Ts
De-lockable non-return valve
The 3/2-way valve blocks the hydraulic flow in the normal position. Oil flow is
released at the 4/2-way valve on the piston rod side. The piston rod cannot retract
as the non-return valve is blocked. Once the 3/2-way valve is actuated, the pilot
piston is pressurised and the sealing element of the non-return valve opens. This
allows the hydraulic fluid to flow away from the piston side via the 4/2-way valve to
the reservoir.
When the 4/2-way valve is actuated, the hydraulic fluid flows via the non-return
valve to the cylinder the piston rod extends.
173
A piloted non-return valve which is raised only closes when the control oil can be
discharged from the pilot port to the reservoir. For this reason, using a piloted nonreturn valve calls for a special mid-position of the 4/3-way valve.
m
1000kg
T
P
T
Ts
Mid-position closed
174
The piloted non-return valve cannot close immediately as pressure can only escape
from the closed control port X via the leakage from the directional control valve.
m
1000kg
T
P
T
Ts
Mid-position Working lines

de-pressurised
Since in this mid-position ports A and B are connected to T, and P is closed, both
control port X and port B are exhausted at the non-return valve. This causes the nonreturn valve to close immediately.
11.3
Piloted double non-return
valve
With the piloted double non-return valve, a load can be reliably positioned above
the cylinder piston even where there is internal leakage. However, this reliable
positioning is only possible with supporting cylinders. Positioning by a piloted
double non-return valve is not possible in the case of hanging cylinders or cylinders
with through-rods.
The diagram below shows both the simplified and complete symbols for a piloted
double non-return valve and its assembly.
175
complete
simplified
(not standardised)
B1
B2
B1
B2
A1
A2
A2
A1
Piloted double non-return valve, symbol
B1
B2
A1
A2
T
P
T
Ts
Application example
176
Piloted double non-return valve, closed
Piloted double non-return valve, open
The piloted double non-return valve operates according to the following principle:
Free flow is possible either in the flow direction from A1 to B1 or from A2 to B2, flow is
blocked either from B1 to A1 or from B2 to A2.
If flow passes through the valve from A1 to B1, the control piston is shifted to the
right and the valve poppet is lifted from its seat. By these means, flow is opened
from B2 to A2 (the valve operates in a corresponding manner where there is flow from
A2 to B2).
T
177
178
12. Flow control valves
Flow control valves are used to reduce the speed of a cylinder or the r.p.m. of a
motor. Since both values are dependent on the flow rate, this must be reduced.
However, fixed displacement pumps supply a uniform flow rate. Reduction in the
rate of flow supplied to the drive element is achieved according to the following
principle:
A reduction in the flow cross-section in the flow control valve causes an increase in
pressure ahead of this. This pressure causes the pressure relief valve to open and,
consequently, results in a division of the flow rate. This division of the flow rate
causes the flow volume required for the r.p.m. or speed to flow to the power
component and the excess delivery to be discharged via the pressure relief valve.
This results in a considerable energy loss.
In order to save energy, adjustable pumps can be used. In this case, the increase in
pressure acts on the adjustable pump device.
On the basis of their controlling or regulating function, flow control valves are
classified as either:
flow control valves or
flow regulating valves.
Examples of flow control valves as restrictors and orifice valves:
Flow control valves
Control valves
Regulating valves
Restrictor type
Orifice type
dependent on load
independent of load
Qpartial = variable
Qpartial = constant
Restrictors and orifice valves
179
12.1
Restrictors and
orifice valves
Restrictors and orifice valves represent a flow resistance. This resistance is

dependent on the flow cross-section and its geometric form and on the viscosity of
the liquid. When hydraulic fluid is passed through the flow resistor, there is a fall in
pressure as a result of friction and of an increase in the flow velocity. The part of the
pressure drop caused by friction can be considerably reduced by changing the
orifice shape. In order to obtain the required resistance using an orifice, turbulence
must be achieved by increasing the flow velocity (smaller cross-section than that of
a corresponding restrictor). In this way, the resistance of the orifice is determined by
the turbulence and becomes independent of viscosity. For this reason, orifice valves
are used in cases where independence from temperature and, therefore, from
viscosity is required, e.g. in flow gauges.
Restrictor
Orifice
Restrictor and orifice
In many control systems, on the other hand, a specified high fall in pressure is a
requirement. In such cases, restrictors are used.
Restrictors and orifice valves control the flow rate together with a pressure relief
valve. The valve resistance causes pressure to build up ahead of these valves.
The pressure relief valve opens when the resistance of the restrictor is greater than
the set opening pressure at the pressure relief valve. As a result, the flow is divided.
Part of the pump delivery flows to the consuming device, the other part is
discharged under maximum pressure via the pressure relief valve (high power loss).
The partial flow passing through the throttling point is dependent on the pressure
difference p. The interrelationship between p and the flow Qconsuming device
corresponds to:
T
2
p ~ Q consu
min g device
180
The inlet pressure to the valve is kept at a constant level by the pressure relief valve.
The pressure difference p is changed by altering the load coming from the
consuming device. The result of this is that there is a change in the rate of flow to
the consuming device, i.e.:
The operation of restrictors is flow-dependent.
Consequently, they are not suitable for adjusting a constant flow rate in the case of a
changeable load.
100
Setting value,
pressure-relief valve
bar
90
Q proportion, pressure-relief valve
Q proportion, cylinder
80
2.5
7.5
l/min
10
Qmax.
At a pressure of 100 bar, the max. volumetric flow

exits via the pressure-relief valve
Opening point of the pressure-relief valve
Opening characteristic of the pressure-relief valve
Total resistance value set with restrictor
Division point
Characteristic
181
p2
(variable)
Q
Restrictor
p
variable
Flow division point
Qconsuming device
QPRV
p1
(constant)
P
Q
P
T
Ts
Restrictor Flow division
Adjustable restrictors
182
The requirements for adjustable restrictors are as follows:

build-up of a resistance;
constant resistance in the face of changing hydraulic fluid temperatures, i. e.
independent of viscosity;
sensitive adjustment the sensitivity of adjustment of a restrictor is dependent
amongst other things, on the ratio of the orifice cross-sectional area to the
control surface area;
economical design.
The various designs of adjustable restrictor fulfil these requirements with varying
degrees of success:
Type
Needle
restrictor
Resistance
Dependence
on viscosity
Ease of adjustment
Design
Increase in
Considerable
Excessive cross-
velocity, high
owing to high
friction
sectional enlargement
Economical,
simple design
friction owing to
long throttling
path
Circum-
As above
ferential
restrictor
with a short
adjustment travel,
unfavourable ratio
area to control surface
As above, but
Steadier cross-
Economical,
lower than for
sectional
simple design,
the needle
restrictor
enlargement, even
more
ratio area to control
complicated
surface, total
than the needle

restrictor
adjustment travel only

90.
Longitudinal
As above
As above
restrictor
As above, however
As for
sensitive adjustment
circumferential
restrictor
owing to long
adjustment travel
Gap restrictor
Gap restrictor
with helix
Main part:
Low
Unfavourable, even
increase in
cross-sectional
velocity, low
enlargement,
friction, short
throttling path
adjustment travel of
180
Increase in
Independent
Sensitive, even cross-
velocity,
sectional enlarge-
maximum
friction
ment, adjustment
travel of 360
Economical
Expensive to
produce helix
Adjustable restrictors
183
12.2
One-way flow control valve
The one-way flow control valve where the restrictor is only effective in one direction
is a combination of a restrictor and a non-return valve. The restrictor controls the
flow rate in a single direction dependent on flow. In the opposite direction, the full
cross-sectional flow is released and the return flow is at full pump delivery. This
enables the one-way flow control valve to operate as follows:
The hydraulic flow is throttled in the flow direction from A to B. This results in flow
division as with the restrictor. Flow to the power component is reduced, the speed
being reduced correspondingly.
Flow is not restricted in the opposite direction (B to A) as the sealing cone of the
non-return valve is lifted from its valve seat and the full cross-sectional flow is
released.
With adjustable one-way flow control valves, the throttling point can either be
enlarged or reduced.
One-way flow control valve
184
12.3
Two-way flow control valve
As has already been described in the section on restrictors, there is an

interrelationship between pressure drop p and volumetric flow Q:
p ~ Q2.
If, in the case of a changing load, an even flow rate to the consuming device is
required, the pressure drop p via the throttle point must be kept constant.
Therefore, a restrictor (2) (adjustable restrictor) and a second restrictor (1)
(regulating restrictor or pressure balance) are built-in for the desired flow rate.
These restrictors change their resistance according to the pressures present at the
input and output of the valve. The total resistance of the two restrictors combined
with the pressure relief valve causes the flow division.
The regulating restrictor (1) can be installed either ahead of or behind the adjustable
restrictor.
The valve is open in the normal position. When flow passes through the valve, input
pressure p1 is produced ahead of the adjustable restrictor. A pressure drop p is
produced at the adjustable restrictor, i.e. p2 < p1. A spring must be installed on the
side F2 so that the regulating restrictor retains its equilibrium. This spring causes the
constant pressure difference across the adjustable throttle. If a load passes from the
consuming device to the valve output, the regulating restrictor reduces the
resistance by the amount by which the load has increased.
T
185
During idling, the spring helps to keep the regulating restrictor in equilibrium and
the valve provides a certain resistance which is adjusted in line with the desired flow
rate using the adjustable restrictor.
If the pressure at the output of the valve increases, the pressure p3 also increases.
As a result, the pressure difference is modified via the adjustable restrictor. At the
same time, p2 operates on the piston surface AP2. The force which arises combines
with the spring force to act on the regulating restrictor. The regulating restrictor
remains open until there is once more a state of equilibrium between the forces F1
and F2 and, therefore, the pressure drop at the adjustable restrictor regains its
original value. As with the restrictor, the residual flow not required at the 2-way flow
control valve is discharged via the pressure relief valve to the tank.
T
p1
Q
Pressure balance
p konstant
Pressure balance
Adjusting restrictor
Adjusting
restrictor
p2
T
Ts
If the pressure p3 at the output of the valve falls, the pressure difference p
increases. As a result, the pressure acting on the piston surface AP2 is also reduced
with the consequence that the force F1 becomes greater than F2. The regulating
restrictor now recloses until an equilibrium is established between F1 and F2.
T
186
The same regulating function operates with fluctuating input pressures. With
changed input conditions, p via the adjustable restrictor and, thus, also the
delivery to the consuming device remain constant.
Tasks of the
regulating restrictor
As previously discussed, the function of the regulating restrictor is to balance out

changes in load at the input or output through modification of its flow resistance,
and, by these means, to maintain a constant pressure difference via the adjustable
restrictor. For this reason, there must be an equilibrium of forces at the regulating
piston so that it can adjust to changing loads; i.e. F1 = F2.
F1 is produced from the area AP1 and the pressure p1. F2 results from the area AP2,
which is equal to AP1 and the pressure p2. Since the pressure p2 is reduced by the
resistance of the adjustable restrictor, a spring must be installed for the purposes of
balance.
T
F1 = F2
AK1 = AK2
T
F1 = AK1 p1
F2 = AK2 p2 + FF
T
AK1 p1 = AK1 p2 + FF
AK1 (p1 - p2) = FF
T
(p1 - p2) =
T
FF
A K1
This means: The constant spring force FF divided by the piston area AP1 equals the
pressure difference p. This difference across the adjustable restrictor is always
kept constant as shown by the following examples.
T
Note
In practice, adjustable restrictors are generally designed in the form of adjustable

orifices so that the flow control valve remains to a large degree unaffected by
viscosity.
187
p3 = 5 bar
QCD =
3 l/min
p = 139 bar
p = 4 bar
p2 = 144 bar
p1 = 148 bar
QPRV = 7 l/min
P
p = 150 bar
p = 150 bar
T
Qp = 10 l/min
2-way flow control valve, loading of the consuming device (idling)
188
p3 = 40 bar
p = 104 bar
p = 4 bar
QCD =
3 l/min
p2 = 144 bar
p1 = 148 bar
QPRV = 7 l/min
P
p = 150 bar
p = 150 bar
T
Qp = 10 l/min
2-way flow control valve, loading of the consuming device (under load)
189
F
p3 = 30 bar
QCD =
3 l/min
P
p = 74 bar
T
p = 4 bar
p2 = 104 bar
A
p1 = 108 bar
B
T
P
P
T
Q = 7 l/min
QPRV = 0 l/min
P
p = 110 bar
p = 150 bar
T
Qp = 10 l/min
In connection with other consuming devices
190
There is both a detailed and a simplified symbol for the 2-way flow control valve.
Ts
Ts
191
2-way flow control valves may be used either in the inlet and/or outlet and for bypass flow control.
Disadvantage of by-pass flow control: The uneven pump delivery caused by
fluctuations in speed has an effect on the flow quantity to be regulated.
2-way flow control valves provide a constant flow rate in the face of changing loads
meaning that they are suitable for the following application examples:
Workpiece slides which operate at a constant feed speed with varying working
loads;
Lifting gear where the lowering speeds need to be carefully restricted.
Note
192
The flow control valve is opened when the system is at a standstill. Once the system
has been switched on, there is a higher flow rate until the pressure balance has been
set to the desired position; this procedure is referred to as the initial jump. There are
several ways to reduce the initial jump.
A by-pass valve opens before the main valve opens.
Or the measuring restrictor is closed by a spring in unpressurised status.
13. Hydraulic cylinders
The hydraulic cylinder converts hydraulic energy into mechanical energy. It

generates linear movements. For this reason, it is also referred to as a linear
motor.
There are two basic types of hydraulic cylinder
single-acting and
double-acting cylinders.
Sectional views of these two basic types are shown in the diagrams below.
1
2
3
4
5 Piston rod bearing

6 Piston rod seal
7 Wiper
Mounting screw
Vent screw
Piston rod
Cylinder barrel
5
1
2
3
4
5
Piston
Piston rod
Piston rod bearing
Annular piston surface
Piston surface
193
13.1
Single-acting cylinder
In single-acting cylinders, only the piston side is supplied with hydraulic fluid.
Consequently, the cylinder is only able to carry out work in one direction. These
cylinders operate according to the following principle:
The hydraulic fluid flows into the piston area. Owing to the counter force
(weight/load), pressure builds up at the piston. Once this counter force has been
overcome, the piston travels into the forward end position.
During the return stroke, the piston area is connected to the reservoir via the line
and the directional control valve whilst the pressure line is closed off by the
directional control valve. The return stroke is effected either by intrinsic load, by a
spring or by the weight load. In the process, these forces (load forces) overcome the
frictional forces in the cylinder and in the lines and valves and displace the hydraulic
fluid into the return line.
Ts
Ts
Single acting cylinder hydraulic ram
194
Possible applications
Single-acting cylinders are used wherever hydraulic power is required for only one
direction of motion.
Examples
For lifting, clamping and lowering workpieces, in hydraulic lifts, scissor lifting tables
and lifting platforms.
Designation
Description
Hydraulic ram
piston and rod form

one unit
Telescopic cylinder
longer strokes
Single-acting cylinders can be mounted as follows:

vertical mounting: when the return movement of the piston is brought about by
external forces (special instance: scissor lifting table);
horizontal mounting: for single-acting cylinders with spring-return.
In large hydraulic presses, the return stroke is brought about by pullback cylinders.
Scissor lifting table
195
13.2
In the case of double-acting cylinders, both piston surfaces can be pressurized.

Therefore, it is possible to perform a working movement in both directions. These
cylinders operate according to the following principle:
The hydraulic fluid flows into the piston area and pressurises the piston surface.
Internal and external resistances cause the pressure to rise. As laid down in the law
F = p A, a force F is produced from the pressure p and the piston surface area A.
Consequently, the resistances can be overcome and the piston rod extends. This is
possible owing to the conversion of hydraulic energy into mechanical energy which
is made available to a consuming device.
It should be borne in mind that when the piston extends the oil on the piston rod
side must be displaced via the lines into the reservoir. During the return stroke, the
hydraulic fluid flows into the (annular) piston rod area. The piston retracts and the
oil quantity is displaced from the piston area by the piston.
196
Ts
Ts
In double acting cylinders with a single-sided piston rod, different forces (F= p A)
and speeds are produced for the same flow rate on extension and retraction owing
to the differing surfaces (piston surface and annular piston surface).
The return speed is higher since, although the flow rate is identical, the effective
surface is smaller than for the advance stroke. The following equation of continuity
applies:
v=
Q
A
197
The following designs of double-acting cylinders exist fulfilling varying

requirements:
Designation
Description
Differential
cylinder
Area ratio 2:1

(piston surface:
annular piston surface)
piston return stroke twice
as fast as advance stroke.
Symbol
2 : 1
Synchronous
cylinder
Pressurised area of
equal size.
Advance and return
speeds identical.
A1 = A2
Cylinder with
end-position
cushioning
To moderate the speed

in the case of large
masses and prevent a
hard impact.
Telescopic
cylinder
Longer strokes
Pressure
intensifier
Increases pressure
Tandem
cylinder
When large forces are

required and only small
cylinder dimensions are
possible.
Cylinder types
198
The movements generated by hydraulic cylinders are used for:

Machine tools
Feed movements for tools and workpieces
Clamping devices
Cutting movements on planing machines; shock-testing machines and
broaching machines
Movements on presses
Movements on printing and injection moulding machines, etc.
Handling devices and hoists
Tilting, lifting and swivel movements on tippers, fork-lift trucks, etc.
Mobile equipment
Excavators
Power loaders
Tractors
Fork-lift trucks
Tipper vehicles
Aircraft
Lifting, tilting and turning movements on landing gear, wing flaps, etc.
Ships
Rudder movements, adjustment of propellers
13.3
End position cushioning
Cylinders with end position cushioning are used to brake high stroke speeds. They
prevent a hard impact at the end of the stroke.
Cushioning is not required for speeds of v < 6 m/min. At speeds of v 6-20 m/min,
cushioning is achieved by means of restrictors or brake valves. At speeds of
v > 20 m/min, special cushioning or braking procedures are required.
When the piston returns to the retracted end position, the normal discharge of the
hydraulic fluid from the piston area is interrupted by the cushioning piston and flow
is reduced from a certain point until it is finally closed. The hydraulic fluid in the
piston area must then flow away via a restrictor (see diagram).
In this way, the piston speed is reduced and there is no danger of malfunctions
resulting from high speeds. When the cylinder extends, the oil flows unhindered via
the non-return valve, the throttle point being by-passed. To achieve end position
cushioning, the pressure relief valve (flow division) must be used.
199
Flow control screw
Cushioning
Non-return
valve
T
Ts
T
Ts
Double-acting cylinder with end position cushioning
In addition to this simple type of end position cushioning, there is also double
cushioning for forward and retracted end positions. With this type of cushioning, a
hard impact is avoided both on advancing and on retracting.
13.4
Seals
The function of seals is to prevent leakage losses in hydraulic components. Since

pressure losses also occur as a result of leakage losses, seals are of considerable
importance for the efficiency of a hydraulic system.
In general, static seals are inserted between stationary parts and dynamic seals
between movable parts.
Static seals:
O-rings for the cylinder housing
Flat seals for the oil reservoir cover
Dynamic seals:
Piston and piston rod seals
Rotary shaft seals on turning devices
200
The recommended maximum piston speed is approx. 0.2 m/s. and is dependent on
the operating conditions as well as the sealing material and type of seal. Where
extremely low speeds and/or a minimal break-away force are required, special
sealing materials, systems and modified cylinder surfaces must be used.
The seals pictured opposite are used on cylinders according to requirements
(pressure, temperature, velocity, diameter, oil, water):
Cylinder seals
201
13.5
Types of mounting
Cylinders are mounted in various ways according to usage. Some types of mounting
are shown in the diagram.
Foot mounting
Flange mounting
Swivel design
Swivel mounting with trunnion
Types of mounting
13.6
Venting
A hydraulic cylinder must be vented to achieve jolt-free travel of a cylinder piston,

i.e. the air carried along in the lines must be removed. As trapped air always gathers
at the highest point of a system of lines, a vent screw or automatic venting valve
must be positioned at this point.
Hydraulic cylinders are supplied with vent screws at both end positions. These ports
can also be used for connecting pressure gauges.
202
13.7
Characteristics
The cylinder is selected to suit the load F. The required pressure p is selected in
accordance with the application.
F=pA
This can be used for calculating the piston diameter. The hydraulic, mechanical
efficiency hm must be considered here. This efficiency is dependent on the
roughness of the cylinder barrel, the piston rod and the type of sealing system. The
efficiency improves with increases in pressure. It lies between 0.85 and 0.95. Thus,
the piston diameter is derived from:
T
F = p A hm
A=
d2
F
=
4
p hm
d=
4F
p hm
The volumetric efficiency v takes into consideration the leakage losses at the piston
seal. Where the seal is intact, v = 1.0 and is not, therefore, taken into
consideration.
T
Cylinder diameter, piston rod diameter and nominal pressures are standardised in
DIN 24334 and DIN ISO 3320/3322. In addition, a preferred ratio = piston area AP
to annular piston area APR is laid down.
T
Internal diameter of the cylinder
100
12
16
20
25
125
160
200
220
250
32
280
40
320
360
50
63
80
400
Piston rod diameter

8
10
10
0
11
0
12
14
16
18
20
22
25
28
32
36
11
2
14
0
16
0
18
0
20
0
22
0
25
0
28
0
32
0
36
0
40
45
50
63
70
80
90
Nominal pressures
25
U
40
63
U
100
160
U
200
250
U
315
400
U
500
630
U
The values which are underlined are recommended values. The recommended range
of piston strokes is laid down in DIN ISO 4393 and for piston rod threads in DIN ISO
4395.
203
In the table below, the area AP appropriate to the cylinder diameter dP and the
annular piston area APR (not the piston rod area AST) for the piston rod diameter dST
are assigned to the area ratio .
T
AK
A KR
A KR = A P A ST
Table for the area ratio

Nominal
value
dP
25
32
40
50
60
63
80
100
125
4.91
8.04
12.60
19.60
28.30
31.20
50.30
78.50
123
12
14
18
22
25
28
36
45
56
3.78
6.50
10.00
15.80
23.40
25.00
40.10
62.20
98.10
Actual value
1.30
1.24
1.25
1.24
1.21
1.25
1.25
1.26
1.25
dST
14
18
22
28
32
36
45
56
70
3.37
5.50
8.77
13.50
20.20
21
34.40
54
84.20
Actual value
1.46
1.46
1.44
1.45
1.39
1.49
1.46
1.45
1.46
dST
16
20
25
32
36
40
50
63
80
2.90
4.90
7.66
11.60
18.20
18.60
30.60
47.70
72.40
Actual value
1.69
1.64
1.64
1.69
1.55
1.68
1.64
1.66
1.69
dST
18
22
28
36
40
45
56
70
90
2.36
4.24
6.41
9.46
15.70
15.30
25.60
40.00
59.10
Actual value
2.08
1.90
1.96
2.08
1.80
2.04
1.96
1.96
2.08
dST
20
25
32
40
45
50
63
80
100
1.77
3.13
4.52
7.07
12.30
11.50
19.10
28.40
44.20
Actual value
2.78
2.57
2.78
2.78
2.30
2.70
2.64
2.78
2.78
dST
45
55
56
70
90
110
3.73
4.54
6.54
11.80
14.90
27.70
5.26
6.20
4.77
4.27
5.26
4.43
APcm
T
1.25
dST
T
APRcm
1.4
APRcm
1.6
APRcm
2
T
APRcm
T
2.5
2
T
APRcm
T
APRcm
T
Actual value
This table gives the area ratios up to a piston diameter of 125 mm. The complete
table is included in DIN 3320.
204
13.8
Buckling resistance
Buckling resistance as defined by Euler must be taken into consideration when

deciding on piston rod diameter and stroke length. Manufacturers tables are
available for this. When installing the cylinder, it is necessary to insure that no
distortions are possible. In addition, the direction of force must be effective in the
axial direction of the cylinder.
The permissible buckling force Fperm for a pressurised load is calculated as follows:
T
2 E l
Fperm. =
lK
= Elasticity module
daN
6
cm2 (for steel = 2.1 10 )
= Area moment
[cm4]
LK
(for =
d4
= 0.0491 d4)
64
T
= Free bucking length [cm]

= Safety factor 2.5 - 3.5
The free bucking length IP is dependent on the load in question:
1st method
2nd method
(Basic case)
3rd method
4th method
One end free, one

end firmly clamped
Two ends with

flexible guide
One end with flexible

guide, one end firmly
clamped
Two ends firmly

clamped
l
lK = 2l
lK = l
lK = l *
lK =
Alternative clamping methods as defined by Euler
205
Cylinders are designed for tensile and pressure forces only. Shearing forces must be
absorbed by guides.
Note:
The type of mounting and installation determines the Euler method on which it
should be based.
on method 1
on method 2
on method 4
on method 3
Example for determining length l
The following apply in principle:

The length I is calculated from the attachment area of the flange or other fixed
bearing method (pivot pin, etc.). If the flange or pivot pin is at the cylinder head, for
example, the length I is calculated from this point.
Mounting methods three and four should be avoided wherever possible. Distortion
may occur where the load guide is imprecise in these areas.
206
13.9
Selecting a cylinder
Example
Lifting device
A differential cylinder with the area ratio of 2:1 is to lift 40 kN 500 mm in 5 secs.
The maximum system pressure for the pump is to be 160 bar.
Calculate the piston diameter dP and find the piston rod diameter dST in the area ratio
table. On the basis of the piston rod diameter dST, find the maximum possible stroke
length from the buckling resistance diagram (next page). In addition, calculate the
advance and return speeds for the piston and the pump delivery.
The mechanical, hydraulic efficiency of the cylinder amounts to mh = 0.95. Pipe loss
amounts to 5 bar, pressure drop in the directional control valve 3 bar and back
pressure from the return movement 6 bar.
T
2:1
500 mm
P
Ts
Lifting device
207
Buckling resistance diagram
208
The safety factor is already included in the buckling resistance diagram.

Calculate the required piston diameter dP.
T
Available system pressure:

minus line loss:
pressure loss in the directional control valve:
pressure from the return movement: when = 2:1 =
160 bar
5 bar
3 bar
6 bar
2
3 bar
Thus, the following pressure force remains at the cylinder

160-11 = 149 bar = 1490 N/cm2
T
F = p A P hm
AP =
F
40 000 N cm2
=
= 28.3 cm3
p hm 1490 0.95 N
AP =
dP2
4
dP =
4 AP
4 28.3 cm2
=
= 36 cm2 = 6.0 cm = 60 mm
Chosen piston diameter dP = 63 mm.

T
The piston rod diameter dST = 45 mm is read from the table for the area ratio = 2:1.
A maximum stroke length of 1440 mm is read from the buckling resistance diagram
for 40 kN and a piston rod diameter dST = 45 mm. If an area ratio of 2:1 is not
required for the job, a smaller dST can be selected.
T
Calculating the advance stroke speed v:

t = 5 sec
Stroke = 500 mm
v=
s 0.5 m
=
= 0.1 m/ s = 6 m/ min
t
5s
209
Required pump delivery QP:

T
AK = 31.2 cm2 = 0.312 dm2

V = 6 m/min = 60 dm/min
T
Qp = AK v =
0.312 dm2 60 dm
= 18.7 dm3 / min = 18.7 l / min
min
Calculating the return speed vR:

T
Q = A PR v
v=
Q
A PR
APR is read from the table for the area ratio = 2:1 where dST = 45 mm:
T
A PR = 15.3 cm2 = 0.153 dm2

v=
18.7 dm3
= 122 dm/ min = 12.2 m/ min
0.153 dm2 min
When selecting a cylinder, it should be borne in mind that end position cushioning is
necessary for a piston speed of 6 m/min upwards.
Conditional on the area ratio = 2:1, the return speed of the piston is twice that of
the advance stroke. This also means that the outlet flow of the cylinder is twice that
of the advance stroke. For this reason, you are advised to calculate the speed of the
return flow before a system is sized and, where necessary, to select a larger crosssection for the return line. The control valve should also be suitable for the
increased return flow, if not, then an additional valve must be installed for the
exhaust.
210
14. Hydraulic motors
Hydraulic motors are components in the working section. They are drive components
(actuators). They convert hydraulic energy into mechanical energy and generate
rotary movements (rotary actuator). If the rotary movement only covers a certain
angular range, the actuator is referred to as a swivel drive.
Hydraulic motors have the same characteristic values as pumps. However, in the
case of hydraulic values we speak of capacity rather than displacement volume.
Capacity is specified by the manufacturer in cm3 per revolution along with the speed
range at which the motor is able to function economically. The following equation
can be used to find the capacity of a hydraulic motor:
M
V
Q=nV
p=
p
M
V
Q
N
= pressure
= torque
= geometric displacement capacity
= flow rate
= speed
(Pa)
(Nm)
(cm3)
(l/min)
(r.p.m.)
T
The flow rate required by the motor is calculated from the capacity and the desired
speed.
Example
A motor with a capacity of V = 10 cm is to operate

at a speed of n = 600 revolutions per minute.
What flow rate (Q) is required by the motor?
T
Q=
10 cm3 600
= 6000 cm3/min = 6 dm3/min = 6 l/min
min
T
Therefore, the pump must supply 6 l/min for the motor to turn at 600 revolutions
per minute.
The mechanical power rating of a hydraulic motor is calculated as follows:
= angle velocity in rad/s
= 2 n
211
Example
A hydraulic motor with a capacity of V = 12.9 cm3 is driven with a pump delivery of
Q = 15 l/min. At the resultant speed, the turning torque M = 1 Nm. What is this
speed (n) and what is the power rating (P)?
Calculate the torque which arises when the motor brakes suddenly causing a
pressure of 140 bar (140 105 Pa) to be generated.
T
Technical Data:
Q = 15 dm3/min
M = 1 Nm
V = 12.9 cm3
T
Calculation of the r.p.m. n:

Q = n V
Q
15 dm3
15 10 3 m3
15 10 3
m3
=
=
=
= 1163 r.p.m.
3
6
3
6
3
V 12.9 cm min 12.9 10 m min 12.9 10 m min
n=
Calculation of the power rating p in Watts:

pmax = 140 105 Pa
T
P = 2 n M = 2 p 1163 r.p.m. 1 Nm =
2 1163 1 Nm
= 122 W
60
s
Calculation of the torque at the maximum input pressure:

p=
M
V
M = p V = 140 105 Pa 12.9 10 6 m3 = 140 105 12.9 10 6
N m3
m2
M = 1806 10 1 Nm = 180.6 Nm
The mechanical-hydraulic and volumetric efficiency were not taken into account for
the purposes of these calculations.
212
Hydraulic motors are generally designed in the same way as hydraulic pumps. They
are divided up into:
Constant motors
fixed displacement
Adjustable motors
adjustable displacement
Both of these basic types includes several different designs.
Hydraulic motor
Geared motor
Vane motor
Piston motor
Externally geared motor
Internally pressurised
Radial piston motor
Internally geared motor
Externally pressurised
Axial piston motor
Annular gear motor
Constant motor
Constant, adjustable motors
Hydraulic motor
213
214
15. Accessories
In addition to the hydraulic components described in the previous chapters

directional control valves, pressure valves, hydraulic cylinders, etc. the following
accessories are of importance for the functioning of a hydraulic system:
flexible hoses
quick-release couplings
pipes
screw fittings
sub-bases
air bleed valves
pressure gauges and
flow gauges
These accessories are mainly used for transporting hydraulic energy (hoses, pipes,
etc.), connecting and mounting components (screw fittings, sub-bases) and for
implementing checking functions (gauges).
The components of a hydraulic system are connected together by means of
hoses or pipes.
Flow cross-sections of hoses and pipes affect the pressure loss within the lines.
To a large extent, they determine the efficiency of a system. To ensure that the
pressure losses in the pipelines, elbows and bends and elbow connectors do not
become too great and, at the same time, that the line dimensions are kept within
certain limits, the system should be designed so that the following flow speeds are
not exceeded:
Pressure lines: up to 50 bar operating pressure:
up to 100 bar operating pressure:
Suction lines: 1.5 m/s
Return lines: 2.0 m/s
4.0 m/s
4.5 m/s
5.0 m/s
5.5 m/s
6.0 m/s
215
15. Accessories
The required flow cross-section is calculated on the basis of this data with the
following formula:
A=
Q
v
Q = flow rate
V = flow velocity
This equation can be used to determine the required size (diameter) of pipelines
when sizing a hydraulic system.
Calculations to determine the nominal size of lines:
A=
Q
v
and
A=
d2
4
d = diameter
This results in the following equations for the nominal bore:
d2 Q
=
4
v
4 Q
2
d =
v
4 Q
d=
v
Example
Technical Data:
d=
216
Q = 4.2 dm3/min = 4.2 l/min

Pressure line to 50 bar
v = 4 m/s
T
4 4.2 dm3 / min

4 4.2 10 3 m3 / s
=
= 0.022 10 3 m2 = 22 mm2 = 4.7 mm

4 m/ s
4 60
m/ s
15. Accessories
15.1
Flexible hoses
These are flexible line connections which are used between mobile hydraulic devices
or in places where there is only limited space (particularly in mobile hydraulics).
They are used in cases where it is not possible to assemble pipelines (e. g. on
moving parts). Hoses are also used to suppress noise and vibration. They are made
up of a number of layers:
Structure of the hydraulic hose
The inner tube (1) is made of synthetic rubber, teflon, polyester-elastomer,

perbunan or neoprene. The pressure carrier is a woven intermediate layer of steel
wire and/or polyester or rayon.
This woven section (2) may consist of one or more layers depending on the pressure
range.
The top layer (3) is made of wear-resistant rubber, polyester, polyurethane
elastomer or other materials. The pipelines may be additionally protected against
mechanical damage by external spirals or plaited material.
Selecting flexible hoses
When deciding on flexible hoses, it is necessary to take into consideration their

function and certain other factors.
In addition to power transmission by fluids, the hoses are subjected to chemical,
thermal and mechanical influences. In particular, it is important to specify the
operating pressure, both dynamic and static.
Pressures arising suddenly as a result of the fast switching of valves may be several
times that of the calculated pressures.
As far as technical data such as nominal size, load, chemical and thermal resistance,
etc. is concerned, only the manufacturers specifications are definitive.
The recommendations regarding nominal size and pressure contained in DIN 20021,
20022 and 20023 should be observed. Testing instructions for flexible hoses are laid
down in DIN 20024.
217
15. Accessories
Definitions of terms
Maximum permissible operating pressure

is specified by the manufacturer as far as static, and generally also dynamic,
pressure is concerned. Static operating pressure is specified with a fourfold
safety factor, i.e. operating pressure is 1/4 of bursting pressure.
Bursting pressure
This should be regarded purely as a test value. The hose will not burst or leak
below this pressure.
Test pressure
Hoses are pressurised to double the operating pressure for at least 30 secs and
at most 60 secs.
Change in length
Every hose changes in length to a certain extent at operating pressure, the extent
of the change being dependent on the design of the woven intermediate layer.
This change may not amount to more than +2% or less than -4%.
Bending radius
The specified minimum bending radius is intended for a stationary hose at
maximum operating pressure. For reasons of safety, it is important not to fall
below this minimum value.
Operating temperature
The specified temperatures refer to the oil passing through the system. High
temperatures considerably reduce the service life of the hose.
The most important thing to ensure when installing flexible hoses is that the correct
length of hose is used. It must be possible to move the parts without the lines being
put under tension. In addition, the bending radii must be sufficiently large.
The following diagram shows some basic rules on the assembly of hoses.
incorrect
incorrect
incorrect
correct
correct
correct
Installation of hose lines
218
15. Accessories
Hoses are often used as connection components in mobile hydraulics and in many
stationary systems. Therefore, it is necessary that the pressure drop p arising in
the hoses is taken into consideration when sizing these systems.
p in bar/m without connection fittings ( = 850 kg/m ; = 20 mm /s)

T
NG
10
12
16
20
24
32
40
20
30
da
10
(mm)
(l/min)
50
70
100
125
150
175
200
14
0.33
1.13
2.16
18
0.14
0.46
0.88
16
0.10
0.31
0.59
1.41
1.2
20
0.045
0.12
0.23
0.55
0.97
0.82
1.2
19
0.045
0.12
0.23
0.55
0.97
0.82
1.2
22
0.02
0.04
0.08
0.19
0.37
0.65
0.96
0.68
0.87
1.1
20
0.02
0.04
0.08
0.19
0.37
0.65
0.96
0.68
0.87
1.1
26
0.008
0.02
0.03
0.075
0.15
0.27
0.39
0.57
0.73
0.92
0.01
0.041
0.07
0.14
0.2
0.27
0.35
0.43
30
0.021
0.04
0.073
0.1
0.15
0.186
0.23
30
0.012
0.02
0.041
0.06
0.007
0.106
0.136
34
0.013
0.025
0.035
0.05
0.06
0.083
36
0.009
0.016
0.023
0.032
0.04
0.051
38.1
0.01
0.015
0.02
0.025
0.033
46
0.004
0.006
0.008
0.011
0.014
50.8
0.003
0.004
0.005
0.007
0.009
0.003
0.004
(l/min)
26
60.3
Flow resistance p of hose lines (Prof. Charchut)
219
15. Accessories
Hose lines may either be connected to the various pieces of equipment or else
connected together by means of screw fittings or quick connection couplings.
Hose support connectors ensure that connections do not affect operation:
Hose connector
DIN 24950 makes a distinction between the following mounting methods for the
hose side of the support connector:
Screwed hose support connector
The support required by the hose is made by axial screwing together of
individual parts. This hose fitting can generally be assembled without special
tools and is re-usable.
Swaged hose support connector
The support required by the hose is achieved by distorting at least one connector
support cone part. This hose fitting can only be assembled using special tools
and is not re-usable.
Sleeve support
The support required by the hose is created using externally clamped sleeves or
segments. This hose support is re-usable and can be assembled with or without
special tools depending on type.
Hose binding (hose clamp)
The support required by the hose is achieved through bracing, e.g. using hose
clamps as specified in DIN 3017 or tube straps as specified in DIN 32620. This
hose support can be assembled either with or without special tools, depending
on the design, and is in part re-usable but is not, however, suitable for high
pressures.
Push-in hose support
Usually made up of a nipple. The support required by the hose is generally
achieved through the appropriate forming of the nipple. This hose support
connector can be assembled without special tools and is re-usable. However, it is
not suitable for high pressures.
220
15. Accessories
DIN 24950 distinguishes between the following connections for the connection side
of the hose armature:
Screw connection
provided with thread
Pipe connection
provided with pipe, for compression fittings
Flange connection
provided with flange
Ring connection
provided with ring
Coupling connection
provided with a symmetrical or asymmetrical coupling half
Union connection
provided with union
Connector nut
Pipe end
External thread
Nipple for SAE flange
Hose support connection on connection side
221
15. Accessories
As shown in the diagram on page 264, the following components also form part of a
hose support connector:
Connector nut
Sleeve
The part of a hose support which encircles the hose. Distinction is made between
screwed fixtures, swaged fixtures, clamping fixtures and hose clamps.
Nipple insert (sleeve, tube support elbow)
Component which is inserted into the hose forming the connection on the
connection side. Even in the case of barbed fittings, DIN 24950 makes a
distinction between a connecting part on the hose side and one on the
connection side:
On the hose side of the fitting: screw-in, swaged and barbed fittings.
On the connection side of the fitting: threaded, sealing end, screw-in, pipe,
collar, flanged and ring connections.
Nipple with sealing end connection
Diagram shows
a sealing cone
with O-ring
Nipple with threaded connection
Nipple with screw-in connection
Nipple with pipe connection
Nipple with collar connection
Nipple with flange connection
Nipple with ring connection
Hose support connectors nipples
222
15. Accessories
Quick-release couplings can be used for the fast connection and disconnection
of devices.
These couplings are available both with and without a mechanically unlock able
non-return valve. Where there is no pressure, connection is possible via the nonreturn valve without bleeding the hydraulic fluid.
Quick coupling socket (1)
Sealing cone (3)
Spring (5)
Coupling nipple (2)
Sealing seat (4)
Ring grip (6)
Quick-release coupling
15.2
Pipelines
Seamless precision steel tubes are used as pipelines as specified in DIN 2391. The
thickness of the walls of the pipelines is determined by the maximum pressure in the
pipeline and a safety factor for control impacts.
Before installation, pipes can be bent either when cold or by being heated up using
the appropriate bending devices. After being bent when hot, pipes should be
cleaned to remove the scale layer formed during this procedure, for example.
The following components are suitable for pipe to pipe and pipe to device
connection:
Screwed pipe joints: up to nominal bore 38 (depending on operating pressure)
Flanged connections: above nominal bore 30.
223
15. Accessories
DIN 3850 distinguishes between the following screwed pipe joints:

Solderless fittings
Compression fittings
Double conical ring screwed fittings
Soldered and welded screwed fittings
Brazed nipple type fittings
Ball-type screw fittings
Screwed pipe joint
Owing to ease of use, the compression fitting is the most commonly used type of
screwed fitting. When screwed together, a compression ring (olive) is pushed into
the internal cone of the connector by tightening the connector nut. The olive is
swaged into the pipe as it is pressed against a sealing stop.
Distinction is made in DIN 3850 between the following sealing and connection
components for the specified pipe joints:
Description
Defined in DIN
Compression ring
3816
Double conical ring
3862
Spherical-bush
3863
Flanged bushing
3864
Pressure ring
3867
Overview of sealing components
224
15. Accessories
Description
Connector nut
Defined in DIN
For sealing component
3870
Compression ring
B
C
Double conical ring

Soldered flanged bush
Welded flanged bush
Connector nut
Connector screw
A
C
3872
Olive with pressure ring
3871
Compression ring
Double conical ring
Spherical bush
Flanged bushing
Overview of connection components
In addition, the following stub-end fittings are used with screwed pipe joints:
straight connectors
angle, L-, T- and soldered connectors
bulkhead fittings, welded hexagon nipples and brazed hexagon nipples
The specified types of connector are available in a number of different designs which
are listed in DIN 3850. Specifications about nominal sizes and pressures for the
standardised screwed pipe joints can also be found in DIN 3850.
Flange connections are also used for larger pipes. The flange may either be screwed
or welded onto the pipe. The diagram shows two flange connections, one for the
pipe and one for the hose. B.S.F thread, metric fine thread and NPT (tapered thread)
are commonly used in hydraulics as connecting threads.
Flange connection
225
15. Accessories
15.3
Sub-bases
Direct connection of valves by means of pipes and hoses does not always fulfil
requirements for a compact, economical and safe system. For this reason, sub-bases
are commonly used in hydraulics for connecting equipment. This connection method
allows fast valve exchanges. In addition, it reduces the flow paths of the hydraulic
fluid.
Like the valves, these sub-bases have standardised connection holes defined in DIN
ISO 4401. The valves are screwed onto these bases and then mounted on front
panels or valve supports and connected to hydraulic pipes on the reverse side.
Front panel with tank and pump
226
15. Accessories
To save piping costs, manifold blocks are used for valves switched in parallel (block
hydraulics). Special control blocks of cast steel with the necessary connecting holes
incorporated are manufactured for controls with repeated cycles, e. g. press
controls, meaning that the valves simply need to be screwed on.
These special control blocks can be connected as required to form complex controls
(interlinking of blocks).
Vertical interlinking
Intermediate plate valves are connected together for vertical interlinking and
screwed onto a common sub-base. As a result, only a limited amount of tubing is
required.
A
B
P R X Y
Standardised circuit diagram and vertical linking
227
15. Accessories
Longitudinal interlinking
In systems with several control circuits, longitudinal plates are lined up separated by
baffle plates. Either individual valves or a vertical valve arrangement can be screwed
onto the baffle plate.
Cartridge technology
A further improvement with regard to the realisation of complete controls on a single

block with compact multiple assembly has produced cartridge technology. With this
method, the various control functions are realised by the individual activation of
2/2-way panel-mounted valves. The 2/2-way panel-mounted valves are
standardised in DIN 2432. Panel-mounted valves (control blocks) only become
economical from a nominal diameter of 16 mm upwards and with a larger numbers
of items.
15.4
Bleed valves
Bleed valves should be fitted at the highest point in a system of lines since this is
where the trapped air collects.
The diagram shows an automatic bleed valve. Figures 1 to 3 illustrate
the following phases:
Fig. 1
The cylinder has retracted, at the same time the piston of the bleed valve closes.
Fig. 2
When the piston rod extends, the piston of the bleed valve is lifted. The air is
able to escape via the vent hole until the hydraulic fluid reaches the piston and
pushes it upwards.
Fig. 3
With the cylinder extended, the piston of the bleed valve is pushed up as far as it
can go by the hydraulic fluid, sealing off the outlet and closing off the air escape
route. If the pressure falls, the spring releases the piston until the vent port is
reopened and the process is repeated.
228
15. Accessories
Automatic bleed valve
15.5
Pressure gauges
Bourdon tube gauge
The most commonly used pressure gauge operates on the principle of the Bourdon
tube. The curved Bourdon tube has a flat oval cross-section. When hydraulic fluid
flows into the tube, an identical pressure is produced throughout. Owing to the
difference in area between the outer curved surface and the inner curved surface, a
greater force is produced at the outer area bending the Bourdon tube upwards. This
movement is transferred to the pointer via the lever, rack segment and pinion. The
pressure can then be read off the scale.
This type of gauge is not protected against overpressure. A cushioning throttle must
be installed in the inlet connection to prevent the spring being damaged by pressure
surges. For pressures above 100 bar, a helicoid or screwshaped Bourdon tube is
used in place of the circular one. Pressures of up to 1000 bar can be measured.
These gauges are sensitive with respect to their position and may only be installed
in the position specified.
229
15. Accessories
Bourdon tube gauge
Diaphragm pressure gauge
In these gauges, the Bourdon tube is replaced by a pressure-resistant capsule of

corrugated metal or a pressure-resistant diaphragm clamped between two flanges.
When the inside of the capsule or diaphragm is pressurised, it is deflected. This
amount of the deflection determines the pressure being measured and is transferred
to the pointer via a mechanism. The pressure range is dependent on design and may
go up to 25 bar.
Piston pressure gauge
In the piston pressure gauge, the hydraulic fluid operates on a piston, the forces of
which work against a pressure spring. The pointer is directly connected to the piston
which displays the relevant pressure at the gauge. Piston pressure gauges are
protected against overloading.
15.6
Pressure sensors
More precise pressure measurements are possible with quartz pressure sensors
which exploit the piezo-electric effect. In these sensors, the pressure operates on a
diaphragm and, consequently, on the quartz crystal which emits an appropriate
voltage or current when under pressure. This electrical signal is electronically
amplified and displayed by an evaluating device in the form of a measurement of
pressure.
Other types of sensor operate with strain gauges which are arranged on a
diaphragm. Under pressure the diaphragm is deformed. The stretching of the gauge
resulting from this is converted into electrical signals. These signals are again
electronically amplified and displayed by a separate piece of equipment. In the case
of these sensors, the electronic section controlling this amplification is integrated
directly into the housing.
230
15. Accessories
Advantages of electronic pressure sensors: The pressure which is displayed can be

evaluated at remote points by connection cables or recorded by operation recorders.
Direct activation of pressure valves via the amplifier is also possible.
Volumetric flow gauges
If a single measurement is required in order to check the pump delivery or to set a

flow control valve, the simplest method of checking the volumetric flow rate is to use
a measuring container and a stop watch.
If the flow rate in a hydraulic system is to be continually monitored and displayed,
one of the devices on the following pages should be selected to suit requirements
for application and precision.
15.7
Flow measuring
instruments
The hydraulic flow to be measured passes through a measuring tube. A fixed cone is
located in the measuring tube, which can be acted upon by a piston. If the hydraulic
fluid flows through the gauge between the cone and the piston, the piston is
pressed against a spring according to the rate of flow. The piston serves as a mobile
orifice. A flow cross-section is produced corresponding to its position on the cone.
The piston moves until the set pressure difference which moves the piston against
the spring is in equilibrium. As the flow rate is dependent on the pressure difference
at the orifice, the displacement of the piston can be displayed as a measure of the
flow rate. The display error is in the range of 4%.
Flow meter (works diagram UCC)
Measuring turbines, oval disk meters, gear meters, orifice gauges and retarding
disks are used for more precise measurements for the regulation or control of
synchronous cylinders or motors and for positioning control.
231
15. Accessories
The rotor or turbine is set in rotation by the flow rate. The speed is evaluated as a
measurement of flow rate and displayed (diagram).
The gear meter is constructed like a gear motor. Each tooth is inductively sensed by
a measuring device. The speed is shown via a transducer in the form of a flow rate.
The oval disk meter operates by the same principle. Once again, the speed is
measured inductively. Since, as in the case of the gear meter, the chamber volume is
known, the flow rate can be calculated from the speed which is measured.
In the case of the orifice gauge, the p is measured, electronically converted and
displayed as a flow rate.
The baffle plate operational principle is as follows: the flow rate acts on a baffle
plate located in the flow pipe which executes a stroke in accordance with the value
of the flow rate. The stroke length is contactlessly sensed. The electrical output
signal is converted and displayed as a flow rate. Port for determining speed by
inductive means
Port for determining speed

by inductive means
Turbine meter
232
16. Appendix
Values
Symbol
SI unit
Dimension
Displacement
Metre
Force
Newtons
Time
Seconds
Velocity
Metre/Seconds
m/s
Pressure
Newtons/Square metres
N/m
1 m = 1000 mm
1N=1
m
m
= 60
s
min
N
= 1 Pa (Pascal)
m2
2
T
kg m
s2
1 Pa = 10-5 bar
1 bar = 105 Pa = 10
Density
Kilogram/Cubic metres
kg/m
Area
Square metres
Volume
Cubic metres
1000
N
cm2
kg
kg
g
=1
=1
3
3
m
dm
cm3
2
3
1 m3 = 1000 l (Litre)
1 l = 1 dm3
Volumetric flow rate
Cubic metres/Seconds
m /s
m3
l
= 60000
s
min
l
min
1 m3
60000 s
Energy, work
Newton metres
Nm
1 Nm = 1 J (Joule)
Power
Watts
1 kW = 1000 W = 1.36 PS
1 PS = 0.763 kW
Newton metres/Seconds
Nm/s
1W=1
Square metres/Seconds
m /s
Figure for the

friction in pipes
Resistance
Nm
J
=1
s
s
coefficient
Kinematic viscosity
Efficiency
Reynolds number
Re
233
16. Appendix
In hydraulics, the pressure unit bar is generally used owing to the high pressures
which arise. The international system of units SI (Systme International) specifies
the use of the pressure units Pascal and, with certain reservations, bar; the units
atm and Torr are to be avoided.
1 Pascal = 1 Pa = 1
Nm
= 10-5 bar
2
m
Pa
bar
10
10
10
10
750
1.02
1 mbar = 1 N/dm
100
10
0.75
1.02 10
1 Torr = 1 mm Hg
1.33 10
1.33
1.36 10
736
1 Pa = 1 N/m
1 bar = 10 N/cm
1 at = 1 kp/cm
mbar
-5
-2
0.981 10
1.33 10
5
7.5 10
-3
Torr
0.981
-3
0.981 10
at
-3
1.02 10
-5
-3
-3
Conversion of pressure units (Values have been rounded off) DIN 1314 (12.71)
Example
5000 kPa = ? bar

p = 5000 kPa = 5000000 Pa = 5000000 10-5 bar =
234
5000000
bar = 50 bar
100000
16. Appendix
Safety regulations
For hydraulic systems, we advise you to adhere to the technical safety specifications
laid down in DIN 24346. The accident prevention specifications of the Employers
Liability Insurance Association (VBG) which are relevant for both individual machines
and complete systems, e.g. Hydraulic presses (VBG 7n5.2; UVV 11.064), should
also be taken into consideration.
Some other important safety principles are listed below:
Never operate a system or press a switch if you are unaware of its function.
Do not switch on the power supply until all lines are connected up.
Important
check whether all return lines (leakage pipes) lead to the tank.
Before commissioning, carefully flush the system. Then, change the filter
elements. On initial commissioning of the system, open the system pressure
relief valve almost completely and slowly adjust the system to the operating
pressure. Pressure relief valves must be installed in such a manner that they
cannot become ineffective.
All setting values must be known.
Bleed the system and the cylinders.
Install the EMERGENCY STOP switch in a position where it is easily reached.
Use only standard parts.
Incorporate all changes into the circuit diagram without delay.
Nominal pressure must be clearly indicated.
Check that the devices installed in the system are permissible for the maximum
operating pressure.
Suction lines must be designed in such a way as to eliminate the possibility of air
being taken into the system.
The temperature of the oil in the intake line to the pump must not exceed 60 C.
The cylinder piston rods must not be bent; they must not be subjected to lateral
forces.
Protect piston rods against damage and dirt.
Particular care should be taken in the use of hydraulic reservoirs:
Before commissioning the reservoir, the manufacturers specifications should be
studied.
The hydraulic lines to the reservoir must be carefully bled. This can usually be
accomplished at the safety and shut-off block of the reservoir.
Repair work to hydraulic systems can only be carried out after releasing the oil
pressure to the reservoir. Where possible, separate the reservoir from the system
(by means of a valve).
Never drain off the contents of the reservoir unthrottled!
For details regarding installation and operation, see Technical Specifications for
Pressure Reservoirs (TRB).
All hydraulic reservoirs are subject to the pressure reservoir standards.
235
236

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Hydraulics

Festo Didactic GmbH & Co. KG, 73770 Denkendorf/Germany, 2003

Tasks of a hydraulic installation __________________________________ 7

Fundamental physical principles of hydraulics _____________________

Components of a hydraulic system _______________________________

Festo Didactic GmbH & Co. KG TP 501

Graphic and circuit symbols_____________________________________

Design and representation of a hydraulic system ___________________

Components of the power supply section __________________________ 97

Festo Didactic GmbH & Co. KG TP 501

Pressure valves ______________________________________________ 137

Directional control valves______________________________________

Non-return valves ____________________________________________

Flow control valves ___________________________________________

Hydraulic cylinders ___________________________________________

Hydraulic motors_____________________________________________ 211

Festo Didactic GmbH & Co. KG TP 501

Appendix ___________________________________________________ 233

Festo Didactic GmbH & Co. KG TP 501

1. Tasks of a hydraulic installation

Hydraulic systems are used in modern production plants and manufacturing

Festo Didactic GmbH & Co. KG TP 501

1. Tasks of a hydraulic installation

The following application areas are important for stationary hydraulics:

Festo Didactic GmbH & Co. KG TP 501

1. Tasks of a hydraulic installation

Press with elevated reservoir

Festo Didactic GmbH & Co. KG TP 501

1. Tasks of a hydraulic installation

Typical application fields for mobile hydraulics include:

Festo Didactic GmbH & Co. KG TP 501

1. Tasks of a hydraulic installation

Festo Didactic GmbH & Co. KG TP 501

1. Tasks of a hydraulic installation

No disadvantages apart from

Risk of explosion in certain areas,

Sensitive in case of temperature

fluctuation, risk of fire in case of

Difficult, only in small quantities

Limited, with the help of gases.

Unlimited with power loss.

flow rate v = 2 6 m/s,

flow rate v = 20 40 m/s,

Difficult and expensive, small

Simple using cylinders, good speed

Simple using cylinders, limited

forces, speed regulation only

control, very large forces.

forces, speed extremely, loaddependent.

Simple and powerful.

Simple, high turning moment, low

Simple, inefficient, high speed.

Precision to 1 m and easier to

Without load change precision of

Very good values can be achieved

High, since oil is almost

using mechanical links.

incompressible, in addition, the

Low, air is compressible.

纯液压技术英文版讲义 PDF

纯液压技术英文版讲义 PDF

纯液压技术英文版讲义 PDF