Theory of Projections

Theory of Projections
Projection theory
In engineering, 3-dimensonal objects and structures are represented graphically on a 2dimensional media. The act of obtaining the image of an object is termed projection. The
image obtained by projection is known as a view. A simple projection system is shown in
figure 1.
All projection theory are based on two variables:
Line of sight
Plane of projection.
Plane of Projection
A plane of projection (i.e, an image or picture plane) is an imaginary flat plane upon which the
image created by the line of sight is projected. The image is produced by connecting the points
where the lines of sight pierce the projection plane. In effect, 3-D object is transformed into a 2D representation, also called projections. The paper or computer screen on which a drawing is
created is a plane of projection.
Figure 1 : A simple Projection system
Projection Methods
Projection methods are very important techniques in engineering drawing.
Two projection methods used are:
Perspective and
Parallel
Figure 2 shows a photograph of a series of building and this view represents a perspective
projection on to the camera. The observer is assumed to be stationed at finite distance from the
object. The height of the buildings appears to be reducing as we move away from the observer.
In perspective projection, all lines of sight start at a single point and is schematically shown in
figure 3.
Figure 3. A schematic representation of a Perspective projection
In parallel projection, all lines of sight are parallel and is schematically represented in figure. 4.
The observer is assumed to be stationed at infinite distance from the object.
Figure 4. A schematic representation of a Parallel projection
Parallel vs Perspective Projection

Parallel projection
Distance from the observer to the object is infinite projection lines are parallel object is
positioned at infinity.
Less realistic but easier to draw.
Perspective projection
Distance from the observer to the object is finite and the object is viewed from a single
point projectors are not parallel.
Perspective projections mimic what the human eyes see, however, they are difficult to
draw.
Orthographic Projection
Orthographic projection is a parallel projection technique in which the plane of projection is
perpendicular to the parallel line of sight. Orthographic projection technique can produce either
pictorial drawings that show all three dimensions of an object in one view or multi-views that
show only two dimensions of an object in a single view. These views are shown in figure 5.
Figure 5. Orthographic projections of a solid showing isometric, oblique and multi-view

drawings.
Transparent viewing box

Assume that the object is placed in a transparent box, the faces of which are orthogonal to each
other, as shown in figure 6. Here we view the object faces normal to the three planes of the
transparent box.
Figure 6. The object placed inside a transparent box.

When the viewing planes are parallel to these principal planes, we obtain the Orthographic views
The picture we obtain when the line of sight is projected on to each plane is called as the
respective view of the object. The image obtained on the projection planes , i.e., on the top face,
Front Face, and Right side face are respectively the Top View, Front view and Right side view
of the object and is shown in figure 7.
Figure 7 showing the Front view, Top View and Side view of an object
Multi-view Projection
In an orthographic projection, the object is oriented in such a way that only two of its dimensions
are shown. The dimensions obtained are the true dimensions of the object .
Frontal plane of projection

Frontal plane of projection is the plane onto which the Front View (FV) of the multi-view
drawing is projected.
Figure 8 illustrates the method of obtaining the Front view of an object. Front view of an object
shows the width and height dimensions.
Figure 8 illustrates the method of obtaining the Front view of an object.
Horizontal plane of projection

Horizontal plane of projection is the plane onto which the Top View of the multi-view drawing is
projected and is shownin Figure 9. The Top view of an object shows the width and depth
dimensions of the object.
Figure 9 illustrates the method of obtaining the Top view of an object.
Profile plane of projection

In multi-view drawings, the right side view is the standard side view used and is illustrated in
figure 10. The right side view of an object shows the depth and the height dimensions. The right
side view is projected onto the profile plane of projection, which is a plane that is parallel to the
right side of the object.
Figure 10 illustrates the method of obtaining the Side View of an object.
Orientation of views from projection planes

Multi-view drawings gives the complete description of an object. For conveying the complete
information, all the three views, i.e., the Front view, Top view and side view of the object is
required. To obtain all the technical information, at least two out of the three views are required.
It is also necessary to position the three views in a particular order. Top view is always
positioned and aligned with the front view, and side view is always positioned to the side of the
Front view and aligned with the front view. The positions of each view are shown in figure 11.
Depending on whether 1st angle or 3rd angle projection techniques are used, the top view and
Front view will be interchanged. Also the position of the side view will be either towards the
Right or left of the Front view.
Figure 11. Relative positions and alignment of the views in a multi-view drawing.
Six Principal views

The plane of projection can be oriented to produce an infinite number of views of an object.
However, some views are more important than others. These principal views are the six
mutually perpendicular views that are produced by six mutually perpendicular planes of
projection and is shown in figure 12. Imagine suspending an object in a glass box with major
surfaces of the object positioned so that they are parallel to the sides of the box, six sides of the
box become projection planes, showing the six views front, top, left, right, bottom and rear.
Object is suspended in a glass box producing six principal views: each view is perpendicular to
and aligned with the adjacent views.
Figure 12. Shows the six perpendicular views of an object

The glass box is now slowly unfolded as shown in figure 13. After complete unfolding of the
box on to a single plane, we get the six views of the object in a single plane as shown in figure
14. The top, front and bottom views are all aligned vertically and share the same width
dimension where as the rear, left side, front and right side views are all aligned horizontally and
share the same height dimension.
Figure 13. Illustration of the views after the box has been partially unfolded.
Figure 14 shows the views of the object with their relative positions after the box has been
unfolded completely on to a single plane.
Conventional view placement

The three-view multi-view drawing is the standard used in engineering and technology, because
many times the other three principal views are mirror images and do not add to the knowledge
about the object. Figure 15 shows the standard views used in a three-view drawing i.e., the top,
front and the right side views
Figure 15 showing the three standard views of a multi-view drawing.
The width dimensions are aligned between the front and top views, using vertical projection
lines. The height dimensions are aligned between the front and the profile views, using
horizontal projection lines. Because of the relative positioning of the three views, the depth
dimension cannot be aligned using projection lines. Instead, the depth dimension is measured in
either the top or right side view.
Projection Methods
Universally either the 1st angle projection or the third angle projection methods is followed for
obtaining engineering drawings. The principal projection planes and quadrants used to create
drawings are shown in figure 16. The object can be considered to be in any of the four quadrant.
Figure 16. The principal projection planes and quadrants for creation of drawings.
First Angle Projection

In this the object in assumed to be positioned in the first quadrant and is shown in figure 17 The
object is assumed to be positioned in between the projection planes and the observer. The views
are obtained by projecting the images on the respective planes. Note that the right hand side view
is projected on the plane placed at the left of the object. After projecting on to the respective
planes, the bottom plane and left plane is unfolded on to the front view plane. i.e. the left plane
is unfolded towards the left side to obtain the Right hand side view on the left side of the Front
view and aligned with the Front view. The bottom plane is unfolded towards the bottom to obtain
the Top view below the Front view and aligned with the Front View.
Figure 17. Illustrating the views obtained using first angle projection technique.
Third Angle Projection

In the third angle projection method, the object is assumed to be in the third quadrant. i.e. the
object behind vertical plane and below the horizontal plane. In this projection technique, Placing
the object in the third quadrant puts the projection planes between the viewer and the object and
is shown in figure 18.
Figure 18. Illustrating the views obtained using first angle projection technique
Figure 19 illustrates the difference between the 1st angle and 3rd angle projection techniques. A
summary of the difference between 1st and 3rd angle projections is shown if Table 1.
Figure 19 Differentiating between the 1st angle and 3rd angle projection techniques.
Table 1. Difference between first- and third-angle projections
Either first angle projection or third angle projection are used for engineering drawing. Second
angle projection and fourth angle projections are not used since the drawing becomes
complicated.
Symbol of projection
The type of projection obtained should be indicated symbolically in the space provided for the
purpose in the title box of the drawing sheet. The symbol recommended by BIS is to draw the
two sides of a frustum of a cone placed with its axis horizontal The left view is drawn.

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Theory of Projections

Figure 1 : A simple Projection system

Figure 3. A schematic representation of a Perspective projection

Figure 4. A schematic representation of a Parallel projection

Parallel vs Perspective Projection

Figure 5. Orthographic projections of a solid showing isometric, oblique and multi-view

Transparent viewing box

Figure 6. The object placed inside a transparent box.

Frontal plane of projection

Figure 8 illustrates the method of obtaining the Front view of an object.

Horizontal plane of projection

Figure 9 illustrates the method of obtaining the Top view of an object.

Profile plane of projection

Figure 10 illustrates the method of obtaining the Side View of an object.

Orientation of views from projection planes

Six Principal views

Figure 12. Shows the six perpendicular views of an object

Conventional view placement

Figure 15 showing the three standard views of a multi-view drawing.

First Angle Projection

Third Angle Projection

Table 1. Difference between first- and third-angle projections

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