Section 3.

7 Rational Functions
A rational function is a function of the form
r(x) =

P (x)
Q(x)

where P and Q are polynomials.

Rational Functions and Asymptotes

The domain of a rational function consists of all real numbers x except those for which the
denominator is zero. When graphing a rational function, we must pay special attention to
the behavior of the graph near those x-values. We begin by graphing a very simple rational
function.
1
EXAMPLE: Sketch a graph of the rational function f (x) = , and state the domain and range.
x
1
Solution: First note that the function f (x) =
is not defined for x = 0. The tables below
x
show the behavior of f near zero.

This behavior can be described in the following analytical way:

f (x) as x 0

and f (x) as x 0+

The next two tables show how f (x) changes as |x| becomes large.

This behavior can be described in the following analytical way:

f (x) 0 as x and f (x) 0 as x
1

Using the information in these tables and plotting a few additional points, we obtain the graph.

The function f is defined for all values of x other than 0, so the domain is {x | x 6= 0}. From
the graph we see that the range is {y | y 6= 0}. A pure analytical way to find the range is to
1
find the inverse of f. Since f 1 (x) = and the domain of f 1 is {x | x 6= 0}, the range of f is
x
{y | y 6= 0}.
In the Example above we used the following arrow notation.

1
The line x = 0 is called a vertical asymptote of the graph of f (x) = , and the line y = 0 is a
x
horizontal asymptote. Informally speaking, an asymptote of a function is a line that the graph
of the function gets closer and closer to as one travels along that line.

Transformations of

1
x

A rational function of the form

r(x) =

ax + b
cx + d

1
using the transx
formations studied in Section 2.4. (Such functions are called linear fractional transformations.)
can be graphed by shifting, stretching, and/or reflecting the graph of f (x) =

EXAMPLE: Sketch a graph of each rational function, and state the domain and range.
2
3x + 5
(a) r(x) =
(b) s(x) =
x3
x+2
Solution:
1
2
can be obtained from the graph of f (x) = by shifting 3 units
(a) The graph of r(x) =
x3
x
to the right and stretching vertically by a factor of 2. Thus, r has vertical asymptote x = 3
and horizontal asymptote y = 0.

The function r is defined for all values of x other than 3, so the domain is {x | x 6= 3}. From
the graph we see that the range is {y | y 6= 0}. A pure analytical way to find the range is to
find the inverse of r. We have
Step 1: Replace r(x) by y:
y=

2
x3

Step 2: Solve for x:

y=

2
x3

y(x 3) = 2

therefore
x=

xy 3y = 2

3y + 2
3y 2
2
=
+ =3+
y
y
y
y

Step 3: Replace x by r 1 (x) and y by x:

r1 (x) = 3 +

2
x

Since the domain of r1 is {x | x 6= 0}, the range of r is {y | y 6= 0}.

3

xy = 3y + 2

(b) We have
3x + 5
3x + 6 1
3(x + 2) 1
3(x + 2)
1
1
=
=
=

=3
x+2
x+2
x+2
x+2
x+2
x+2
We can obtain the same result using either long division
3
x+2
3x + 5
3x 6
1

or synthetic division
3
2

5
6

3x + 5
1
can be obtained from the graph of f (x) =
by
x+2
x
shifting 2 units to the left, reflecting in the x-axis, and shifting upward 3 units. Thus, s has
vertical asymptote x = 2 and horizontal asymptote y = 3.

It follows that the graph of s(x) =

The function s is defined for all values of x other than 2, so the domain is {x | x 6= 2}.
From the graph we see that the range is {y | y 6= 3}. A pure analytical way to find the range
is to find the inverse of s. We have
Step 1: Replace s(x) by y:
y=

3x + 5
x+2

Step 2: Solve for x:

3x + 5
x+2
therefore
y=

y(x + 2) = 3x + 5

xy + 2y = 3x + 5

x(y 3) = 5 2y

x=

5 2y
y3

Step 3: Replace x by s1 (x) and y by x:

s1 (x) =

5 2x
x3

Since the domain of s1 is {x | x 6= 3}, the range of s is {y | y 6= 3}.

4

xy 3x = 5 2y

EXAMPLE: Sketch a graph of each rational function, and state the domain and range.
x5
3
(b) s(x) =
(a) r(x) =
x+1
x2
Solution:
3
1
(a) The graph of r(x) =
can be obtained from the graph of f (x) = by shifting 1 units
x+1
x
to the left and stretching vertically by a factor of 3. Thus, r has vertical asymptote x = 1
and horizontal asymptote y = 0.

The function r is defined for all values of x other than 1, so the domain is {x | x 6= 1}.
From the graph we see that the range is {y | y 6= 0}. A pure analytical way to find the range is
3
to find the inverse of r. Since r1 (x) = 1 + and the domain of r1 is {x | x 6= 0}, the range
x
of r is {y | y 6= 0}.
(b) We have
x5
x23
x2
3
3

=
=
+
= 1 +
x2
x2
x2 x2
x2
x5
1
It follows that the graph of s(x) =
can be obtained from the graph of f (x) =
by
x2
x
shifting 2 units to the right, stretching vertically by a factor of 3, and shifting downward 1 unit.
Thus, s has vertical asymptote x = 2 and horizontal asymptote y = 1.

The function r is defined for all values of x other than 2, so the domain is {x | x 6= 2}. From
the graph we see that the range is {y | y 6= 1}. A pure analytical way to find the range is to
2x + 5
and the domain of s1 is {x | x 6= 1}, the range
find the inverse of s. Since s1 (x) =
x+1
of s is {y | y 6= 1}.
5

Asymptotes of Rational Functions

The methods of the two previous Examples work only for simple rational functions. To graph
more complicated ones, we need to take a closer look at the behavior of a rational function near
its vertical and horizontal asymptotes.
EXAMPLE: Graph the rational function r(x) =

2x2 4x + 5
, and state the domain and range.
x2 2x + 1

Solution:
Vertical Asymptote: We first factor the denominator
r(x) =

2x2 4x + 5
2x2 4x + 5
=
x2 2x + 1
(x 1)2

The line x = 1 is a vertical asymptote because the denominator of r is zero and the numerator
is nonzero when x = 1.
To see what the graph of r looks like near the vertical asymptote, we make tables of values for
x-values to the left and to the right of 1. From the tables shown below we see that
r(x) as x 1

and r(x) as x 1+

Thus, near the vertical asymptote x = 1, the graph of r has the shape shown in the Figure
below.

Horizontal Asymptote: The horizontal asymptote is the value y approaches as x .

To help us find this value, we divide both numerator and denominator by x2 , the highest power
of x that appears in the expression:
5
2x2 4x
1
2x2 4x + 5
2 + 2
2
2
2
2
2x 4x + 5
x =
x
x
x
x =
y= 2
=
=
1
x2 2x + 1
x2 2x
1
x 2x + 1
(x2 2x + 1) 2
1
2 + 2
2
2
x
x
x
x
x
2

(2x2 4x + 5)

5
4
+ 2
x x
2
1
+ 2
x x

4 5 2
1
One can see that the fractional expressions , 2 , , and 2 all approach 0 as x . So
x x x
x
as x , we have
5
4
2 + 2
x x 20+0 = 2 =2
y=
1
2
10+0
1
1 + 2
x x
Thus, the horizontal asymptote is the line y = 2. Since the graph must approach the horizontal
asymptote, we can complete it as in the Figure below.

Domain and Range: The function r is defined for all values of x other than 1, so the domain
is {x | x 6= 1}. From the graph we see that the range is {y | y > 2}.
EXAMPLE: Graph the rational function r(x) =

3x2 + x + 12
, and state the domain and range.
x2 5x + 4

EXAMPLE: Graph the rational function r(x) =

3x2 + x + 12
, and state the domain and range.
x2 5x + 4

Solution:
Vertical Asymptotes: We first factor the denominator
r(x) =

3x2 + x + 12
3x2 + x + 12
=
x2 5x + 4
(x 1)(x 4)

The lines x = 1 and x = 4 are vertical asymptotes because the denominator of r is zero and
the numerator is nonzero when x = 1 or x = 4.
Behavior Near Vertical Asymptotes: We need to know whether y or y on
each side of each vertical asymptote. To determine the sign of y for x-values near the vertical
asymptotes, we use test values. For instance, as x 1 , we use a test value close to and to
the left of 1 (x = 0.9, say) to check whether y is positive or negative to the left of x = 1:
y=

3(0.9)2 + 0.9 + 12
(0.9 1)(0.9 4)

whose sign is

(+)
()()

(positive)

So
y as x 1
On the other hand, as x 1+ , we use a test value close to and to the right of 1 (x = 1.1, say),
to get
(+)
3(1.1)2 + 1.1 + 12
whose sign is
(negative)
y=
(1.1 1)(1.1 4)
(+)()
So
y as x 1+
Similarly, plugging in numbers that are close to 4 from the left and from the right we determine
the sign of y for x-values near the vertical asymptote x = 4:
y=

3(3.9)2 + 3.9 + 12
(3.9 1)(3.9 4)

whose sign is

(+)
(+)()

(negative)

y=

3(4.1)2 + 4.1 + 12
(4.1 1)(4.1 4)

whose sign is

(+)
(+)(+)

(positive)

and

We conclude that
y as x 4

and y as x 4+

Horizontal Asymptote: The horizontal asymptote is the value y approaches as x .

To help us find this value, we divide both numerator and denominator by x2 , the highest power
of x that appears in the expression:
x
12
3x2
1
3x2 + x + 12
+ 2+ 2
3+
2
2
2
3x + x + 12
x =
x
x
x
x =
=
=
y= 2
1
x2 5x + 4
x2 5x
4
x 5x + 4
(x2 5x + 4) 2
1
2 + 2
2
2
x
x
x
x
x
2

(3x2 + x + 12)

1 12
+
x x2
5
4
+ 2
x x

1 12 5
4
One can see that the fractional expressions , 2 , , and 2 all approach 0 as x . So
x x x
x
as x , we have
1 12
3+ + 2
x x 3+0+0 = 3 =3
y=
4
5
10+0
1
1 + 2
x x
Thus, the horizontal asymptote is the line y = 3. Since the graph must approach the horizontal
asymptote and
y as x 1
y as x 1+
y as x 4
y as x 4+
we can complete it as in the Figure below.

Domain and Range: The function r is defined for all values of x other than
 1, 4, so the
11
domain is {x | x 6= 1, 4}. From the graph we see that the range is (, 13]
, .
9

EXAMPLE: Find the vertical and horizontal asymptotes of r(x) =

1
.
x

Solution:
Vertical Asymptotes: The line x = 0 is the vertical asymptote because the denominator of
r is zero and the numerator is nonzero when x = 0.
Horizontal Asymptote: The degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the denominator, therefore the horizontal asymptote is the line y = 0.

EXAMPLE: Find the vertical and horizontal asymptotes of r(x) =

10

1
.
x+3

EXAMPLE: Find the vertical and horizontal asymptotes of r(x) =

1
.
x+3

Solution:
Vertical Asymptotes: The line x = 3 is the vertical asymptote because the denominator
of r is zero and the numerator is nonzero when x = 3.
Horizontal Asymptote: The degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the denominator, therefore the horizontal asymptote is the line y = 0.

EXAMPLE: Find the vertical and horizontal asymptotes of r(x) =

x
.
x2

Solution:
Vertical Asymptotes: The line x = 2 is the vertical asymptote because the denominator of
r is zero and the numerator is nonzero when x = 2.
Horizontal Asymptote: The degrees of the numerator and denominator are the same and
leading coefficient of numerator
1
= =1
leading coefficient of denominator
1
Thus, the horizontal asymptote is the line y = 1.

EXAMPLE: Find the vertical and horizontal asymptotes of r(x) =

11

5x 1
.
2x + 3

EXAMPLE: Find the vertical and horizontal asymptotes of r(x) =

5x 1
.
2x + 3

Solution:
Vertical Asymptotes: The line x = 3/2 is the vertical asymptote because the denominator
of r is zero and the numerator is nonzero when x = 3/2.
Horizontal Asymptote: The degrees of the numerator and denominator are the same and
5
leading coefficient of numerator
=
leading coefficient of denominator
2
5
Thus, the horizontal asymptote is the line y = .
2

EXAMPLE: Find the vertical and horizontal asymptotes of r(x) =

3x2 2x 1
.
2x2 + 3x 2

Solution:
Vertical Asymptotes: We first factor
r(x) =

3x2 2x 1
(3x + 1)(x 1)
=
2
2x + 3x 2
(2x 1)(x + 2)

1
and x = 2 are vertical asymptotes because the denominator of r is zero and
2
1
the numerator is nonzero when x = or x = 2.
2
Horizontal Asymptote: The degrees of the numerator and denominator are the same and
The lines x =

leading coefficient of numerator

3
=
leading coefficient of denominator
2
3
Thus, the horizontal asymptote is the line y = .
2

12

EXAMPLE: Find the vertical and horizontal asymptotes of r(x) =

x2 4x + 4
.
9x2 9x + 2

Solution:
Vertical Asymptotes: We first factor
r(x) =

(x 2)2
x2 4x + 4
=
9x2 9x + 2
(3x 1)(3x 2)

1
2
and x = are vertical asymptotes because the denominator of r is zero and
3
3
1
2
the numerator is nonzero when x = or x = .
3
3
Horizontal Asymptote: The degrees of the numerator and denominator are the same and
The lines x =

1
leading coefficient of numerator
=
leading coefficient of denominator
9
1
Thus, the horizontal asymptote is the line y = .
9

EXAMPLE: Find the vertical and horizontal asymptotes of r(x) =

13

3x3 + 6x2 3x 6
.
x3 5x2 + 6x

EXAMPLE: Find the vertical and horizontal asymptotes of r(x) =

3x3 + 6x2 3x 6
.
x3 5x2 + 6x

Solution:
Vertical Asymptotes: We first factor
r(x) =
=

3(x3 + 2x2 x 2)
3[x2 (x + 2) (x + 2)]
3x3 + 6x2 3x 6
=
=
x3 5x2 + 6x
x(x2 5x + 6)
x(x 2)(x 3)
3[x2 (x + 2) 1 (x + 2)]
3(x + 2)(x2 1)
3(x + 2)(x + 1)(x 1)
=
=
x(x 2)(x 3)
x(x 2)(x 3)
x(x 2)(x 3)

The lines x = 0, x = 2, and x = 3 are vertical asymptotes because the denominator of r is zero
and the numerator is nonzero when x = 0, x = 2, or x = 3.
Horizontal Asymptote: The degrees of the numerator and denominator are the same and
3
leading coefficient of numerator
= =3
leading coefficient of denominator
1
Thus, the horizontal asymptote is the line y = 3.

EXAMPLE: Find the vertical and horizontal asymptotes of r(x) =

14

x2 x 2
.
x2 + 2x 8

EXAMPLE: Find the vertical and horizontal asymptotes of r(x) =

x2 x 2
.
x2 + 2x 8

Solution:
Vertical Asymptote: We first factor
r(x) =

(x 2)(x + 1)
x2 x 2
=
2
x + 2x 8
(x 2)(x + 4)

It follows that

x+1
(1)
x+4
if x 6= 2. The line x = 4 is the vertical asymptote because the denominator of (1) is zero and
the numerator is nonzero when x = 4. The line x = 2 is not the vertical asymptote because
the denominator of (1) is nonzero when x = 2.
r(x) =

Horizontal Asymptote: The degrees of the numerator and denominator are the same and
1
leading coefficient of numerator
= =1
leading coefficient of denominator
1
Thus, the horizontal asymptote is the line y = 1.

15

Graphing Rational Functions

We have seen that asymptotes are important when graphing rational functions. In general, we
use the following guidelines to graph rational functions.

2x2 + 7x 4
, and state the domain and range.
x2 + x 2
Solution: We factor the numerator and denominator, find the intercepts and asymptotes, and
sketch the graph.
EXAMPLE: Graph the rational function r(x) =

Factor: We have
r(x) =

(2x 1)(x + 4)
2x2 + 7x 4
=
2
x +x2
(x 1)(x + 2)

1
and x = 4.
2
y-Intercept: To find the y-intercept, we substitute x = 0 into the original form of the function:
x-Intercepts: The x-intercepts are the zeros of the numerator, x =

r(0) =

2(0)2 + 7(0) 4
4
=
=2
2
(0) + (0) 2
2

The y-intercept is 2.
Vertical Asymptotes: The lines x = 1 and x = 2 are vertical asymptotes because the
denominator of r is zero and the numerator is nonzero when x = 1 and x = 2.
Behavior Near Vertical Asymptotes: We need to know whether y or y on
each side of each vertical asymptote. To determine the sign of y for x-values near the vertical
asymptotes, we use test values. For instance, as x 1 , we use a test value close to and to
the left of 1 (x = 0.9, say) to check whether y is positive or negative to the left of x = 1:
y=

(2(0.9) 1)(0.9 + 4)
(0.9 1)(0.9 + 2)

whose sign is
16

(+)(+)
()(+)

(negative)

So y as x 1 . On the other hand, as x 1+ , we use a test value close to and to the

right of 1 (x = 1.1, say), to get
y=

(2(1.1) 1)(1.1 + 4)
(1.1 1)(1.1 + 2)

whose sign is

(+)(+)
(+)(+)

(positive)

So y as x 1+ . The other entries in the following table are calculated similarly.

Horizontal Asymptote: The degrees of the numerator and denominator are the same and
leading coefficient of numerator
2
= =2
leading coefficient of denominator
1
Thus, the horizontal asymptote is the line y = 2.
Additional Values:

Graph:

Domain and Range: The function r is defined for all values of x other than 1, 2, so the
domain is
{x | x 6= 1, 2}
From the graph we see that the range is all real numbers.
x2 3x + 2
EXAMPLE: Graph the rational function r(x) = 2
, and state the domain and range.
x 4x + 3

17

x2 3x + 2
, and state the domain and range.
x2 4x + 3
Solution: We factor the numerator and denominator, find the intercepts and asymptotes, and
sketch the graph.
EXAMPLE: Graph the rational function r(x) =

Factor: We have
r(x) =

x2 3x + 2
(x 1)(x 2)
=
x2 4x + 3
(x 1)(x 3)

(2)

x2
x3

(3)

It follows that
r(x) =
if x 6= 1.

x-Intercept: The x-intercept is the zero of the numerator of the reduced form (3), x = 2. Note
that x = 1 is a zero of the numerator of the original form (2), but it is not the x-intercept,
since it is not from the domain of r.
y-Intercept: To find the y-intercept, we substitute x = 0 into the original form (2):
(1)(2)
2
(0 1)(0 2)
=
=
r(0) =
(0 1)(0 3)
(1)(3)
3
2
The y-intercept is .
3
REMARK: In this partcular example one can find the y-intercept substituting x = 0 into the
reduced form (3) as well. However, in general we recommend to substitute x = 0 into the
original form to avoid mistakes (see Appendix).
Vertical Asymptote: The line x = 3 is the vertical asymptote because the denominator of (3)
is zero and the numerator is nonzero when x = 3. The line x = 1 is not the vertical asymptote
because the denominator of (3) is nonzero when x = 1.
Behavior Near Vertical Asymptote: We need to know whether y or y on
each side of the vertical asymptote x = 3. To determine the sign of y for x-values near the
vertical asymptote, we use test values. For instance, as x 3 , we use a test value close to
and to the left of 3 (x = 2.9, say) to check whether (2) is positive or negative to the left of
x = 3:
2.9 2
(+)
y=
whose sign is
(negative)
2.9 3
()
So y as x 3 . On the other hand, as x 3+ , we use a test value close to and to the
right of 3 (x = 3.1, say), to get
y=

3.1 2
3.1 3

whose sign is

(+)
(+)

(positive)

So y as x 3+ .
Horizontal Asymptote: The degrees of the numerator and
denominator are the same and
1
leading coefficient of numerator
= =1
leading coefficient of denominator
1
Thus, the horizontal asymptote is the line y = 1.
Domain and Range: The function r is defined for all values of x other than 1, 3, so the
domain is {x | x 6= 1, 3}. From the graph we see that the range is {y | y 6= 1/2, 1}.
18

5x + 21
EXAMPLE: Graph the rational function r(x) = 2
, and state the domain and
x + 10x + 25
range.
Solution:
5x + 21
(x + 5)2
21
x-Intercepts: , from 5x + 21 = 0
5
5(0) + 21
21
21
, because r(0) =
=
y-Intercept:
2
25
(0) + 10(0) + 25
25

Factor: r(x) =

Vertical Asymptotes: x = 5, from the zeros of the denominator

Behavior Near Vertical Asymptotes:

Horizontal Asymptote: y = 0, because degree of numerator is less than degree of denominator

Additional Values:

Graph:

Domain and Range: The domain is

{x | x 6= 5}
From the graph we see that the range is approximately the interval (, 1.5].

19

EXAMPLE: Graph the rational function r(x) =

x2 3x 4
, and state the domain and range.
2x2 + 4x

Solution:
Factor: r(x) =

(x + 1)(x 4)
2x(x + 2)

x-Intercepts: 1 and 4, from x + 1 = 0 and x 4 = 0

y-Intercept: None, since r(0) is undefined
Vertical Asymptotes: x = 0 and x = 2, from the zeros of the denominator
Behavior Near Vertical Asymptotes:

1
Horizontal Asymptote: y = , because degree of numerator is less than degree of denomi2
nator and
leading coefficient of numerator
1
=
leading coefficient of denominator
2
Additional Values:

Graph:

Domain and Range: The function r is defined for all values of x other than 0, 2, so the
domain is
{x | x 6= 0, 2}
From the graph we see that the range is all real numbers.

20

Slant Asymptotes and End Behavior

If r(x) = P (x)/Q(x) is a rational function in which the degree of the numerator is one more
than the degree of the denominator, we can use the Division Algorithm to express the function
in the form
R(x)
r(x) = ax + b +
Q(x)
where the degree of R is less than the degree of Q and a 6= 0. This means that as x
, R(x)/Q(x) 0, so for large values of |x|, the graph of y = r(x) approaches the graph
of the line y = ax + b. In this situation we say that y = ax + b is a slant asymptote, or an
oblique asymptote.
EXAMPLE: Graph the rational function r(x) =

x2 4x 5
.
x3

Solution:
(x + 1)(x 5)
x3
x-Intercepts: 1 and 5, from x + 1 = 0 and x 5 = 0
Factor: r(x) =

5
(0)2 4(0) 5
5
, because r(0) =
=
3
03
3
Horizontal Asymptote: None, because degree of numerator is greater than degree of denominator

y-Intercept:

Vertical Asymptotes: x = 3, from the zeros of the denominator

Behavior Near Vertical Asymptotes: y as x 3 and y as x 3+
Slant Asymptote: Since the degree of the numerator is one more than the degree of the
denominator, the function has a slant asymptote. Dividing (see the margin), we obtain
r(x) = x 1
Thus, y = x 1 is the slant asymptote.
Additional Values:

Graph:

21

8
x3

Appendix
EXAMPLE: Find the intercepts and asymptotes of the rational function r(x) =

x
.
x2 x

Solution:
Factor: We have
r(x) =

x2

x
x
=
x
x(x 1)

It follows that
r(x) =

1
x1

(4)

(5)

if x 6= 0.
x-Intercepts: There are no x-intercepts, since the numerator of the reduced form (5) is nonzero.
Note that x = 0 is the zero of the numerator of the original form (4), but it is not the x-intercept,
since it is not from the domain of r.
y-Intercepts: There are no y-intercepts, since x = 0 is not from the domain of r. Note that if
you plug x = 0 into the reduced form (5), you get y = 1 as the y-intercept, which is false.
Vertical Asymptote: The line x = 1 is the vertical asymptote because the denominator of (5)
is zero and the numerator is nonzero when x = 1. The line x = 0 is not the vertical asymptote
because the denominator of (5) is nonzero when x = 0.
Horizontal Asymptote: Since the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the
denominator, the horizontal asymptote is y = 0.

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