Unit – II Lathe & Basic Machine tools

Lathe:
 Considered to be the oldest machine tools
 Forerunner of all machine tools
 Removes the material by rotating the work piece
against a single point cutting tool
Types:
Lathes can be classified based on size, design, method of
drive and purpose
 Speed lathe : Wood working lathes
Metal turning lathe
Polishing lathe
Tool room lathe
Capstan / Turret lathe
Automatic lathe
 Engine lathe
Step cone pulley drive lathe
Geared lathe
Variable speed lathe
 Bench lathe
Specifications:
 Maximum diameter and length of the jobs that can be
accommodated
 Power of the main drive (motor)
 Range of spindle speeds
 Range of feeds
 Length of bed / Space occupied by the machine
Turning Parameters:
N: Rotational speed of w/p in rpm
f: Feed, mm/rev
v: feed rate / linear speed of the tool along w/p length ,
mm/min
: fN
V: surface speed of w/p: m/min (i.e.) cutting speed
: πDoN (for max. speed)
: πDavgN (for average speed)
d: depth of cut (mm)
Do : Original diameter of w/p (mm)
Df : Final diameter of w/p (mm)
Davg : Original diameter of w/p (mm)
t: cutting time = l / fN, where l = length of cut
MRR: metal removal rate = πDavgNdf, mm3/min
Torque : (Fc Davg) / 2, where Fc is the cutting force in
NM
Power : torque X ω, (KW) where ω = 2πN radians / min
Parts of a Lathe
Bed:
 Base of the machine
 Head stock and tail stock are located at either end of
the bed
 Carriage rests over the lathe bed and slides on it
 Bed material should have high compressive strength
should be wear resistant and absorb vibration
 Cast iron alloyed with nickel & Chromium
Head Stock:
 Secured / fixed permanently on the left hand side of
the lathe bed
 Provides the mechanical means of rotating the work at
multiple speeds
 Comprises a hallow spindle & mechanism for driving
& altering the spindle speed
Tail stock:
 It has a provision to slide and facilitate operations at
different locations
 Supports longer blanks and often accommodates tools
like drills, reamers etc for hole making
Carriage:
 Contains certain parts such as Apron, Saddle, cross
slide, compound rest and tool post
 Tool post accommodates the tool
Columns: Bed of lathe is fixed on the columns
 Operations performed in a lathe

Turning:
Removal of excess material from the w/p to produce a
cone-shaped or a cylindrical surface
 Straight turning: Rough turning & Finish turning
 Shoulder turning
 Eccentric turning
 Taper turning
Straight turning:
Removing material along the axis of the w/p
Produces cylindrical surface by removing excess metal
Rough turning: Process of removal of excess material in
a minimu time by applying High rate of feed (0.3 to 1.5
mm/rev) and heavy depth of cut (2 to 5 mm)
Finish turning: Obtain good surface finish, requires high
cutting speed, small feed (0.1 to 0.3 mm/rev) and small
depth of cut (0.5 to 1 mm)
Shoulder turning:
When a w/p having different diameters is turned, the
surface forming the step from one diameter to the other
is called as shoulder
Four types, viz., Square shoulder, angular or beveled
shoulder, radius shoulder and undercut shoulder
Eccentric turning:

Cylindrical w/p having two separate axis of rotation one

being out of center to the other, the w/p is termed as
eccentric
Turning of different surfaces of the w/p is known as
eccentric turning. ex. Crank shaft turning
Taper turning:
Taper may be defined as a uniform increase or decrease
in diameter of a piece of work measured along its length
Producing a conical surface by gradual reduction in
diameter from a cylindrical w/p

Methods:
 By a broad nose form tool
 By setting over the tail stock centre
 By swiveling the compound rest
 By a taper turning attachment
 By combining longitudinal and cross feed in a special
lathe
By a broad nose form tool:
A broad nose tool having straight cutting edge is set on
to the work and is fed straight into the work to generate a
tapered surface
Method is limited to turn short length of taper only
Metal is removed by the entire cutting edge
By setting over the tail stock centre:
Shift the axis of rotation of the w/p at an angle to the
lathe axis and feed the tool parallel to the lathe axis
Angle at which the axis of rotation of the w/p is shifted is
equal to the half angle of the taper
Body of the tail stock is made to slide on its base towards
or away from the operator by a setover screw
Setover = (entire length of the w/p X conicity) / 2
Conicity (or) amount of taper = (D – d) / l, where l is the
length of taper

By swiveling the compound rest:

Rotate the w/p on the lathe axis and feed the tool at an
angle to the axis of rotation of w/p
Compound rest may be swiveled and clamped at any
desired angle
Rotation of the compound slide screw will cause the tool
to be fed at that angle and generate the corresponding
taper

By a taper turning attachment:

Principle is to guide the tool in a straight path set at an
angle to the axis of rotation of the w/p
Taper turning attachment consists of a frame / bracket
which is attached to the rear end of the bed
Supports a guide bar pivoted at the centre and can be
swiveled on either side at any desired angle
When the attachment is used the cross slide is made free
from the lead screw
Rear end of the cross slide is tightened with the guide
block
When longitudinal feed is engaged the guide block will
slide on the guide bar set at an angle to the lathe axis
So the tool mounted on the cross slide will follow the
angular path
Required depth of cut is given by the compound slide
which is placed at right angles to the lathe axis
If the diameters ‘D’ & ‘d’ and length ‘l’ of taper are
known, the angle of swiveling the guide bar is tan α = (D
– d) / 2l
Taper turning by combining feeds:
More specialized method of turning
Both longitudinal and cross feeds may be engaged
simultaneously causing the tool to follow a diagonal path
Diagonal path is the resultant of the magnitude of the
two feeds
Thread cutting:
Produce a helical groove on a cylindrical surface by
feeding the tool longitudinally when the job is revolved
between centres
Longitudinal feed should be equal to the pitch of the
thread to be cut per revolution of the w/p
Lead screw has a definite pitch: thru which the saddle
receives the traversing motion
Definite ratio between the longitudinal feed and rotation
of the head stock spindle is to be found
Relative speeds of rotation of the job and the lead screw
will result in cutting of screw for a desired pitch
This is effected by a change gears arrangement between
the spindle and lead screw
Ex. Pitch of the lead screw is 6mm and the pitch of the
thread to be cut is 1mm. To find the change gears:
Driver teeth / driven teeth = pitch of the work / pitch of
the lead screw
1 / 6 = (1x20) / (6x20) = 20 / 120
i.e. driver gear will have 20 tooth and the driven gear on
the lead screw will have 120 tooth
Thread cutting mechanism:
Rotation of lead screw is used to transverse the tool
along the work to produce screw thread
Half-nut mechanism makes the carriage to engage or
disengage with lead screw
Comprises a pair of half nuts capable of moving in or out
of mesh with the lead screw
Two halves of the nut is connected in the cam slots in a
circular disc by two pins
When the disc is rotated, the pins being guided in the
cam slots serve to open or close the split nuts thus
engages or disengages with the lead screw
Closing the half nuts causes the carriage to move a fixed
distance for each revolution of the spindle
Other operations:
 Chamfering
 Facing
 Knurling
 Grooving
 Drilling
 Reaming
 Boring & Counter boring
 Internal thread cutting
 Undercutting
 Parting-off

Work holding devices:

1) Chuck:
* Four jaw independent chuck
* Three Jaw universal chuck
* Air / Hydraulic operated chuck
* Magnetic chuck
* Combination chuck
* Collet chuck
2) Face plate
3) Angle plate
4) Mandrels
* Plain mandrel
* Step mandrel
* Collar mandrel
* Screwed mandrel
* Cone mandrel
* Gang mandrel
5) Rests
* Steady rest
 * Follower rest

6) Centres
Shaper:
- Shaping machine – used for producing flat surfaces –
Horizontal and Inclined
- Tool is given a reciprocating motion with the help of a
mechanism that convert circular motion into
reciprocating motion

Specification:
- Length of stroke
- Maximum vertical travel of table
- Maximum horizontal travel of table
- Maximum distance from table to ram
- Size of side table top
- Size of side table
- Power of motion
- Maximum vertical travel of tool slide
- Ram cycles per minute or strokes per minute
Types of shapers:
1. According to the length of stroke
- 30 cm shaper
- 45 cm shaper
- 60 cm shaper
2. According to the cutting action
- push type shaper
- draw cut type shaper
3. According to the movement of the ram
- Horizontal shaper
- Vertical shaper
4. According to the drive
- Mechanical shapers
- Crank driven shapers
- Geared shapers
- Hydraulic shapers
5 According to the method of transmitting power
- All geared shaper
- Cone pulley belt driven shaper
6 According to the movement of table
- Simple type
 - Universal type
Working principle:
- Job is held in a vice, clamped rigidly on the
machine table
- Cutting tool is held in the tool post mounted on the
ram of the shaper
- Arm reciprocates to and fro
- Cutting action take place in forward stroke (cutting
stroke)
- No cutting during return stroke (idle stroke)
- Job is given an index feed with the help of a cross
rail mechanism fitted inside the table
 CM: Cutting Motion, FM: Feed Motion

Quick return mechanism:

Two commonly used mechanism
- Crank mechanism
- Hydraulic mechanism
Crank mechanism:
- Consist of a rocker arm called fulcrum fitted at the
bottom
- At the top it carries another short link which is
attached to the block
- Rocker arm consists of a slide block that slides up
and down when the bull gear revolves
- The crank pin revolves in the slide block
- Crank pin can be moved to any desired position by
means of bevel gears in the slotted disc.
- Bull gear is driven by a bull gear pinion that is
mounted on power shaft.
- Bull gear while rotating makes the rocker arm
swing about the fulcrum
- Rocker arm in turn moves the ram to and fro
- Angle traversed by the bull gear during the cutting
stroke is more than in return stroke
- Thus the time taken by the cutting stroke is more
than that taken by the return stroke

Hydraulic Mechanism:
- Two types - Constant volume
- Constant pressure
Constant volume hydraulic mechanism:
- Same volume of oil is delivered on both side of the
piston alternatively by the actuating value
- Due to the difference in effective area of the piston,
the ram travels at a lower velocity during cutting
/working stroke and higher velocity during return
stroke.

Constant pressure hydraulic mechanism:

- Pump delivers oil at constant pressure to both sides
of the piston
- Speed of ram is directly proportional to the exposed
area of the piston, since the forces acting on them
are different
- Since the exposed area in the return stroke is more
than that of the working stroke, the speed of return
stroke is more than that of working stroke.
- Cutting speed of hydraulic shaper is controlled by
regulating the supply of oil through the throttle
valve.
Planer:
- Large machine tool used for machining flat surfaces
using single
point cutting tool
- Cutting operation is carried out by a stationary cutting
tool against the reciprocating job.
Schematic view of a planning machine
Difference between a shaper and planer
Shaper Planer
1. Cutting tool moves in the 1. Cutting tool remain stationary
horizontal direction while 2. Held rigidly on a horizontally
performing cutting operation moving table
2. Job is held rigidly on the fixed bed. 3. Distance of table travel is
3. Stroke length is regulated by the regulated by stops
stroke adjusting screw. 4. Large works
4. Used for smaller works 5. Almost constant cuttings speed
5. Cutting speed varies during cutting 6. 2 or more tools can be used
stroke 7. Substantially greater than that
6. During machining, a single tool is of a shaper
used 8. Tools are mounted on tool
7. Stroke length is small heads mounted on cross rails
8. Tool is mounted on tool post fitted and columns
at the end of ram

Classification of planing machines:

1. According to drive
- Gear drive
- Hydraulic drive
- Belt drive
- Crank drive
- Variable speed motor drive
2. According to general construction
- Double column planer
- Open side planer
- Pit-type planer
- Edge or plate planer

Table drive mechanism:

Various techniques used for imparting reciprocating motion
to the table includes
- Rack and spur gear table drive
- Spiral rack and worm wheel
- Crank drive
- Hydraulic drive
- Belt drive
Rack and spur gear drive
- Consists of a compound gear train with two intermediate
compound gears
- Driving gear is connected directly to the electric motor
and the motion is transmitted to the bull gear fitted with
the table through the intermediate gears.
- Quick return of the table is facilitated by means of
adjustable stops that come in contact at the end of the
stroke and engage the gears
Rack and worm wheel drive
- Rack is fixed to the bottom surface of the table and is
driven by a worm gear
Hydraulic drive
- Provide uniform speed throughout the cutting stroke
- Oil under pressure is used as a working fluid
- Oil from the reservoir is forced into the piston by the
pump through discharge line
- At the end of the stroke, the stopper moves the valve in
the opposite direction
- Hydraulic drives are advantageous due to their uniform
pressure, quick table reversal and relatively noiseless
operation.
 Drilling Machine
Specification
- Maximum size of drill
- Table diameter / size
- Maximum spindle travel
- No. of spindle speeds
- Power input
- Floor space / net wt of machine
Types:
- Portable drilling m/c / hand drilling m/c

- Sensitive drilling m/c

- Pillar drilling m/c
- Column drilling m/c
- Radial drilling m/c
- Gang drilling m/c
- Multiple spindle drilling m/c

Sensitive Drilling Machine Pillar Drilling Machine

Column Drilling Machine Radial Drilling Machine

Gang Drilling Machine

Multi Spindle Drilling Machine
Operations:
Boring: Enlarging the drilled holes
Counter boring: Enlarging the hole to a certain length,
Counter bore to be concentric with original hole
Reaming: Accurate holes are produced by reamers,
Finishing of hole to required size and tolerance
Countersinking: Operation of levelling the mouth of a
hole with a tool, Countersinks are made of various sizes
and angles.
Standard angles of Countersinks are 60, 82, 90 deg.
Tapping: Making internal threads on the holes already
made. Threads are made by tools called ‘tap’.
Spot facing: Operation of smoothing and squaring the
surface around a hole for the seat of a nut or the head of a
bolt. Spot facing tool may be used with a pilot that fits into
the drilled hole and acts as a guide.
Lapping: operation of sizing and finishing a small diameter
hole. Very small amount of material can be removed by
using a lapping tool.
Grinding and polishing: smoothening of holes.
Twist drill elements:

Axis – longitudinal centre line of drill

Body – Between the tip of drill to the neck
Body clearance – Portion of body surface which is reduced
in diameter to provide diameteral clearance.
Chisel edge – Edge formed by the intersection of flanks
also called as dead centre.
Chisel edge corner – Corner formed by the intersection of
a lip and the chisel edge
Face – portion of flute surface adjacent to the lip on which
the chip impinges as it is cut from the work.
Flank – surface of a drill point which extends behind the
lip to the following flute.
Heel – Edge formed by the intersection of the flute surface
and body clearance.
Lands - cylindrically ground surface on the bending edges
of the drill flutes
Lip (Cutting edge) – Edge formed by the intersection of
the flank and face.
Neck – Diametrically undercut portion between the body
and the shank of the drill.
Shank – part of the drill which is held and driven
- Taper shank
- Straight shank
Tang – Flattened end of the taper shank intended to fit into
a drift slot in the spindle, socket or drill holder.
Schematic view of a drilling machine
 Radial Drilling Machine
1. Bed, 2. Column, 3. Radial arm, 4. Radial arm
elevating motor, 5. Radial arm elevating screw, 6.
Spindle head transverse movement guide, 7. Spindle
motor, 8. Spindle head, 9. Spindle, 10. Table
 Broaching
Process of metal removal with the help of a no. of
successive teethes available on the broach.
Broach is a multiple edge-cutting tool that has successively
higher cutting edges along the length of the tool.
Basic Principle of Broaching
 Tool Nomenclature
Features of Pull type Broach

Types of broaches:
1) Based on type of operation: Internal & External
2) Method of operation: Push & Pull
3) Type of construction: Solid, Inserted tooth, Built up
or replaceable, Double jump or overlapping tooth
4) Function: Surface, Keyway, Holes, Splines etc.
Specification of a Broaching machine
- Length of the stroke
- Driving force (Rated pulling force – 10 /12 ton)
- Broaching speed (cutting stroke speed)
- Return stroke speed
- Type of drive
- Max size of cut
- Machine power (HP)
Advantages of Broaching process
- Rate of production is very high with suitable broaches,
fixtures & machines
- High accuracy & good surface finish (Tolerance of 
0.0075mm, surface finish of 0.8 micron is possible)
- Both roughing & finishing cuts are completed in one
pass of tool
- Process is applicable for both internal / external surface
finishing
- Any profile could be machined by giving different
shapes to the tools.

Limitations
- Tool cost is very high
- Not economical for short run jobs
- Not suitable for removal of large amount of stock
- Requires rigid machines to withstand the large amount of
forces developed during cutting
- Surfaces to be broached cannot have an obstruction.
- Very large w/p cannot be broached.
 Boring Machine
- Process of enlarging and finishing the drilled holes using
a single point cutting tool

Types of Boring machine

- Horizontal boring machine
- Table type
- Floor type
- Planer type
- Multiple head type
- Vertical boring machine
- Vertical turret lathe
- Standard vertical boring machine
- Precision boring machine
- Jig boring machine
- Vertical milling machine type
- Planer type

Specification of a Boring Machine

- Diameter of the spindle (varies from 75 to 355 mm)
- Heights of the columns
- Size of the table
 - Traverses of spindle, headstock and table
- Range of speeds, feeds & Power of motor

Working principle:
Work remains stationary and tool is rotated
Boring tool mountings
- Boring bar
- Boring head / cutter head
- Facing head

Boring bar
- supported by spindle – stub bar
- supported by spindle and end column
- supported by workpiece

Boring head
- used for mounting cutters while machining large
diameter holes
- hold 2 or more cutters
- reduces machining time due to large number of cutting
edges

Facing head
- Facing heads are mounted on the end of spindle
- Comprises a flange provided with a diametrical slide
way on which the tool can be adjusted
Bracket may be fed radially / located and clamped at the
centre for supporting along the bar.
 Slotting machine
Slotting machines can simply be considered as vertical
shaping machine where the single point (straight or formed)
reciprocates vertically (but without quick return effect) and
the workpiece, being mounted on the table.
In this machine also the length and position of stroke can
be adjusted.
Only light cuts are taken due to lack of rigidity of the tool
holding ram for cantilever mode of action.
Unlike shaping and planing machines, slotting machines
are generally used to machine internal surfaces (flat,
formed grooves and cylindrical).