Fundamentals of Beam Bracing

JOSEPH A. YURA

INTRODUCTION infinity when the buckling load is reached if the ideal brace
stiffness is used. Thus, a brace system will not be satisfac-
T he purpose of this paper is to provide a fairly compre-
hensive view of the subject of beam stability bracing.
Factors that affect bracing requirements will be discussed
tory if the theoretical ideal stiffness is provided because the
brace forces get too large. If the brace stiffness is overde-
signed, as represented by L = 2i and 3i curves in Figure
and design methods proposed which are illustrated by
2(b), then the brace forces will be more reasonable. For a
design examples. The design examples emphasize simplic-
brace stiffness twice the ideal value and a o = Lb/500, the
ity. Before going into specific topics related to beam brac-
brace force is only 0.8%Pe at P = Pe, not infinity as in the
ing, some important concepts developed for column bracing
ideal brace stiffness case. For a brace stiffness ten times the
by Winter (1960) will be presented because these concepts
ideal value, the brace force will reduce even further to 0.44
will be extended to beams later.
percent. At Pcr the brace force cannot be less than 0.4%P
For a perfectly straight column with a discrete midheight
corresponding to T = o (an infinitely stiff brace) for o =
brace stiffness L, the relationship between Pcr and L is
Lb/500. For design Fbr = 1%P is recommended based on a
shown in Figure 1 (Timoshenko and Gere, 1961). The col-
brace stiffness of twice the ideal value and an initial out-of-
umn buckles between brace points at full or ideal bracing;
straightness of Lb/500 because the Winter model gives
in this case the ideal brace stiffness i = 2Pe/ Lb where Pe =
slightly unconservative results for the midspan brace prob-
2EI/Lb2. Any brace with stiffness up to the ideal value will
lem (Plaut, 1993).
increase the column buckling load. Winter (1960) showed
Published bracing requirements for beams usually only
that effective braces require not only adequate stiffness but
consider the effect of brace stiffness because perfectly
also sufficient strength. The strength requirement is
straight beams are considered. Such solutions should not be
directly related to the magnitude of the initial out-of-
used directly in design. Similarly, design rules based on
straightness of the member to be braced.
strength considerations only, such as a 2 percent rule, can
The heavy solid line in Figure 2(a) shows the relationship
result in inadequate bracing systems. Both strength and
between T, the total displacement at midheight, and P for
stiffness of the brace system must be checked.
a column with a hinge assumed at the midheight brace point
(Winters model), an initial out-of-straightness o at mid-
BEAM BRACING SYSTEMS
height and a midheight brace stiffness equal to the ideal
value. For P = 0, T = o. When P increases and Beam bracing is a much more complicated topic than col-
approaches the buckling load, 2EI/Lb2, the total deflection umn bracing. This is due mainly to the fact that most col-
T becomes very large. For example, when the applied load umn buckling involves primarily bending whereas beam
is within five percent of the buckling load, T = 20o. If a buckling involves both flexure and torsion. An effective
brace stiffness twice the value of the ideal stiffness is used, beam brace resists twist of the cross section. In general,
much smaller deflections occur. When the load just reaches
the buckling load, T = 2o. For L = 3i and P = Pe, T
= 1.5o. The brace force, Fbr, is equal to (T - o )L and is
directly related to the magnitude of the initial imperfection.
If a member is fairly straight, the brace force will be small.
Conversely, members with large initial out-of-straightness
will require larger braces. If the brace stiffness is equal to
the ideal value, then the brace force gets very large as the
buckling load is approached because T gets very large as
shown in Figure 2(a). For example, at P = 0.95Pcr and o =
Lb/500, the brace force is 7.6 percent of Pe which is off the
scale of the graph. Theoretically the brace force will be

Joseph A.Yura is Cockrell Family Regents Chair in civil engi-

neering, University of Texas at Austin. Fig. 1. Effect of brace stiffness.

ENGINEERING JOURNAL / FIRST QUARTER / 2001 / 11

bracing may be divided into two main categories; lateral along the span length passes through one of the bracing
and torsional bracing as illustrated in Figure 3. Lateral members, the brace system is a relative type. Discrete sys-
bracing restrains lateral displacement as its name implies. tems can be represented by individual lateral springs along
The effectiveness of a lateral brace is related to the degree the span length. Temporary guy cables attached to the top
that twist of the cross section is restrained. For a simply flange of a girder during erection would be a discrete brac-
supported I-beam subjected to uniform moment, the center ing system. A lean-on system relies on the lateral buckling
of twist is located at a point outside the tension flange; the strength of lightly loaded adjacent girders to laterally sup-
top flange moves laterally much more than the bottom port a more heavily loaded girder when all the girders are
flange. Therefore, a lateral brace restricts twist best when it horizontally tied together. In a lean-on system all girders
is located at the top flange. Lateral bracing attached at the must buckle simultaneously. In continuous bracing sys-
bottom flange of a simply supported beam is almost totally tems, there is no unbraced length. In this paper only rel-
ineffective. A torsional brace can be differentiated from a ative and discrete systems that provide full bracing will be
lateral brace in that twist of the cross section is restrained considered. Design recommendations for lean-on systems
directly, as in the case of twin beams with a cross frame or and continuous lateral bracing are given elsewhere (Yura,
diaphragm between the members. The cross frame loca- Phillips, Raju, and Webb, 1992). Torsional brace systems
tion, while able to displace laterally, is still considered a can be discrete or continuous (decking) as shown in Figure
brace point because twist is prevented. Some systems such 3. Both types are considered herein.
as concrete slabs can act both as lateral and torsional braces. Some of the factors that affect brace design are shown in
Bracing that controls both lateral movement and twist is Figure 5. A lateral brace should be attached where it best
more effective than lateral or torsional braces acting alone offsets the twist. For a cantilever beam in (a), the best loca-
(Tong and Chen, 1988; Yura and Phillips, 1992). However, tion is the top tension flange, not the compression flange.
since bracing requirements are so minimal, it is more prac- Top flange loading reduces the effectiveness of a top flange
tical to develop separate design recommendations for these brace because such loading causes the center of twist to
two types of systems. shift toward the top flange as shown in (b), from its position
Lateral bracing can be divided into four categories: rela- below the flange when the load is at the midheight of the
tive, discrete (nodal), continuous and lean-on. A relative beam. Larger lateral braces are required for top flange load-
brace system controls the relative lateral movement ing. If cross members provide bracing above the top flange,
between two points along the span of the girder. The top case (c), the compression flange can still deflect laterally if
flange horizontal truss system shown in Figure 4 is an stiffeners do not prevent cross-section distortion. In the fol-
example of a relative brace system. The system relies on lowing sections the effect of loading conditions, load loca-
the fact that if the individual girders buckle laterally, points tion, brace location and cross-section distortion on brace
a and b would move different amounts. Since the diagonal requirements will be presented. All the cases considered
brace prevents points a and b from moving different were solved using an elastic finite element program identi-
amounts, lateral buckling cannot occur except between the fied as BASP in the figures (Akay, Johnson, and Will, 1977;
brace points. Typically, if a perpendicular cut anywhere Choo, 1987). The solutions and the design recommenda-

Fig. 2. Braced Winter column with initial out-of-straightness.

12 / ENGINEERING JOURNAL / FIRST QUARTER / 2001

tions presented are consistent with the work of others: and Ojalvo (1966), Tong and Chen (1988), Trahair and
Kirby and Nethercot (1979), Lindner and Schmidt (1982), Nethercot (1982), Wakabayashi and Nakamura (1983), and
Medland (1980), Milner (1977), Nakamura (1988), Naka- Wang and Nethercot (1989).
mura and Wakabayashi (1981), Nethercot (1989), Taylor
LATERAL BRACING OF BEAMS

Behavior
The uniform moment condition is the basic case for lateral
buckling of beams. If a lateral brace is placed at the
midspan of such a beam, the effect of different brace sizes
(stiffness) is illustrated by the finite element solutions for a
W1626 section 20-ft long in Figure 6. For a brace
attached to the top (compression) flange, the beam buckling
capacity initially increases almost linearly as the brace
stiffness increases. If the brace stiffness is less than
1.6 k/in., the beam buckles in a shape resembling a half sine
curve. Even though there is lateral movement at the brace
point, the load increase can be more than three times the
unbraced case. The ideal brace stiffness required to force
the beam to buckle between lateral supports is 1.6 k/in. in

Fig. 3. Types of beam bracing.

Fig. 5. Factors that affect brace stiffness.

Fig. 4. Relative bracing. Fig. 6. Effect of lateral brace location.

ENGINEERING JOURNAL / FIRST QUARTER / 2001 / 13

this example. Any brace stiffness greater than this value between the braces. The load position effect must be con-
does not increase the beam buckling capacity and the buck- sidered in the brace design requirements. This effect is
led shape is a full sine curve. When the brace is attached at even more important if the lateral brace is attached at the
the top flange, there is no cross section distortion. No stiff- centroid. The results shown in Figure 8 indicate that a cen-
ener is required at the brace point. troid brace is almost totally ineffective for top flange load-
A lateral brace placed at the centroid of the cross section ing. This is not due to cross section distortion since a
requires an ideal stiffness of 11.4 kips/in. if a 4 1/4 stiffener stiffener was used at the brace point. The top flange load-
is attached at midspan and 53.7 kips/in. (off scale) if no ing causes the center of twist at buckling to shift to a posi-
stiffener is used. Substantially more bracing is required for tion close to mid-depth for most practical unbraced lengths,
the no stiffener case because of web distortion at the brace as shown in Figure 5. Since there is virtually no lateral dis-
point. The centroidal bracing system is less efficient than placement near the centroid for top flange loading, a lateral
the top flange brace because the centroidal brace force brace at the centroid will not brace the beam. Because of
causes the center of twist to move above the bottom flange cross-section distortion and top flange loading effects, lat-
and closer to the brace point, which is undesirable for lat- eral braces at the centroid are not recommended. Lateral
eral bracing. braces must be placed near the top flange of simply sup-
For the case of a beam with a concentrated centroid load ported and overhanging spans. Design recommendations
at midspan, shown in Figure 7, the moment varies along the will be developed only for the top flange lateral bracing sit-
length. The ideal centroid brace (110 kips/in.) is 44 times uation. Torsional bracing near the centroid or even the bot-
larger than the ideal top flange brace (2.5 kips/in.). For both tom flange can be effective as discussed later.
brace locations, cross-section distortion had a minor effect The load position effect discussed above assumes that the
on Pcr (less than 3 percent). The maximum beam moment load remains vertical during buckling and passes through
at midspan when the beam buckles between the braces is the plane of the web. In the laboratory, a top flange loading
1.80 times greater than the uniform moment case which is condition is achieved by loading through a knife-edge at the
close to the Cb factor of 1.75 given in specifications (AISC, middle of the flange. In actual structures the load is applied
AASHTO). This higher buckling moment is the main rea- to the beams through secondary members or the slab itself.
son why the ideal top flange brace requirement is 1.56 times Loading through the deck can provide a beneficial restor-
greater (2.49 versus 1.6 kips/in.) than the uniform moment ing effect illustrated in Figure 9. As the beam tries to
case. buckle, the contact point shifts from mid-flange to the
Figure 8 shows the effects of load and brace position on flange tip resulting in a restoring torque that increases the
the buckling strength of laterally braced beams. If the load buckling capacity. Unfortunately, cross-section distortion
is at the top flange, the effectiveness of a top flange brace is severely limits the benefits of tipping. Lindner and Schmidt
greatly reduced. For example, for a brace stiffness of (1982) developed a solution for the tipping effect, which
2.5 kips/in., the beam would buckle between the ends and considers the flange-web distortion. Test data (Lindner and
the midspan brace at a centroid load close to 50 kips. If the Schmidt, 1982; Raju, Webb, and Yura, 1992) indicate that a
load is at the top flange, the beam will buckle at a load of cross member merely resting (not positively attached) on
28 kips. For top flange loading, the ideal top flange brace the top flange can significantly increase the lateral buckling
would have to be increased to 6.2 kips/in. to force buckling capacity. The restoring solution is sensitive to the initial

Fig. 7. Midspan load at centroid. Fig. 8. Effect of brace and load position.

14 / ENGINEERING JOURNAL / FIRST QUARTER / 2001

shape of the cross section and location of the load point on For the two load cases the moment diagrams between brace
the flange. Because of these difficulties, it is recommended points are similar, maximum moment at one end and zero
that the restoring effect not be considered in design. moment at the other end. In design, a Cb value of 1.75 is
When a beam is bent in double curvature, the compres- used for these cases which corresponds to an expected max-
sion flange switches from the top flange to the bottom imum moment of 2,810 kip-in. The double curvature case
flange at the inflection point. Beams with compression in reached a maximum moment 25 percent higher because of
both the top and bottom flanges along the span have more warping restraint provided at midspan by the adjacent ten-
severe bracing requirements than beams with compression sion flange. In the concentrated load case, no such restraint
on just one side as illustrated by the comparison of the cases is available since the compression flanges of both unbraced
given in Figure 10. The solid lines are finite element solu- segments are adjacent to each other. On the other hand, the
tions for a 20-ft long W1626 beam subjected to equal but brace stiffness at each flange must be 9.2 times the ideal
opposite end moments and with lateral bracing at the value of the concentrated load case to achieve the 25 per-
midspan inflection point. For no bracing the buckling cent increase. Since warping restraint is usually ignored in
moment is 1,350 kip-in. A brace attached to one flange is design Mcr = 2,810 kip-in. is the maximum design moment.
ineffective for reverse curvature because twist at midspan is At this moment level, the double curvature case requires a
not prevented. If lateral bracing is attached to both flanges, brace stiffness of 5.6 kips/in. which is about twice that
the buckling moment increases nonlinearly as the brace required for the concentrated load case. The results in Fig-
stiffness increases to 24 kips/in., the ideal value shown by ure 10 show that not only is it incorrect to assume that an
the black dot. Greater brace stiffness has no effect because inflection point is a brace point but also that bracing
buckling occurs between the brace points. The ideal brace requirements for beams with inflection points are greater
stiffness for a beam with a concentrated midspan load is 2.6 than cases of single curvature. For other cases of double
kips/in. at Mcr = 2,920 kip-in. as shown by the dashed lines. curvature, such as uniformly loaded beams with end
restraint (moments), the observations are similar.
Up to this point, only beams with a single midspan lateral
brace have been discussed. The bracing effect of a beam
with multiple braces is shown in Figure 11. The response
of a beam with three equally spaced braces is shown by the
solid line. When the lateral brace stiffness, L, is less than
0.14 kips/in., the beam will buckle in a single wave. In this
region a small increase in brace stiffness greatly increases
the buckling load. For 0.14 < L < 1.14, the buckled shape
switches to two waves and the relative effectiveness of the
lateral brace is reduced. For 1.4 < L < 2.75, the buckled
shape is three waves. The ideal brace stiffness is 2.75
kips/in. at which the unbraced length can be considered 10
Fig. 9. Tipping effect. ft. For the 20-ft span with a single brace at midspan dis-
cussed previously which is shown by the dashed line, a

Fig. 10. Beams with inflection points.

Fig. 11. Multiple lateral bracing.

ENGINEERING JOURNAL / FIRST QUARTER / 2001 / 15

brace stiffness of only 1.6 kips/in. was required to reduce a simpler design alternative based on Winters approach
the unbraced length to 10 ft. Thus the number of lateral was developed (Yura et al., 1992) and is presented below.
braces along the span affects the brace requirements. Simi- For elastic beams under uniform moment, the Winter
lar behavior has been derived for columns (Timoshenko and ideal lateral brace stiffness required to force buckling
Gere, 1961) where changing from one brace to three braces between the braces is
required an increase in ideal column brace stiffness of 1.71,
which is the same as that shown in Figure 11 for beams, i = NiPf/Lb
2.75/1.6 = 1.72.
Yura and Phillips (1992) report the results of a test pro- where
gram on the lateral and torsional bracing of beams for com- Pf = 2EIyc/Lb2
parison with the theoretical studies presented above. Some Iyc = out-of-plane moment of inertia of the compression
typical test results show good correlation with the finite ele- flange which is Iy/2 for doubly symmetric cross sec-
ment solutions in Figure 12. Since the theoretical results tions
were reliable, significant variables from the theory were Ni = coefficient depending on the number of braces n
included in the development of the design recommenda- within the span, as given in Table 1 (Winter, 1960)
tions given in the following section. In summary, moment or approximated by Ni = 4 - (2/n).
gradient, brace location, load location, brace stiffness and The Cb factor given in design specifications for nonuni-
number of braces affect the buckling strength of laterally form moment diagrams can be used to estimate the
braced beams. The effect of cross-section distortion can be increased brace requirements for other loading cases. For
effectively eliminated by placing the lateral brace near the example, for a simply supported beam with a load and brace
top flange. at midspan shown in Figure 7, the full bracing stiffness
required is 1.56 times greater than the uniform moment
Lateral Brace Design case. The value of Cb equal to 1.75 for this loading case pro-
vides a conservative estimate of the increase. An additional
In the previous section it was shown that the buckling load modifying factor Cd = 1 + (MS/ML)2 is required when there
increases as the brace stiffness increases until full bracing are inflection points along the span (double curvature),
causes the beam to buckle between braces. In many where MS and ML are the maximum moments causing com-
instances the relationship between bracing stiffness and pression in the top and bottom flanges as shown in
buckling load is nonlinear as evidenced by the response Figure 13. The moment ratio must be equal to or less than
shown in Figure 11 for multiple braces. A general design one, so Cd varies between 1 and 2. In double curvature
equation has been developed for braced beams, which gives cases lateral braces must be attached to both flanges. Top
good correlation with exact solutions for the entire range of flange loading increases the brace requirements even when
zero bracing to full bracing (Yura et al., 1992). That braced bracing is provided at the load point. The magnitude of the
beam equation is applicable to both continuous and discrete increase is affected by the number of braces along the span
bracing systems, but it is fairly complicated. In most design as given by the modifying factor CL = 1 + (1.2/n). For one
situations full bracing is assumed or desired, that is, buck- brace CL = 2.2, however, for many braces top flange load-
ling between the brace points is assumed. For full bracing, ing has no effect on brace requirements, i.e., CL = 1.0.
In summary, a modified Winters ideal bracing stiffness
can be defined as follows:
N i Cb P f
*i = CL Cd (1)
Lb

Fig. 12. Lateral bracing tests. Fig. 13. Double curvature.

16 / ENGINEERING JOURNAL / FIRST QUARTER / 2001

 Table 1. Brace Coefficient brace requirements for columns (Yura, 1995). The lateral
brace design recommendations, given in Chart 1, are based
Number Brace
of Braces Coefficient on an initial out-of-straightness of adjacent brace points of
Lb/500. For discrete braces the combined values of Ni and
1 2
CL vary between 4.0 and 4.8 for all values of n, so Equation
2 3
2 can be simplified for all situations to L* = 10Mf/hLb for
3 3.41 single curvature and L* = 20Mf/hLb for double curvature.
4 3.63 For relative bracing Equation 2 becomes 4Mf/hLb for single
Many 4.0 curvature and CL= 2.0.
Some adjustments to the design requirements are neces-
sary to account for the different design code methodologies,
i.e. allowable stress design, load factor design, etc. In
Chart 1. Lateral Bracing Design Requirements AASHTO-LFD and AISC-LRFD, Mf is the factored
moment and in Allowable Stress Design, Mf is based on
Stiffness: service loads. The CbPf form of Equation 2 can be used
directly for all specifications because it is based on geo-
L* = 2Ni(CbPf)CLCd/Lb or 2Ni (Mf/h)CLCD/Lb (2) metric properties of the beam, i.e. L L* where L is the
brace stiffness provided. The brace strength requirements,
where Equations 3 and 4, can also be used directly since the design
Ni = 4 - (2/n) or the coefficient in Table 1 for discrete strengths or resistances given in each code are consistent
bracing; = 1.0 for relative bracing with the appropriate factored or service loads. Only the
CbPf = Cb2EIyc/Lb2; or = (Mf/h) where Mf is the maximum Mf/h form of Equation 2, which relies on the applied load
beam moment level used in the structural analysis must be altered as fol-
CL = 1 + (1.2/n) for top flange loading; = 1.0 for other lows:
loading
Cd = 1 + (MS/ML)2 for double curvature; = 1.0 for sin- AISC-LRFD: L L*/ where = 0.75 is recommended
gle curvature AISC-ASD: L 2L* where 2 is a safety factor
n = number of braces (load factor = 1.5)/
AASHTO-LFD: L L* no change
Strength: The discrete and relative lateral bracing requirements are
Discrete bracing: Fbr = 0.01CLCdMf/h (3) illustrated in the following two design examples.
Relative bracing: Fbr = 0.004CLCdMf/h (4)
Lateral Brace Design Examples
Two different lateral bracing systems are used to stabilize
For the W12x14 beams laterally braced at midspan five composite steel plate girders during bridge construc-
shown in Figure 12, Lb = 144 in., Ni = 2, Cb = 1.75, CL = 1 tion: a discrete bracing system in Example 1 and relative
+ 1.2/1 = 2.2, and Pf = 2 (29,000) (2.32/2)/(144)2 = bracing in Example 2. The AASHTO-Load Factor Design
16.01 kips. Therefore, the lateral brace stiffness, i* is Specification is used. Each brace shown dashed in Exam-
0.856 kips/in. which is shown by the * in Figure 12. Equa- ple 1 controls the lateral movement of one point along the
tion 1 compares very favorably with the test results and span, whereas the diagonals in the top flange truss system
with the finite element results. For design, the ideal stiff- shown in Example 2 control the relative lateral displace-
ness given by Equation 1 must be doubled for beams with ment of two adjacent points. Relative systems require less
initial out-of-straightness so brace forces can be maintained than 1/2 the brace force and from 1/2 to 1/4 of the stiffness for
at reasonable levels as discussed earlier. The brace force discrete systems. In both examples, a tension type struc-
requirement for beams follows directly from the column tural system was used but the bracing formulas are also
Fbr = 0.01P for discrete braces given earlier. The column applicable to compression systems such as K-braces. In
load P is replaced by the equivalent compressive beam Example 1 the full bracing requirements for strength and
flange force, either (CbPf) or Mf/h, where Mf is the maxi- stiffness given by Equations 2 and 3 are based on each
mum beam moment and h is the distance between flange brace stabilizing five girders. Since the moment diagram
centroids. The Mf/h estimate of the flange force is applica- gives compression in one flange, Cd for double curvature is
ble for both the elastic and inelastic regions. For relative not considered, i.e. Cd = 1.0.
bracing the force requirement for beams is 0.004P (adjusted In both examples, stiffness controls the brace area, not
by CL and Cd), which follows directly from the relative the strength requirement. In Example 1 the stiffness crite-

ENGINEERING JOURNAL / FIRST QUARTER / 2001 / 17

rion required a brace area 3.7 times greater than the strength the solid dot at 1,450 in-k/radian in Figure 14. The differ-
formula. Even if the brace was designed for 2 percent of the ence between the Tong and Chen solution and the BASP
compression flange force (a commonly used bracing rule), results is due to web distortion. Their solution would
the brace system would be inadequate. It is important to require a 6 3/8 stiffener to reach the maximum buckling
recognize that both stiffness and strength must be adequate load. If the Tong and Chen ideal stiffness (1,450 in.-
for a satisfactory bracing system. k/radian) is used with a 2.67 1/4 stiffener, the buckling load
is reduced by 14 percent; no stiffener gives a 51 percent
TORSIONAL BRACING OF BEAMS reduction.
Figure 15 shows that torsional bracing on the tension
Examples of torsional bracing systems were shown in Fig-
flange (dashed line) is just as effective as compression
ure 3. Twist can be prevented by attaching a deck to the top
flange bracing (solid line), even with no stiffener. If the
flange of a simply supported beam, by floor beams attached
beam has no stiffeners, splitting bracing equally between
near the bottom tension flange of through girders or by
the two flanges gives a greater capacity than placing all the
diaphragms located near the centroid of the stringer. Twist
bracing on just one flange. The dot-dash curve is the solu-
can also be restrained by cross frames that prevent the rela-
tion if transverse stiffeners prevent web distortion. The dis-
tive movement of the top and bottom flanges. The effec-
tortion does not have to be gross to affect strength, as shown
tiveness of torsional braces attached at different locations
in Figure 16 for a total torsional brace stiffness of 3,000 in.-
on the cross section will be presented.
k/radian. If the W1626 section has transverse stiffeners,
the buckled cross section at midspan has no distortion as
Behavior
shown by the heavy solid lines and Mcr = 1,582 kip-in. If
The finite element solution for a simply supported beam no stiffeners are used, the buckling load drops to 1,133 kip-
with a top flange torsional brace attached at midspan is in., a 28 percent decrease, yet there is only slight distortion
shown in Figure 14. The buckling strength-brace stiffness as shown by the dashed shape. The overall angle of twist
relationships are non-linear and quite different from the top
flange lateral bracing linear response given in Figure 6 for
the same beam and loading. For top flange lateral bracing
a stiffener has no effect. A torsional brace can only increase
the buckling capacity about fifty percent above the
unbraced case if no stiffener is used. Local cross-section
distortion at midspan reduces the brace effectiveness. If a
web stiffener is used with the torsional brace attached to the
compression flange, then the buckling strength will increase
until buckling occurs between the braces at 3.3 times the
unbraced capacity. The ideal or full bracing requires a stiff-
ness of 1,580 in.-k/radian for a 4 1/4 stiffener and 3,700 in.-
k/radian for a 2.67 1/4 stiffener. Tong and Chen (1988)
developed a closed form solution for ideal torsional brace
stiffness neglecting cross-section distortion that is given by

Fig. 15. Effect of torsional brace location.

Fig. 14. Torsional brace at midspan. Fig. 16. Effect of cross-section distortion.

18 / ENGINEERING JOURNAL / FIRST QUARTER / 2001

for the braced beam is much smaller than the twist in the into two waves when the moment reached 600 kip-in. and
unbraced case (dot-dash curve). then into three waves at Mcr = 1,280 kip-in. For torsional
The effect of load position on torsionally braced beams is bracing, the single wave controlled up to Mcr = 1,520 kip-
not very significant, as shown in Figure 17. The difference in. Since the maximum moment of 1,600 kip-in. corre-
in load between the curves for top flange and centroid load- sponds to buckling between the braces, it can be assumed,
ing for braced beams is almost equal to the difference in for design purposes, that torsionally braced beams buckle in
strength for the unbraced beams (zero brace stiffness). The a single wave until the brace stiffness is sufficient to force
ideal brace stiffness for top flange loading is only 18 per- buckling between the braces. The figure also shows that a
cent greater than for centroidal loading. For lateral bracing single torsional brace at midspan of a 20-ft span (unbraced
(see Figure 8), the ideal brace stiffness for top flange load- length = 10 ft) requires about the same ideal brace stiffness
ing is 2.5 times that for centroidal loading. as three braces spaced at 10 ft. In the lateral brace case the
Figure 18 summarizes the behavior of a 40-ft span with three brace system requires 1.7 times the ideal stiffness of
three equal torsional braces spaced 10-ft apart. The beam the single brace system, as shown in Figure 11.
was stiffened at each brace point to control the distortion. Tests have been conducted on torsionally braced beams
The response is non-linear and follows the pattern dis- with various stiffener details which are presented elsewhere
cussed earlier for a single brace. For brace stiffness less (Yura and Phillips, 1992). The tests show good agreement
than 1,400 in.-k/radian, the stringer buckled into a single with the finite element solutions.
wave. Only in the stiffness range of 1,400-1,600 in.-
k/radian did multi-wave buckled shapes appear. The ideal Buckling Strength of Torsionally Braced Beams
brace stiffness at each location was slightly greater than
Taylor and Ojalvo (1966) give the following exact equation
1,600 in.-k/radian. This behavior is very different than the
for the critical moment of a doubly symmetric beam under
multiple lateral bracing case for the same beam shown in
uniform moment with continuous torsional bracing
Figure 11. For multiple lateral bracing the beam buckled
M cr = M o2 + b EI y (5)

where
_Mo = buckling capacity of the unbraced beam, kip-in.
b = attached torsional brace stiffness (in.-k/rad per in.
length)
Equation 5, which assumes no cross section distortion, is
shown by the dot-dash line in Figure 19. The solid lines are
finite element results for a W1626 section with no stiffen-
ers and spans of 10 ft, 20 ft, and 30 ft under uniform
moment with braces attached to the compression flange.
Cross-section distortion causes the poor correlation
between Equation 5 and the BASP results. Milner (1977)
showed that cross-section distortion could be handled by
Fig. 17. Effect of load position.

Fig. 18. Multiple torsional braces. Fig. 19. Approximate buckling formula.

ENGINEERING JOURNAL / FIRST QUARTER / 2001 / 19

using an effective brace stiffness, T, which has been where b is the stiffness of the attached brace, sec is the
expanded (Yura et al., 1992) to include the effect of stiffen- cross-section web stiffness and g is the girder system stiff-
ers and other factors as follows: ness. The effective brace stiffness is less than the smallest
of b, sec or g.
1 1 1 1
= + + (6) The torsional brace stiffness, b, of some common tor-
T b sec g sional brace systems is given in Figures 20 and 21. The
choice between the two cases shown in Figure 20 is based
on the deck details. If the distance between the flanges of
adjacent girders is maintained constant by a floor slab or
decking, then all the girders must sway in the same direc-
tion and the diaphragm stiffness is 6EIb/S. On the other
hand, if adjacent compression flanges can separate as
shown for the through girders, then the diaphragm stiffness
will be 2EIb/S. The torsional bracing stiffnesses shown in
Figure 20 assume that the connection between the girder
and the brace can support a bracing moment Mbr. If par-
tially restrained connections are used, their flexibility
should also be included in Equation 6. Elastic truss analy-
ses were used to derive the stiffness of the cross frame sys-
tems shown in Figure 21. If the diagonals of an X-system
Fig. 20. Torsional bracing stiffness.

Fig. 21. Stiffness formulas for twin girder cross frames.

20 / ENGINEERING JOURNAL / FIRST QUARTER / 2001

are designed for tension only, then horizontal members are ts = thickness of stiffener, in.
required in the system. In the K-brace system a top hori- bs = width of stiffener, in.
zontal is not required. N = contact length of the torsional brace as shown in
In cross frames and diaphragms the brace moments Mbr Figure 23, in.
are reacted by vertical forces on the main girders as shown For continuous bracing use an effective _ unit width (1 in.)
in Figure 22. These forces increase some main girder _ in Equation 8 and b in place of b in
instead of (N + 1.5h)
moments and decrease others. The effect is greater for the Equation 6 to get T. The dashed lines in Figure 19 based
twin girder system B compared to the interconnected sys- on Equations 5 and 6 show good agreement with the finite
tem A. The vertical couple causes a differential displace- element solutions. For the 10-ft and 20-ft spans, the finite
ment in adjacent girders which reduces the torsional element analyses and Equation 6 are almost identical.
stiffness of the cross frame system. For a brace only at Other cases with discrete braces and different size stiffeners
midspan in a twin girder system the contribution of the in- also show good agreement.
plane girder flexibility to the brace system stiffness is In general, stiffeners or connection details such as clip
12 S 2 EI x angles can be used to control distortion. For decks and
g = (7) through girders, the stiffener must be attached to the flange
L3 that is braced. Diaphragms are usually W shapes or chan-
where nel sections connected to the web of the stringer or girders
Ix = strong axis moment of inertia of one girder, in.4 through clip angles, shear tabs or stiffeners. When full
L = the span length, in. depth stiffeners or connection details are used to control
As the number of girders increase, the effect of girder distortion, the stiffener size that gives the desired stiffness
stiffness will be less significant. In multi-girder systems, can be determined from Equation 8. For partial depth stiff-
the factor 12 in Equation 7 can be conservatively changed ening illustrated in Figure 24, the stiffnesses of the various
to 24 (ng - 1)2/ng where ng is the number of girders. For sections of the web (i = c, s, or t) can be evaluated sep-
example, in a six-girder system the factor becomes 100 or arately using Equation 9 with hi = hc, hs, or ht,
more than eight times the twin girder value of 12. Helwig,
Yura, and Frank (1993) have shown that for twin girders the i =
3.3E hF I FG b N + 1.5h gt
2
i
3
w
+
t s bs3 I
JK (9)
strong axis stiffness factor g is significant and Equation 7 hi hiGH JK H 12 12
can be used even when there is more than one brace along
the span. and then combined as follows:
Cross-section distortion can be approximated by consid-
ering the flexibility of the web, including full depth stiffen- 1 1 1 1
= + + (10)
ers if any, as follows: sec c s t

sec = 3.3
E F ( N + 1.5h ) t 3
w t s b 3s I (8)
h GH 12 +
12 JK The portion of the web within hb can be considered infi-
nitely stiff. The unstiffened depths, hc and ht, are measured
where from the flange centroid. For rolled sections, if the
tw = thickness of web, in.
h = distance between flange centroids, in.

Fig. 22. Beam load from braces. Fig. 23. Effective web width.

ENGINEERING JOURNAL / FIRST QUARTER / 2001 / 21

diaphragm connection extends over at least one-half the where Iyc and Iyt are the lateral moment of inertia of the
beam depth, then cross-section distortion will not be signif- compression flange and tension flange respectively, and c
icant because the webs are fairly stocky compared to built- and t are the distances from the neutral bending axis to the
up sections. The depth of the diaphragm, hs, can be less centroid of the compression and tension flanges respec-
than one-half the girder depth as long as it provides the nec- tively, as shown in Figure 25(a). For a doubly symmetric
essary stiffness to reach the required moment. Cross frames section, c = t and Equation 11 reduces to Iy. A comparison
without web stiffeners should have a depth hs of at least 3/4 between the BASP solutions and Equations 5 and 11 for
of the beam depth to minimize distortion. The location of a three different girders with torsional braces is shown in Fig-
diaphragm or cross frame on the cross section is not very ure 25(b). The curves for the W1626 section show very
important; i.e. it does not have to be located close to the good agreement. In the other two cases, one of the flanges
compression flange. The stiffeners or connection angles of the W1626 section was increased to 10 . In one case
do not have to be welded to the flanges when diaphragms the small flange is in tension and in the other case, the com-
are used. For cross frames, s should be taken as infinity, as pression flange is the smallest. In all cases Equation 11 is
only ht and hc will affect distortion. If stiffeners are in good agreement with the theoretical buckling load given
required for flange connected torsional braces on rolled by the finite element analyses.
beams, they should extend at least 3/4 depth to be fully effec- Equation 5 shows that the buckling load increases with-
tive. out limit as the continuous torsional brace stiffness
Equation 5 was developed for doubly-symmetric sec- increases. When enough bracing is provided, yielding will
tions. The torsional bracing effect for singly-symmetric control the beam strength so Mcr cannot exceed My, the
sections can be approximated by replacing Iy in Equation 5 yield or plastic strength of the section. It was found that
with Ieff defined as follows: Equation 5 for continuous bracing could be adapted for dis-
t crete torsional braces by summing the stiffness of each
I eff = I yc + I yt (11) brace along the span and dividing by the beam length to get
c
an equivalent continuous brace stiffness. In this case Mcr
will be limited to Mbp, the moment corresponding to buck-
ling between the brace points. By adjusting Equation 5 for
top flange loading and other loading conditions, the follow-
ing general formula can be used for the buckling strength of
torsionally braced beams:
2
Cbb T E I eff
M cr = 2
Cbu M o2 + M y or M bp (12)
CT

where
Fig. 24. Partially stiffened webs.
Cbu and Cbb = two limiting Cb factors corresponding to an

Fig. 25. Singly-symmetric girders.

22 / ENGINEERING JOURNAL / FIRST QUARTER / 2001

 unbraced beam (very weak braces) and an three equally spaced braces along the span. Stiffeners at_the
effectively braced beam (buckling between three brace points prevent cross-section distortion so T =
the braces) (3b/288 in.). Two horizontal cutoffs for Equation 12 corre-
CT = top flange loading modification factor; CT = sponding to the theoretical moment at buckling between the
1.2 for top flange loading and CT = 1.0 for braces are shown. The K = 1.0 limit assumes that the criti-
centroidal loading cal unbraced length, which is adjacent to the midspan load,
T = equivalent effective continuous torsional is not restrained by the more lightly loaded end spans. To
brace stiffness (in.-k/radian/in. length) from account for the effect of the end span restraint, an effective
Equation 6. The following two cases illus- length factor K = 0.88 was calculated using the procedure
trate the accuracy of Equation 12. given in the SSRC Guide (Galambos, 1988). Figure 27
For the case of an unbraced beam with a concentrated shows that it is impractical to rely on side span end restraint
load at the midspan as shown in Figure 26, Cbu = 1.35 in determining the buckling load between braces. An infi-
(Galambos, 1988). Usually designers conservatively use nitely stiff brace is required to reach a moment correspon-
Cb = 1.0 for this case. For the beam assumed braced at mid- ding to K = 0.88. If a K factor of 1 is used in the buckling
span, Cbb = 1.75 for a straight-line moment diagram with strength formula, the comparison between Equation 12 and
zero moment at one end of the unbraced length. These two the finite element analysis is good. Equation 12 should not
values of Cb are used with any value of brace torsional stiff- be used with K factors less than 1.0; the results will be
ness in Equation 12. For accuracy at small values of brace unconservative at moments approaching the full bracing
stiffness the unbraced buckling capacity CbuMo should also case. Similar results were obtained for laterally braced
consider top flange loading effects. Equation 12 shows beams (Yura et al., 1992).
excellent agreement with the finite element solutions. With
no stiffener, sec from Equation 8 is 114 in.-k/radian, so the Torsional Brace Design
effective brace stiffness T from Equation 6 cannot be
There are two basic torsional bracing systems shown in Fig-
greater than 114 regardless of the brace stiffness magnitude
ures 20 and 21: bending members represented by
at midspan. Equations 6, 8 and 12 predict the buckling very
diaphragms, decks or floor beams; and trusses for the cross
accurately for all values of attached bracing, even at very
frames. The two systems can be correlated by noting that
low values of bracing stiffness. A 4 1/4 stiffener increased
Mbr = Fbrhb, where hb is the depth of the cross frame. The
sec from 114 to 11,000 in.-k/radian. This makes the effec-
term brace forces used hereinafter refers to both Mbr and
tive brace stiffness very close to the applied stiffness, b.
Fbr. Equation 12 gives the relationship between brace stiff-
With a 4 1/4 stiffener, the effective stiffness is 138 in.-
ness and Mcr for an ideally straight beam. For beams with
k/radian if the attached brace stiffness is 140 in.-k/radian.
an initial twist, o, it is assumed that the brace design
The bracing equations can be used to determine the required
requirements are affected in a similar manner as that devel-
stiffener size to reduce the effect of distortion to some tol-
oped for lateral bracing of beams with _ initial out-of-
erance level, say 5 percent.
straightness. The required brace stiffness T, which must be
In Figure 27 the approximate buckling strength, Equa-
at least twice the ideal stiffness to keep brace forces small,
tion 12, and the theoretical solution are compared for the
can be obtained by rearranging Equation 12:
case of a concentrated midspan load at the centroid with

Fig. 26. Effect of stiffener. Fig. 27. Multiple discrete braces.

ENGINEERING JOURNAL / FIRST QUARTER / 2001 / 23

 * 2 2 2 CT discussed earlier for the lateral brace requirements:
e
T = 2 M cr - Cbu M o jC
E I eff 2 (13) AISC-LRFD: T T/ where = 0.75;Mbrno change
bb
AISC-ASD: T 3T where 3 = (1.5)2/; Mallow1.5Mbr
_
For discrete braces T = T L/n. The torsional brace AASHTO-LFD:T T no change; Mbrno change
strength requirement is Mbr = *T o. An initial twist, o =
0.002Lb/h is recommended. This value is consistent with the Torsional Brace Design Examples
initial lateral displacement of 0.002Lb used in the develop- In Example 3 a diaphragm torsional bracing system is
ment of the lateral bracing requirements. Equation 13 can designed by the AASHTO-LFD specification to stabilize
be conservatively simplified by neglecting the CbuMo term the five steel girders during construction as described in
which will be small compared to Mcr at full bracing and by Examples 1 and 2 for lateral bracing. The strength crite-
taking the maximum CT, which is 1.2 for top flange loading. rion, Equation 15, is initially assumed to control the size of
The simplified stiffness and brace force requirements are the diaphragm. Both yielding and buckling of the
given in Chart 2. diaphragm are checked and a C1015.3 section has suffi-
cient strength to brace the girders. It appears that a smaller
Chart 2. Torsional Bracing Design Requirements channel section could be used but stiffness must also be
checked. The stiffness of the C1015.3 section, 195,500
Stiffness: in.-k/radian, is much greater than required, but the connec-
* tion to the web of the girder and the in-plane girder flexi-
*T = T L /n = 2.4 LM 2f / ( nEI eff Cbb
2
) (14) bility also affect the stiffness. In this example, the in-plane
Strength: girder stiffness is very large and its affect on the brace sys-
tem stiffness is only 2 percent. In most practical designs,
M br = Fbr = 0.005LL b M 2f / nhEI eff Cbb
2
e j (15) except for twin girders, this effect can be ignored. If a full
where depth connection stiffener is used, a 3/8 31/2 - in. plate is
Mf = maximum beam moment required. The weld design between the channel and the
Ieff = Iyc + (t/c)Iyt; = Iy for doubly symmetric sections stiffener, which is not shown, must transmit the bracing
(see Figure 25 ) moment of 143 kip-in. If a smaller diaphragm is used, the
Cbb = moment diagram modification factor for the full stiffener size will increase.
bracing condition The 40-in. deep cross frame design in Example 4
L = span length required a brace force of 3.6 kips from Equation 15. The
Lb = unbraced length factored girder moment of 1,211 kip-ft. gives an approxi-
n = number of intermediate braces along the span mate compression force in the girder of 1,211 12/49 = 296
kips. Thus, the brace force is 1.2 percent of the equivalent
The available effective stiffness of the brace system T is girder force in this case. The framing details provide suffi-
calculated as follows: cient stiffness. The 3-in. unstiffened web at the top and bot-
tom flanges was small enough to keep sec well above the
1 1 1 1 1 1 required value. For illustration purposes, a 30-in. deep
= + + + + (16)
T c s t b g cross frame attached near the compression flange is also
considered. In this case, the cross frame itself provides a
large stiffness, but the 14-in. unstiffened web is too flexible.

c , s , t =
F I FG b N + 1.5h gt
3.3E h
2
i
3
w
+
t s bs3 I
JK
Cross-section distortion reduces the system stiffness to
GH JK H 12
hi hi 12 16,900 in.-k/radian, which is less than the required value. If
this same cross frame was placed at the girder midheight,
where (17) the two 7-in. unstiffened web zones top and bottom would
hi = hc, hs or ht be stiff enough to satisfy the brace requirements. For a
N = bearing length (see Figure 23) fixed depth of cross frame, attachment at the mid-depth pro-
b = stiffness of attached brace (see Figs. 20 and 21); vides more effective brace stiffness than attachment close to
g = 24(ng - 1)2S2EIx/(L3ng) (18) either flange.
where ng is the number of interconnected girders
(see Fig. 22) CLOSING REMARKS AND LIMITATIONS
Two general structural systems are available for bracing
The torsional brace requirements, Equations 14 and 15, beams, lateral systems and torsional systems. Torsional
must be adjusted for the different design specifications as bracing is less sensitive than lateral bracing to conditions

24 / ENGINEERING JOURNAL / FIRST QUARTER / 2001

such as top flange loading, brace location, and number of Kirby, P. A. and Nethercot, D. A. (1979), Design for Structural
braces, but more affected by cross-section distortion. The Stability, New York, John Wiley & Sons.
bracing recommendations can be used in the inelastic buck- Lindner, J. and Schmidt, J. S. (1982), Biegedrillknicken von I-
ling range up to Mp if the Mf form of the lateral brace stiff- Trgern unter Bercksichtigung wirklichkeitsnaher Lastein-
leitung (Buckling of I-Girders Under Realistic Load
ness equation is used (Ales and Yura, 1993). Applications), Der Stahlbau, 51, H.9, S. 257-263.
The recommendations do not address the bracing
Medland, I. C. (1980), Buckling of Interbraced Beam Systems,
requirements for moment redistribution or ductility in seis- Engineering Structures, 2, April, pp. 90-96.
mic design. The bracing formulations will be accurate for Milner, H. R. (1977), Design of Simple Supported Beams Braced
design situations in which the buckling strength does not Against Twisting on the Tension Flange, Civil Engineering
rely on effective lengths less than one. Lateral restraint pro- Transactions, Institute of Engineers, Australia, CE 19(1), pp.
vided by lightly loaded side spans should, in general, not be 84-91.
considered because the brace requirements would be much Nakamura, T. (1988), Strength and Deformability of H-Shaped
larger than the recommendations herein. Also, laboratory Steel Beams and Lateral Bracing Requirements, J. Construc-
tional Steel Research, 9, pp. 217-228.
observations in the authors experience (usually unplanned
failures of test setups) show that brace forces can be very Nakamura, T. and Wakabayashi, M. (1981), Lateral Buckling of
Beams Braced by Purlins, Inelastic Instability of Steel Struc-
large when local flange or web buckling occurs prior to lat- tures and Structural Elements, U.S. Japan Seminar, Y. Fujita
eral instability. After local buckling, the cross section is and T. V. Galambos, Ed.
unsymmetrical and vertical loads develop very significant Nethercot, D. A. (1989), The Design of Bracing Systems for
out of plane load components. The bracing recommenda- Plate Girder Bridges, Structural Eng /Earthquake Eng., Vol. 6,
tions do not address such situations. No. 1, Review, (Proc JSCE, No 404 / I-11), April, pp. 23-34.
In the 1999 AISC-LRFD Specification (AISC, 1999), Plaut, R. S. (1993), Requirements for Lateral Bracing of
stability bracing requirements are specified for the first time Columns with Two Spans, Journal of Structural Engineering,
for frames, columns, and beams. The research and recom- ASCE, Vol. 119, No. 10, October, pp. 2913-2931.
mendations presented in this paper provide a background Raju, S., Webb, S., and Yura, J. (1992), Bracing Effects of Bridge
Decks, Proceedings, 9th Annual International Bridge Confer-
and commentary for the beam bracing provisions that were
ence, Pittsburgh, June 15, 9 p.
adopted in that Specification.
Taylor, A. C. and Ojalvo, M. (1966), Torsional Restraint of Lat-
eral Buckling, Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE, ST2,
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS April, pp. 115-129.
The Texas Department of Transportation and the American Iron Timoshenko, S. and Gere, J., (1961), Theory of Elastic Stability,
and Steel Institute sponsored most of the research that is reported New York: McGraw-Hill.
herein. The help of many students is gratefully acknowledged, Tong, G. S., and Chen, S. H., 1988, Buckling of Laterally and
especially J. Ales, R. Gedies, T. Helwig, B. Phillips, S. Raju and Torsionally Braced Beams, Journal of Constructional Steel
S. Webb who conducted much of the experimental research that Research, 11, pp. 41-55.
support the recommendations contained in this paper.
Trahair, N. S. and Nethercot, D. A. (1982), Bracing Requirements
in Thin-Walled Structures, Developments in Thin-Walled
REFERENCES Structures-Vol. 2, J. Rhodes and A. C. Walker - Ed., Elsevier,
Akay, H. U., Johnson, C. P., and Will, K. M. (1977), Lateral and pp. 93-129.
Local Buckling of Beams and Frames, Journal of the Struc- Wakabayashi, M. and Nakamura, T. (1983),Buckling of Laterally
tural Division, ASCE, ST9, September, pp. 1821-1832. Braced Beams, Eng. Struct., 5, April, pp. 108-118.
Ales, J. M. and Yura, J. A. (1993), Bracing Design for Inelastic Wang, Y. C. and Nethercot, D. A., (1989), Ultimate Strength
Structures, Proceedings, SSRC ConferenceIs Your Analysis of Three-Dimensional Braced I-Beams, Proceedings,
Structure Suitably Braced? April 6-7, Milwaukee, WI, pp. 29- Institution of Civil Engineers, London, Part 2, 87, March, pp.
37. 87-112.
American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc. (AISC) (1999), Winter, G. (1960), Lateral Bracing of Columns and Beams,
Load and Resistance Factor Design Specification for Structural ASCE Transactions, Vol. 125, pp. 809-825.
Steel Buildings, Chicago, IL. Yura, J. A. (1995),Bracing for Stability-State-of-the-Art, Pro-
Choo, K. M. (1987), Buckling Program BASP for Use on a ceedings, Structures Congress XIII, ASCE, Boston, MA, April,
Microcomputer, MS Thesis presented to The University of pp. 1793-1797
Texas at Austin, May. Yura, J. A. and Phillips, B. (1992), Bracing Requirements for
Galambos, T. V., Ed. (1988), Guide to Stability Design Criteria for Elastic Steel Beams, Report No. 1239-1, Center for Trans-
Metal Structures, Structural Stability Research Council, 4th portation Research, University of Texas at Austin, May, 73 p.
Edition, New York, John Wiley & Sons. Yura, J. A., Phillips, B., Raju, S., and Webb, S. (1992), Bracing
Helwig,T. A., Yura, J. A., and Frank, K. H. (1993), Bracing of Steel Beams in Bridges, Report No. 1239-4F, Center for
Forces in Diaphragms and Cross Frames, Proceedings, SSRC Transportation Research, University of Texas at Austin, Octo-
ConferenceIs Your Structure Suitably Braced? April 6-7, ber, 80 p.
Milwaukee, WI, pp. 129-137.

ENGINEERING JOURNAL / FIRST QUARTER / 2001 / 25

 DESIGN EXAMPLES
Lateral Bracing Torsional Bracing

= 2

26 / ENGINEERING JOURNAL / FIRST QUARTER / 2001