1LAC000003 DistTrHandbook

Distribution Transformer Handbook
IEC / CENELEC related specifications

ABB Ident # 1LAC000003
© Copyright 2003 ABB Ltd. All rights reserved.
1
0. FOREWORD
The objective of this Distribution Transformer Handbook is to facilitate the selection, ordering and
operation of distribution transformers.
The target readers are personnel involved in the various stages of a transformer’s service life, from
planning the investment to the disposal of the transformer after use. It may also be useful to ABB
personnel.
The handbook is arranged with the sections following the transformers life from planning through
ordering, installation, operation, maintenance and scrapping.
Other useful information, including more theoretical topics, may be found at the end of this
handbook.
Navigation through this handbook is facilitated through a three level contents following this
foreword, and the index at the end.
ABB Power Technologies Division thanks the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) for
permission to reproduce information from its International Standards. All such extracts are
copyright of IEC, Geneva, Switzerland. All rights reserved. Further information on the IEC is
available from www.iec.ch. IEC has no responsibility for the placement and context in which the
extracts and contents are reproduced by ABB Power Technologies Division; nor is IEC in any way
responsible for the other content or accuracy therein."
The standards, IEC, CENELEC, IEEE, mentioned in the text refer to the edition given in the list of
standards. For practical use only latest editions of the standards should be used.
Extracts from the ABB Switchgear Manual are quoted by kind approval by the issuer.
UK English has been selected for this document to comply with the text in IEC standards.
Distribution Transformer Handbook Page 2

0.1. CONTENTS
0. FOREWORD 2
0.1. CONTENTS 3
1. INTRODUCTION 5
1.1. ABB-GROUP 5
1.2. ABB POWER TECHNOLOGY DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS – PTDT 5
2. TRANSFORMER TYPES AND THEIR APPLICATION 6
2.1. LARGE DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS, LDT 7
2.2. MEDIUM DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS, MDT 7
2.3. SMALL DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS, SDT 8
2.4. DRY-TYPE DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS 8
2.4.1. Vacuum cast resin dry-type transformers 8
2.4.2. Resibloc® dry-type transformers 8
2.5. OTHER TRANSFORMER TYPES 9
2.5.1. Single phase transformers 9
2.5.2. Drives transformers 9
2.5.3. Additional products 9
3. INFORMATION REQUIRED WITH ENQUIRY AND ORDER 10
3.1. NORMAL INFORMATION 10
3.2. SPECIAL INFORMATION 11
3.3. PARALLEL OPERATIONS 11
3.4. ACCESSORIES 12
4. INSTALLATION, OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE 13
4.1. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS 13
4.2. INSTALLATION 14
4.2.1. Transport 14
4.2.2. Transfer of responsibility (Incoterms) 14
4.2.3. Handling, lifting 14
4.2.4. Receiving the transformer at site 15
4.2.5. Storage prior to energizing 15
4.2.6. Erection at site 15
4.2.7. Network connection 16
4.2.8. Earthing 17
4.2.9. Protective equipment 17
4.2.10. Insulation resistance, off-circuit/on-load tap changer 17
4.2.11. Off-circuit/on-load tap changer 17
4.2.12. Mechanical checks 17
4.2.13. Energizing 17
4.3. OPERATION 18
4.3.1. Lifetime 18
4.3.2. Temperature rise and load capacity 18
4.3.3. Parallel operation 19
4.3.4. Frequency 19
4.3.5. Protection devices 19
4.4. MAINTENANCE 20
4.4.1. Inspection during operation 20
4.4.2. Maintenance during operation 20
4.4.3. Inspection and maintenance during downtime 20
4.4.4. Investigation of transformer disturbances 20
4.4.5. Transformer liquid and insulation 23
4.4.6. Bushings and joints 23
4.4.7. Off-circuit tap changer 24
4.4.8. On-load tap changer 24
4.4.9. Liquid conservator with rubber sack 24
4.4.10. Gaskets 24
4.4.11. Surface protection 24
5. DISPOSAL AFTER USE 25
5.1. LOCAL REGULATIONS 25
5.2. REUSE 25
5.3. LANDFILL 25
5.4. LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT (LCA) 25
5.5. PCB-CONTAMINATED OIL 25
6. PHYSICAL FUNDAMENTALS 26
6.1. INTRODUCTION 26
6.2. CHOICE OF SYSTEM VOLTAGE 26
6.3. BASIC PHYSICS OF THE TRANSFORMER 26
6.4. EQUIVALENT DIAGRAM 28
6.5. VOLTAGE RATIO AND VOLTAGE DROP (OR RISE) 28
6.6. EFFICIENCY 31
6.7. NO LOAD (MAGNETISING) CURRENT AND NO LOAD LOSSES 32
6.8. LOAD LOSSES 37
6.9. SHORT-CIRCUIT IMPEDANCE 37
6.10. ABILITY TO WITHSTAND SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENTS 40
6.11. TRANSFORMER SOUND 44
7. TRANSFORMER MATERIALS 48
7.1. CORE MATERIALS 48
7.2. CONDUCTOR MATERIALS 48
Page 3 Distribution Transformer Handbook

7.3. INSULATION MATERIALS 49
7.3.1. Solid insulation materials 49
7.3.2. Fluids 50
7.3.3. Other fluids 50
8. TESTING OF TRANSFORMERS 52
8.1. GENERAL REQUIREMENTS 52
8.2. ROUTINE TESTS 52
8.3. TYPE TESTS 52
8.4. SPECIAL TESTS 52
9. OVERVOLTAGES AND OVERVOLTAGE LIMITATION 53
9.1. LIMITATION OF TEMPORARY OVERVOLTAGES 54
9.1.1. Overvoltages due to earth-fault 54
9.1.2. Load rejection overvoltages 55
9.1.3. Overvoltages due to ferroresonance 55
9.2. LIMITATION OF TRANSIENT OVERVOLTAGES 56
9.3. SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS FOR DRY-TYPE TRANSFORMERS 57
9.3.1. Internal overvoltages caused by high frequency oscillations 57
9.4. TRANSFERRED OVERVOLTAGES IN TRANSFORMERS 58
10. MISCELLANEOUS 59
10.1. CE MARKING 59
10.2. DECLARATION OF CONFORMITY 59
10.3. IP-CLASSIFICATION 59
10.3.1. General 59
10.3.2. Degrees of protection against solid objects 60
10.3.3. Degrees of protection against water 60
10.3.4. Comparison to NEMA ratings 61
10.4. TERMINAL DESIGNATION, IDENTIFYING TERMINALS 61
10.4.1. Single phase transformer 61
10.4.2. Three phase transformer 61
10.5. RATING PLATE 61
10.6. ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY (EMC) 63
10.6.1. Definitions 63
10.6.2. Electromagnetic disturbances on transformers 64
10.6.3. Electromagnetic field in the vicinity of transformers 66
10.6.4. Effect of electromagnetic fields on humans 66
10.7. QUALITY, ENVIRONMENT, SUSTAINABILITY 67
10.7.1. Quality 67
10.7.2. Environment 67
10.7.3. HSE, Health, safety and environment 67
10.7.4. Sustainability development 67
10.7.5. Customer review of management systems 67
10.8. UNITS AND CONVERSION TABLES 67
10.8.1. Basic Sl units 67
10.8.2. Multiples and sub-multiples of units 68
10.8.3. Electrical and magnetic quantities 68
10.8.4. General electrotechnical symbols 69
10.9. LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 70
11. BIBLIOGRAPHY 71
11.1. TRANSFORMER-RELEVANT STANDARDS 71
11.1.1. IEC Standards 71
11.1.2. CENELEC Standards 74
11.1.3. IEEE Standards 76
11.2. OTHER RELEVANT STANDARDS AND LITTERATURE 80
11.3. CONTRIBUTORS 80
11.4. FEEDBACK 80
12. EXTRACTS FROM IEC 61936-1 (2002-10) POWER INSTALLATIONS EXCEEDING 1 KV A.C. – PART 1:
COMMON RULES 81
4 FUNDAMENTAL REQUIREMENTS 81
4.1 General 81
5 INSULATION 81
6 EQUIPMENT 82
6.1 General requirements 82
7 INSTALLATIONS 82
7.1 General requirements 82
8 SAFETY MEASURES 82
8. 6 Protection against fire 83
9 PROTECTION, CONTROL AND AUXILIARY SYSTEMS 88
9.1 Monitoring and control systems 88
10 EARTHING SYSTEMS 88
10.1 General 88
10.2 Fundamental requirements 88
13. INDEX 90

1. INTRODUCTION
In almost every place where people live and work you will find at least one transformer. But as long
as it keeps working and supplying power to the escalator in the department store, the hotel lift, the
office computer, the oven in the local bakery, the farm machinery or the petrochemical plant
nobody gives it a second thought.
However, transformers are one of the most important units in every production process. Without
them the core activities of nearly every business and factory would come to a standstill – with
serious financial consequences.
After more than 100 years in the development and manufacture of transformers ABB Distribution
Transformers are well aware of this dependence. This is why we never compromise on the
performance, security or reliability of our products, nor on design, materials, manufacturing
methods, environmental protection or recycling.
All over the world, in underground railways, in amusement parks and in every kind of factory you
will find ABB transformers at work.
1.1. ABB-GROUP
ABB is a leader in power and automation technologies that enable utility and industry customers to
improve performance while reducing environmental impact. The ABB Group of companies operates
in around 100 countries and employs about 135,000 people.
ABB Power Technologies serves electric, gas and water utilities as well as industrial and
commercial customers, with a broad range of products, systems and services for power
transmission, distribution and automation.
ABB Automation Technologies blends a robust product and service portfolio with end-user
expertise and global presence to deliver solutions for control, motion, protection, and plant
integration across the full range of process and utility industries.
Industrial IT is the ABB name for a powerful commitment to solutions for Real-Time Automation
and Information. Industrial IT guides every step ABB takes going forward in technology, business
processes, and more.
All ABB Distribution Transformer products are Industrial IT certified, which guarantees structured,
easy accessible and on-line documentation. It can be viewed on its own but also as a part of a
larger system.
As a business-to-business supplier ABB knows that value creation grows out of close relationships
with customers. That means the better we know our customers’ business challenges, the better we
can serve them. We strengthen our relationships by building trust as a socially responsible supplier
of environmental sound products and services.
1.2. ABB Power Technology Distribution Transformers – PTDT

ABB is the worlds leading supplier of Distribution Transformers offering all technologies
(Dry/Liquid), all standards (IEC, CENELEC, ANSI, etc) and all applications up to 72,5 kV.
ABB Distribution Transformers has 30 production facilities around the world and 140 country Sales
and Services centres. ABB Distribution transformers produce about 400.000 units yearly.
All of this means that with ABB Distribution Transformers you have access to a world-wide network
of factories and facilities serving you locally with the most up to date technologies, providing the
highest quality for standard and speciality products as well as solutions. Our warranty provides
unified ABB quality, service and support. Our production facilities are ISO 9001/14001certified.
ABB Distribution Transformers objective is to support you and to add value to your activities with a
low total cost of ownership.

2. TRANSFORMER TYPES AND THEIR APPLICATION
Transmission of energy is generally divided in two parts; first is transmission over long distances at
high voltages, which is supported by Power Transformers. The second part is distribution of the
energy from substations to the various users; this is supported by Distribution Transformers in
various hierarchies.
ABB offers a full range of transformers fulfilling the requirements in IEC, CENELEC, ANSI, other
standards and customer-specific requirements.
Distribution transformers, liquid filled have primary voltages up to 72,5 kV and dry-type
transformers with open or encapsulated windings for primary voltages up to 52 kV.

2.1. LARGE DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS, LDT
Power range 5000 kVA and above
Primary voltage Up to 72,5 kV
Available fluids Mineral oil, dimethyl silicone,
esters and synthetic
hydrocarbons.
Transformers of this type are used for receiving the energy

from higher voltage levels and to transform and distribute
the energy to lower voltage level substation or directly to
large industrial consumers.
Transformers in this range are three phase and can be
manufactured with off-circuit tap changer or on-load tap
changer. Transformers provided with on-load tap changer
usually have a separate tap winding.
The core is constructed of grain oriented steel laminations.
The windings are made of paper insulated rectangular wire in the form of multi-layer disc, helical or
foil windings, and the conductor materials are either copper or aluminium. The tanks typically have
radiators, however the smaller sizes might have corrugated tank walls.
A typical product has power rating 10 – 30 MVA, primary voltage 60 – 36 kV, secondary voltage 24
– 6 kV.
2.2. MEDIUM DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS, MDT
Power range 315 - 5000 kVA

Primary voltage Up to 36kV
hydrocarbons.
Transformers of this type are used to step down three-

phase high voltage to low voltage for energy distribution,
mainly in metropolitan areas and for industrial applications.
The transformers in standard versions are three phase
hermetically sealed. Flexible corrugated tank walls enable
sufficient cooling of the transformer and compensate for changes in the oil volume due to
temperature variations during operation.
An advantage of the hermetically sealed transformers is that the oil is not in contact with the
atmosphere thus avoiding absorption of humidity from the environment.
On customer request, the transformer may be equipped with oil conservator.
A typical product has power rating 1000 kVA, primary voltage 22 kV, secondary voltage
420 V.

2.3. SMALL DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS, SDT
Power range Up to 315 kVA
Primary voltage Up to 36kV
hydrocarbons.
Transformers of this type are used to step down three-phase high

voltage to low voltage for energy distribution, mainly in the
countryside or low-density populated areas.
The transformers are three phase oil immersed hermetically sealed,
adaptable for pole mounting or assembly in substations.
On customer request, the transformer can be equipped with oil
conservator.
Hot dip galvanizing is often the preferred surface treatment for
outdoor applications.
A typical product has power rating 100 kVA, primary voltage 22 kV, secondary voltage 420 V.
2.4. DRY-TYPE DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS

Dry-type transformers are used to minimize fire hazard and other environmental contamination on
surroundings and people, like in large office buildings, hospitals, shopping centers and
warehouses, sea going vessels, oil and gas production facilities and other sites where a fire has
potential for catastrophic consequences.
ABB offers a full range of dry-type transformers with primary voltages up to 52 kV, fulfilling the
requirements in IEC, CENELEC and ANSI standards.
®
Application areas for both types are quite similar; however Resibloc has an advantage in extreme
climatic conditions.
2.4.1. Vacuum cast resin dry-type transformers

Power range 50 kVA up to 30 MVA
Primary voltage Up to 52 kV
Climate class C2
Vacuum cast means that the high voltage windings are cast-in in
epoxy and cured in vacuum. The high voltage windings are typically
disk winding.
A typical product has power rating 1000 kVA, primary voltage 22 kV,
secondary voltage 420 V.
2.4.2. Resibloc® dry-type transformers

Power range 30 kVA up to 40 MVA
Primary voltage Up to 52 kV
Climate class C2
Resibloc® is an ABB patented process for the high voltage winding.

The high voltage winding is multi layer type with a cross wound glass
fibre insulation soaked in epoxy, cured in open atmosphere.
A typical product has power rating 1000 kVA, primary voltage 22 kV,
secondary voltage 420 V.

2.5. OTHER TRANSFORMER TYPES
2.5.1. Single phase transformers

Power range 15 - 100 kVA
Voltage Up to 36 kV
Applicable fluid Mineral oil
Transformers of this type are generally oil immersed and suitable for pole
mounting. They represent an economical option for certain networks,
particularly those with low population densities. Depending on customer
requirements, transformers may be connected between two phases of a
three phase system (two HV bushings) or from one phase to ground (single HV bushing). They are
suitable for residential overhead distribution loads, as well as light commercial or industrial loads
and diversified power applications.
2.5.2. Drives transformers

Variable Speed Drive (VSD) transformers provide the voltage
transformation as well as electric isolation that is necessary for
motor drives applications. Converter drives are normally fed by
medium voltage networks from 5 kV up to 36 kV and the converter
supply voltage usually ranges from 400 V up to 4 kV. The VSD
transformer transforms the medium network voltage to the
converter supply voltage. A typical application is submersible oil
pump drives and similar equipment where only HV motor
applications are available. VSD transformers are produced in oil
insulated and dry-type configurations up to 6 MVA ratings for
various types of converters and output voltages. Transformers are
individually designed and manufactured according to system requirements.
2.5.3. Additional products

• Earthing transformers,
• Starter transformers,
• Booster transformers,
• Auto transformers,
• Reactors,
• Convertor transformers.

3. INFORMATION REQUIRED WITH ENQUIRY AND ORDER
For application for quotations and possible ordering transformers, contact your nearest ABB office
or search for your product and ABB contact on http://www.abb.com
The information given in section 3, except 3.4, is an extract from IEC 60076-1 Annex A. *Copyright
© IEC, Geneva, Switzerland. www.iec.ch
3.1. NORMAL INFORMATION

The following information shall be given in all cases:
• Particulars of the specifications to which the transformer shall comply,
• Kind of transformer, for example: separate winding transformer, auto-transformer or booster
transformer,
• Single or three-phase unit,
• Number of phases in system,
• Frequency,
• Dry-type or oil-immersed type. If oil-immersed type, whether mineral oil or synthetic
insulating liquid. If dry-type, degree of protection (see IEC 60529),
• Indoor or outdoor type,
• Type of cooling,
• Rated power for each winding and, for tapping range exceeding ± 5 %, the specified
maximum current tapping, if applicableIf the transformer is specified with alternative methods
of cooling, the respective lower power values are to be stated together with the rated power
(which refers to the most efficient cooling),
• Rated voltage for each winding
• For a transformer with tappings:
Which winding is tapped,
the number of tappings, and
the tapping range or tapping step,
Whether 'off-circuit' or 'on-load' tap-changing is required,
If the tapping range is more than ±5 %, the type of voltage variation, and the location of
the maximum current tapping, if applicable, see 5.4,
• Highest voltage for equipment (Um) for each winding (with respect to insulation, see IEC
60076-3),
• Method of system earthing (for each winding),
• Insulation level (see IEC 60076-3), for each winding,
• Connection symbol and neutral terminals, if required for any winding,
• Any peculiarities of installation, assembly, transport and handling. Restrictions on
dimensions and mass,
• Details of auxiliary supply voltage (for fans and pumps, tap-changer, alarms etc),
• Fittings required and an indication of the side from which meters, rating plates, oil-level
indicators, etc., shall be legible,
• Type of oil preservation system,
• For multi-winding transformers, required power-loading combinations, stating, when
necessary, the active and reactive outputs separately, especially in the case of multi-winding
auto-transformers.
In addition for example limitations on oil and winding temperature rises (e.g. 65/60 or 55/50 °C)
may be given.

3.2. SPECIAL INFORMATION
The following additional information may need to be given:
• If a lightning impulse voltage test is required, whether or not the test is to include chopped
waves (see IEC 60076-3),
• Whether a stabilizing winding is required and, if so, the method of earthing,
• Short-circuit impedance, or impedance range (see IEC 60076-1 Annex C). For multi-winding
transformers, any impedance’s that are specified for particular pairs of windings (together
with relevant reference ratings if percentage values are given),
• Tolerances on voltage ratios and short-circuit impedance’s as left to agreement in IEC
60076-1 Table 1, or deviating from values given in the table,
• Whether a generator transformer is to be connected to the generator directly or switchgear,
and whether it will be subjected to load rejection conditions,
• Whether a transformer is to be connected directly or by a short length of overhead line to
gas-insulated switchgear (GIS),
• Altitude above sea level, if in excess of 1 000 m (3 300 ft),
• Special ambient temperature conditions, (see IEC 60076-1 section 1.2 b)), or restrictions to
circulation of cooling air,
• Expected seismic activity at the installation site which requires special consideration,
• Special installation space restrictions which may influence the insulation clearances and
terminal locations on the transformer,
• Whether load current wave shape will be heavily distorted. Whether unbalanced phase
loading is anticipated. In both cases, details to be given,
• Whether transformers will be subjected to frequent over-currents, for example, furnace
transformers and traction feeding transformers,
• Details of intended regular cyclic overloading other than covered by 4.2 (to enable the rating
of the transformer auxiliary equipment to be established),
• Any other exceptional service conditions,
• If a transformer has alternative winding connections, how they should be changed, and
which connection is required ex works
• Short-circuit characteristics of the connected systems (expressed as short-circuit power or
current, or system impedance data) and possible limitations affecting the transformer design
(see IEC 60076-5),
• Whether sound-level measurement is to be carried out (see IEC 60551),
• Vacuum withstand of the transformer tank and, possibly, the conservator, if a specific value
is required.
Any tests not referred to above which may be required should be mentioned separately and may
lead to additional cost and longer delivery time.
Any information regarding the required corrosion resistance of the surface treatment in reference to
the geographic zone and pollution zone.
3.3. PARALLEL OPERATIONS

If parallel operation with existing transformers is required, this shall be stated and the following
information on the existing transformers given:
• Rated power,
• Rated voltage ratio,
• Voltage ratios corresponding to tappings other than the principal tapping,
• Load loss at rated current on the principal tapping, corrected to the appropriate reference
temperature,
• Short-circuit impedance on the principal tapping and at least on the extreme tappings, if the
tapping range of the tapped winding exceeds ±5 %,
• Diagram of connections, or connection symbol, or both.
NOTE: On multi-winding transformers, supplementary information will generally be required.

3.4. ACCESSORIES
This is a list of available accessories to be selected in cooperation with the user.
Accessory type Type of transformer
SDT/MDT LDT Dry
Tap changer
Off-circuit S O Bolted links
On-load O O NA
• Voltage regulation relay O
• Electrical position indicator O
• Parallel operation equipment O
Conservator O S NA
1)
Silicagel dehydrating breather O S NA
2)
Pocket, top liquid thermometer O S NA
Dial thermometer O S S
4)
Pressure relief valve S O NA
Pressure relief device with signal O O NA
Gas-actuated relay O S NA
Integrated protective device mounted
O O NA
on the cover
Temperature monitoring system NA NA O
Earthing terminals S S S
2)
Wheels, (bi-directional) S S S
Drain valve at tank bottom S S NA
3)
Liquid level gauge O S NA
3)
Liquid sampling valve O S NA
Cable boxes on LV – and HV side 5) 5)
O O NA
mounted on the cover
Plug in HV & LV bushings equipped
O O NA
with the robust protections
Enclosures
NA NA O
(of different protection class)
Overvoltage protection devices
• Surge arrestors O O O
• Arching horns O O NA
Overcurrent protection, fuses O
Built-in current transformers O O O
Multi function devices; pressure, O O NA
temperature, oil level and gas
The abbreviations S (standard accessory), O (optional) and NA (not applicable) are an indication of
where the different accessories are most common in use.
1
) Only used when conservator
2)
Thermometer pocket is an option on SDT and standard on MDT.
3)
Standard on SDT/MDT with conservator
4)
Standard on hermetically sealed
5)
Plug-in bushings is the preferred ABB solution instead of cable boxes due to easy assembly
and lower cost and reduced distances in the substation

4. INSTALLATION, OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE
This section describes ABB’s general experience/recommendations and minimum requirements,
however it may be overruled or supplemented by local regulations and the supplier’s or purchaser’s
specific instructions.
4.1. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
Please observe the following and any other safety advices before installation, commissioning and
maintenance:
• Never work on transformers or any installed electrical equipment alone,
• Do not move or lift a transformer without applying adequate equipment and safety
precautions,
• Do not make any connections which do not comply with the rating plate,
• Do not apply abnormal mechanical strain on the terminals,
• Do not reconnect when the transformer is energized,
• Do not attempt to change tap setting while the transformer is energized,
• Do not energize or perform maintenance on the transformer without proper earth connection,
• Do not operate the transformer without alarm and monitoring systems connected,
• Do not remove any enclosure panels while the transformer is energized,
• Do not tamper with interlocks, alarms and control circuits,
• Be aware of possible need for magnetic field protection,
• Perform a final inspection prior to energizing:
o All external connections have been made properly,
o All connections are tight and secure,
o All accessory circuits are operational,
o All tap connections are properly positioned,
o The neutral and earth connections have been properly made,
o Fans – if supplied – are operational,
o Proper clearance is maintained from high voltage bus to terminal equipment,
o The correct transformer ratio exists for units with internal terminal boards,
o All windings are free from un-intended earths. A relevant megger is recommended,
o There is continuity in all windings,
o There is no dust, dirt or foreign material on core and coils (dry-type transformers),
o There is no visible moisture on or inside the core and coils (dry-type transformers),
o All plastic wrappings are removed from the core and coils (dry-type transformers),
o All shipping members have been removed,
o There are no obstructions in or near the openings for ventilation,
o No tools or other articles are left inside or on top of the core, coils, tank or
enclosures,
o All protective covers are closed and tightened,
• Comply with any instructions supplied by the transformer manufacturer,
• Comply with relevant Internal Control Regulations.
See also relevant safety sections in Extracts from IEC 61936-1 (2002-10) Power installations
exceeding 1 kV a.c. – Part 1: Common rules at the end of the handbook.

4.2. INSTALLATION
4.2.1. Transport
The transformer is supplied filled with liquid and normally all accessories fitted, except for the
largest units. The radiators may be dismantled during transport.
During transport the following should be considered:
• Angle of tilting exceeding 10º must be specified in the contract,
• Prevention of damage to bushings, corrugated panels or radiators and accessories,
• Larger transformers should preferably be positioned with the longitudinal axis in the direction
of movement,
• Secure against movement by means of e.g. wooden blocks and lashes,
• Adapt vehicle speed to the road conditions,
• Vehicle capacity shall be adequate for the transport weight of the transformer,
• Any impact recorders to be specified in the contract,
• Any use of crates or containers.
4.2.2. Transfer of responsibility (Incoterms)
Incoterms defined by International Chamber of Commerce (ICC) make international trade easier
and help traders in different countries to understand one another.
Incoterms are standard definitions of trade terms and are internationally recognized as
indispensable evidence of the buyer’s and seller’s responsibilities under a sales contract. Incoterms
will not apply unless specifically incorporated into the contract
Those standard trade definitions that are most commonly used in international contracts are
protected by ICC copyright, however a wall chart may be viewed on
http://www.iccwbo.org/index_incoterms.asp where a wall chart in preferred language may also be
purchased.
4.2.3. Handling, lifting
Only approved and suitable lifting equipment shall be used.
Use a forklift only on transport pallets or transformer bottom.
Do not apply load to corrugated fins or radiators and their supports.
Use the provided lifting lugs only.
When lifting a transformer with cable boxes on the cover, special care must be taken.
When hydraulic jacks are used, only provided jacking points shall be used, and in such a way that
twisting forces on the transformer tank are avoided.
Transformer lifting example

4.2.4. Receiving the transformer at site
Transformers manufactured by ABB are thoroughly tested and inspected prior to shipping, but
upon receiving the transformer at site, it should be inspected carefully.
To be inspected:
• The way in which the transformer has been secured on the trailer,
• That the delivery is complete according to order confirmation,
• Compare the packing list with the goods received,
• The transformer nameplate,
• Liquid level, when applicable. Any leakages?
• External damage, e.g. cracks in bushings,
• Impact recorders indications when applicable.
The receipt of the unit shall be signed for, and the result of the inspection shall be noted.
Transformer shipments are normally insured.
In case of damage revealed during the receiving inspection, do any of the following:
• Make necessary arrangement to avoid further damage,
• Contact the insurance company concerned and ABB,
• Make a report of the damage immediately,
• No repairs should be started until responsibilities are clarified and actions are agreed upon
all involved parties.
4.2.5. Storage prior to energizing

When storage of the transformer is required, the following recommendations should be noted:
• Preferably in dry and clean locations, without any possibilities of mechanical damage and on
a solid foundation,
• If the transformer does not have a structural steel base, it should be placed upon supports to
allow ventilation under the bottom of the transformer base,
• The liquid conservator and dehydrating breather must be checked to ensure that dry air is
breathed. (Conservator type only) Liquid samples to be analysed regarding moisture content
prior to energizing,
• Humidity/condensation in control cubicles, driving mechanism for on-load tap changer, cable
boxes, dry-type transformers etc. should be inspected/removed,
• Minimum storage temperature for dry-type transformer is in general -25°C, however for
Resibloc –60°C,
• Prior to energizing, perform a megger test between the different windings, and from the
windings to earth. This applies to dry-type in particular.
4.2.6. Erection at site

In determining the location of a transformer, give careful consideration to accessibility, safety,
ventilation and ease of inspection. Make sure the foundation for mounting the transformer is
entirely adequate.
Ventilate the erection site properly. As a guide each kilowatt of losses requires 4 cubic meters of air
circulation per minute. Fresh air intake at floor level, and a ventilation duct leading to outer air must
be built on the ceiling or upper part of the wall. The intake and outlet openings should be located
diagonally across the room. The duct cross section of the outlet should be 10 % more than the
cross section of the inlet opening due to increase of volume of the hot air.
Observe local authorities regulations for civil engineering of transformer cells, safety regulations,
fire protection regulations. A liquid containment tank may be required.
A transformer equipped with wheels must be prevented from moving by chocking the wheels.

4.2.7. Network connection
4.2.7.1. Electrical clearances in air
Maximum system voltage (kV) 3.6 7.2 12 17.5 24 36 72.5
Lightning impulse withstand voltage (kV) 45 60 75 95 125 170 325
Minimum clearance according to IEC
60076-3, phase to phase and phase to 60 90 110 170 210 280 630
earth. (mm)
*Copyright © IEC, Geneva, Switzerland. www.iec.ch
Note: Testing or well documented local practice can allow the use of reduced clearances.
4.2.7.2. Connecting transformer terminals to the networks
Observe local authorities safety- and regulations for electrical installations.
Conductors, bus bars and cables shall be installed such that minimal mechanical stress is
transferred to the bushings.
Conical washers shall be used in order to obtain the required contact pressure. Nuts should be
adequately locked.
Flexible connectors shall be used between the terminals and the bars, when connecting to low
voltage busbars. Suitable cable lugs shall be used when connecting low voltage copper cables.
High voltage connection is normally performed by copper cables and copper cable lugs. In
some cases heat shrinkable connectors or elbow connectors are used.
For aluminium-copper joints the copper is coated with tin, or bi-metal sheets (one side of copper
and the other of aluminium) can be used between the joint.
The aluminium surface must be larger than the copper surface.
Aluminium parts shall always be placed above copper parts so that water cannot drain from the
copper parts onto the aluminium (corrosion).
It must be remembered that good contact between joined aluminium surfaces can be achieved
only if the no conducting oxide film is removed with a wire brush, file or similar immediately
before joining, and renewed oxidation is prevented by applying a thin protective film of grease
(neutral Vaseline).
Jointing compound, which prevents the access of air and humidity into joints, must be used in
the joint. The zinc crystals of the compound break down the layer of oxide on the aluminium.
Minimum electrical clearances shall be obtained.
Suitably strong steel bolts and nuts have to be used for tightening the joint. The tightening
torque’s given below are recommended to be used in external transformer joints.
Cable and busbar load capacities are outside the scope of this handbook, however dealt with in
detail in ABB Switchgear Manual.
4.2.7.2.1. Tightening torque
Recommended tightening torque/Nm
Bolt size Property Class
Bolt 8.8 Nut 8
M5 3,0
M6 5,5
M8 15,0
M10 30,0
M12 60,0
M16 120,0
When disk-type spring washers are used, the nuts should only be tightened until the washer
becomes flat.

4.2.8. Earthing
Earth the transformer at the earthing terminals provided.
Earthing resistance according to electricity utilities- or national standards
4.2.9. Protective equipment

Connect the equipment, and check the functions:
• Thermometer with contacts for alarm and tripping signals,
• When applicable, oil level indicator with contacts for alarm signal,
• Gas relay with contacts for alarm and tripping signals,
• Pressure relief device with contacts for alarm signal. When provided,
Recommended settings for ONAN transformers Alarm Tripping
Oil thermometer setting 85ºC 100ºC
Oil thermometer setting, when combined with a 90ºC 105ºC
winding temperature indicator
Winding temperature indicator setting 105ºC 135ºC
• Thermometer settings for dry-type transformers according to the relevant temperature class.
4.2.10. Insulation resistance, off-circuit/on-load tap changer

Check the insulation resistance between HV and LV as well as windings to earth. Minimum value is
1000 ohm per volt service voltage (Maximum 1mAmp.),
4.2.11. Off-circuit/on-load tap changer

• Check the galvanic contact between the winding and the tap-changer in all positions,
• Compare the voltage ratio of the transformer and the network voltages, and select the
suitable tap changer position.
4.2.12. Mechanical checks

• Check the liquid level,
• Tighten all leaking gaskets carefully,
• After completed installation work, surface damage caused by transportation and installation
work shall be repaired,
• Condition of dehydrating breather. (For conservator type only),
• Finally the transformer must be cleaned.
4.2.13. Energizing
After the transformer has been found to be in good condition and the protective equipment is found
in order, the transformer can be connected to the network.
When connecting the transformer to the network, fuses may blow immediately caused by high
inrush current. This does not necessarily mean that there is a fault in the transformer. Replace
blown fuses and try energizing again because the magnitude of the inrush current is a statistical
variable large spread. Modern over-current and differential relays contain a control circuit which
makes the relays in sensitive to inrush currents. Older relays may trip the circuit breaker
immediately. See also section 6, paragraph “Inrush current”.
After the transformer has been connected to the network, gas may be present which gives an
alarm in the gas relay. It could be a false alarm caused by an air bubble, trapped under the cover,
and then moved into the gas relay.
Air is colour less and odor less. If not air, a gas and an oil sample should be taken for analysis.

4.3. OPERATION
4.3.1. Lifetime
The lifetime of a transformer can be divided into two categories; economical and technical.
Economical lifetime:
Economical lifetime ends when the capitalized cost of continued operation of the existing
transformer exceeds the capitalized cost of a new investment.
In practical terms; typically when the cost of the total losses of the old transformer is too high.
Consequential risks and costs associated with electricity downtime are of increasing importance.
Technical lifetime:
Solid insulation materials consist mainly of organic materials. These materials change over time,
they become brittle and the mechanical strength is reduced, while there is very little reduction in the
dielectric strength.
These detrimental processes, which are affected by temperature, humidity and oxygen, are called
ageing. Ageing consists of several oxidation processes, where the chemical reaction rate increases
strongly with temperature.
As a rule of thumb, lifetime is halved at a temperature rise of 7-8 ºC and vice versa, this is called
Montsinger’s rule.
Thus, the expected technical lifetime for a transformer depends mainly on its accumulated load
cycle and the ambient temperature. This varies with customer, application, location etc.
IEC 60354 provides guidelines on how to overload oil-immersed transformers.
There is no clear definition of "end of life" in any international standard. This is a matter where high
degree of judgment is involved.
To illustrate this, an old transformer can work perfectly well in normal conditions for several years
more, but as soon as it gets a surge, be it a voltage peak, heavy overload or short- circuit currents,
it may collapse.
Also a number of transformers are exchanged due to change in system voltage or insufficient
capacity.
A typical technical lifetime of a distribution transformer under normal conditions is at least 30 years.
4.3.2. Temperature rise and load capacity

Thermal class 105 is defined to withstand a continuous temperature of 105° C for 7 years, without
loosing more than 50 % of its original mechanical strength. Class 130 is defined to withstand a
continuous temperature of 130° C for 7 years, and so forth for all other insulation classes.
The sum of ambient + average temperature rise of any of the windings + 10° C (to allow for that
maximum temperature rise in a winding is 10° C above average) should not exceed 105° C.
Ageing sets certain limitations to the load capacity of the transformer. These limitations are defined
in IEC publication 60354 “Loading guide for oil immersed transformers”.
Continuous load capacity at different constant ambient air temperatures has been calculated
according to IEC 60354.
Permissible continuous loading capacity at different ambient air temperatures for
ONAN distribution transformers.
Constant ambient
air temperature ºC 0 +10 +20 +30 +40 +50 +60
Permissible continuous
load factor, % 116 108 100 91 82 72 -
Temperature rise 60/65 ºC
Permissible continuous
load factor, % - 119 110 100 89 77 64
Temperature rise 50/55 ºC

In practice the transformer is not continuously fully loaded. The load and the temperature fluctuate
by seasons and time of the day.
The permissible short-term overload depends on the starting conditions, plus duration and the
repetitive cycle of the overload. This is defined in the IEC 60354, and must be analysed on a case-
to-case basis.
Based on the above there is a certain emergency overload capacity for the transformer.
Special attention shall be paid to the fact that the transformer’s short term load capacity cannot be
judged on the basis of the oil temperature alone, because the oil temperature changes much
slower with the load than the temperature rise of the winding.
Overloading a transformer implies that the construction and the accessories, such as the tap
changer and the bushings are correspondingly rated. Normally the accessories are selected with
rated current not less than 120% of rated current of the transformer. (For bushings see IEC 60137)
Corresponding considerations are made for dry-type transformers, and are described in
IEC 60905 Loading guide for dry-type power transformers.
4.3.3. Parallel operation

When two or more transformers are connected in parallel the following is required:
• Only transformers having the same phase displacement between primary and secondary
voltage can operate in parallel. The clock-hour which indicate the phase displacement is
stamped on the transformer rating plate, e.g. Dyn11, Yd11,
• Poles with the same polarity on HV- and LV side shall be connected in parallel,
• Transformers should have approximately the same voltage ratio,
• The short-circuit impedance voltage should be the same, within +-10%,
• The power rating of the transformers should not deviate more than 1:3,
• Tap changers should have tap position giving voltage ratios as close as possible.
Deviation from the above requirements is possible, provided adequate knowledge is available.
For further details, reference is made to IEC 60076-8 (Power transformers – Application guide
clause 6 page 81- 91).
4.3.4. Frequency
A transformer designed for 50 Hz can be used for 60 Hz but not vice versa.
4.3.5. Protection devices

4.3.5.1. Overcurrent protection
There are two types of overcurrent protection:
• Fuses,
• Overcurrent relays which send tripping signals to the circuit breaker.
Overcurrent protection is mainly intended for protection against high overcurrents due to
external short-circuits.
4.3.5.2. Differential protection
Differential relays react upon different ampereturns on the two sides of the transformer which
indicates that there may be an internal fault in the transformer.
4.3.5.3. Gas actuated relay
The gas generated in a transformer during a fault is collected in the gas relay.
The gas will displace the liquid in the relay and minor gas generation will cause the closing of
the alarm contact. If an extensive amount of gas is generated or the oil level falls, then the
alarm contact will close first, followed by the tripping contact.
A heavy liquid flow from the transformer into the liquid conservator (conservator type only), will
cause the immediate closing of the tripping contact. If the tripping contacts operate the
transformer will be immediately disconnected from the network.

4.3.5.4. Over voltage protection
See section 9.
4.4. MAINTENANCE
4.4.1. Inspection during operation

Inspection during operation shall only be performed after taking safety measures into
consideration:
• If there is a maximum indicator on the thermometer the maximum temperature should be
recorded,
• Inspection for contamination, especially on bushings,
• Inspection of surface condition,
• Dehydrating breather. The silica gel shall be changed when approx. 2/3 of the silica gel has
changed from blue to red colour (old type), or from pink to white, respectively. (Conservator
type only),
• Inspection for liquid leakages.
4.4.2. Maintenance during operation

For personal safety reasons, only a limited amount of maintenance activities should be performed
on the transformer when it is in operation.
4.4.3. Inspection and maintenance during downtime

Before starting maintenance work, the transformer has to be disconnected from the network and
earthed. When the disconnectors have been opened, they shall be locked in open position to
prevent them inadvertently closing during maintenance work.
Items to be considered are:
• Bushing gaskets; if leaks occur, tightening usually will help, if the gasket has lost its
elasticity, it must be replaced. The reason for loss of elasticity can be excessive heating or
aging,
• Cover gaskets, valves and gaskets of the tap changer. If there are leaks, tightening will
usually help,
• Welded joints. Leaking joints can be repaired only by welding. A skilled welder and a welding
instruction are required. Contact ABB for further instructions,
• Cleaning contaminated bushings (cleaning agent e.g. methylated spirit),
• Cleaning glasses on gas relay, thermometer and liquid level indicator,
• Functional inspection of applicable accessories,
• Move tap changer through all positions a few times, all types of tap changers,
• Liquid sampling from bottom drain valve for larger units as required,
• Check drying material in the dehydrating breather. (Conservator type only),
• Amend surface treatment defects.
In addition for dry-type transformers:
• Inspection and e.g. vacuum cleaning as required,
• Humidity removal,
• Tightening winding supports.
In heavily contaminated installations more frequent inspections may be needed.
4.4.4. Investigation of transformer disturbances

If, during operation, the protective equipment of the transformer gives an alarm or trips the
transformer from the network, one should immediately investigate the reason for it. Studies may
reveal whether it is a question of transformer damage or some other disturbances in the system.

4.4.4.1. Trouble shooting advices
For oil type transformers see section 4.3 for further information. For dry-type transformers, see
table below in addition:
SYMPTOMS PROBABLE CAUSES SOLUTIONS

Dielectric. Presence of
Clean with dry air.
humidity on surface of
Low insulation Ventilate.
windings.
resistance
Contact manufacturer.
Dielectric. Ageing, dirt.
Clean with dry air.
Windings. Defective windings. Contact manufacturer.
Tap changer or bolted links.
Check that the position or
The primary voltage does not connection comply with
The automatic
coincide with the position or the primary voltage.
protection device is
connection.
triggered at the
Fuses blows Change fuses.
transformer
energization Fuses incorrectly calibrated Consider different rating
Protection relays.
Check timing and current
Timing and/or current is
setting.
incorrectly adjusted.
Check installation and
Primary voltage.
contact the electricity
Absence of primary voltage.
utility.
Unexpected secondary
voltage Tap changer or bolted links
Change position or
incorrectly positioned or connection.
connected.
Winding rupture. Contact manufacturer.
Check the connections.
Bolted links incorrectly connected Check installation and
in one of the phases. contact the electricity
utility.
Fuse has blown in one phase Change fuse.
Unsymmetrical
voltages on the Winding rupture Contact manufacturer.
secondary side L.V. installation
Unsymmetrical load on the Check L.V. installation.
secondary side.
No voltage applied in one of the Contact the electricity
phases on the primary side utility
Triggering and alarm incorrectly
Check settings.
set.
Check thermometer
Incorrect thermometer operation.
Spurious triggering Defect Pt100 sensors or Check sensors or
during operation thermistors. thermistors.
Fuse Blown fuse Change fuse.
Relays Incorrect timing. Check timing.
Triggering of the Short circuit in the system on the Remove the failure in the
overcurrent relay or secondary side system
blown HV fuses during
operation Perforation of insulating material. Contact manufacturer

SYMPTOMS PROBABLE CAUSES SOLUTIONS
Failure in the transformer Contact manufacturer
Triggering of differential
relay during operation Failure in current transformers Check current
feeding the relay transformers
Check ventilation of
Insufficient ventilation. High
premises. Consider
ambient temperature.
installation of cooling fans
Consider load reduction
Abnormal operating or installation of a
Transformer overloaded
temperature transformer with higher
power rating
Local heating at the transformer Clean contact surfaces
terminals and retighten
Excessive cable heating Undersized cables
High voltage to earth Earth failure on one phase Remove failure
Supply voltage higher than Change bolted links
presupposed connection.
Loose accessories or elements Retighten.
Install sound damping
High acoustical sound panels. Place the
level Reflection from walls and other transformer in non-parallel
elements. direction to the walls. Use
damping pads below the
transformer
Low frequency Contact electricity utility
Smoke Insulation failure Contact manufacturer
4.4.4.2. Recording of disturbances

• Date and time of the occurrence,
• Data for installed overvoltage protection,
• Network data, were connections or other relevant things made when the disturbance took
place; what was the loading like; possible relay operations which took place elsewhere in the
network (e.g. earth fault relay),
• Weather data (thunderstorm, rain, etc.),
• Is the gas relay filled with gas: colour and quality?
• Is oil sooty?
• Thermometer readings,
• Were coolers or tank damaged?
• Are there visible marks of arcing on e.g. the bushings, cover or conservator?
• In case of dry-type transformers, are there humidity, contamination or visible marks of arcing
on windings, cleats and leads?
• Gas-in-oil analysis for LDT units?
• Any other observation.

4.4.4.3. Function of transformer protective equipment
Operation of some protective equipment such as gas relay or differential relay does not always
mean that the transformer is damaged.
The gas relay can operate for example when:
An air bubble has been left under the transformer cover. An air bubble is colourless and
odourless.
A short-circuit current has passed the transformer. No gas bubbles.
However if the gas has colour or smell, the transformer is damaged.
4.4.4.4. Measurements
In addition to the above instructions, the following inspection measurements can be carried out:
• Insulation resistance. To obtain reliable results, the insulators have to be dry and clean,
• No-load current measurement by means of a low voltage variable source. If the low voltage
of the transformer is 400 V or lower, the voltage during measurement should gradually be
increased to the nominal low voltage. The measured current should be compared with the
no-load current measured in the delivery test. For higher voltages on the low-voltage side of
the transformer the measured current will be in the range of a few milliamperes for a sound
transformer,
• Voltage ratio,
• DC resistances of windings should be compared with the DC resistance measured during
delivery test. The temperature when the measurements were made must be considered.
4.4.5. Transformer liquid and insulation

The task of liquid in a transformer is to act as an electrical insulation and to transfer heat from the
transformer’s active parts into coolers. Liquid acts as a good electrical insulation only as long as it
is satisfactorily dry and clean.
Humidity balance between the oil and the insulation implies that most of the humidity will gather in
the paper insulation.
Testing of liquid in transformers should normally be performed 12 months after filling or refilling,
subsequently every six years. ABB offers different tests and analyses of liquid samples depending
of transformer type, size, service record and strategic importance for safe electricity supply.
Testing of oil in on load tap changers must be performed according to the tap changer supplier’s
recommendations.
To take liquid samples from hermetically sealed transformers is normally not necessary, and
should only be performed after consultation with ABB. The liquid in this type of transformers is not
in contact with the atmosphere, and less exposed to moisture.
Especially for large LDT transformers, liquid regeneration may be economically motivated. Liquid
regeneration implies drying, filtering, de-gassing and possibly addition of inhibitor.
4.4.6. Bushings and joints

The porcelain insulators of transformer bushings ought to be cleaned during service interruptions
as often as necessary. This is particularly important for places exposed to contamination and
moisture.
Methylated spirit or easily evaporating cleaning agents can be used for cleaning.
The condition of external conductor and bus bar joints of transformer bushings shall be checked at
regular intervals because reduced contact pressure in the joints leads to overheated bushings etc.
and may cause the adjacent gasket to be destroyed by the heat.

4.4.7. Off-circuit tap changer
The transformation ratio can be adjusted with an off-load tap changer when the transformer is not
energized. Usually the turns ratio of the HV winding is regulated ±2x2.5 %.
The control shaft of the off-load tap changer is brought through the cover or the tank wall. The
shaft end is provided with a handle, position indicator and locking device. When the tap changer is
turned the locking device must be secured, because that assures that the off-load tap changer has
been set to operating position.
It is recommended that the off-circuit tap changer is moved from one extreme position to the other
a few times during service interruption. This is necessary especially when the tap changer is
moved infrequently.
For dry-type transformers the off-circuit tap changing is generally done by means of bolted links.
4.4.8. On-load tap changer

Maintenance of on load tap changer to be performed according to the instructions given by the
supplier of the tap changer.
4.4.9. Liquid conservator with rubber sack

The system consisting of oil conservator with rubber sack does normally not require any other
maintenance than inspection of the silicagel breather. The silicagel shall be changed when approx.
2/3 of the silicagel has changed from blue to red colour.
4.4.10. Gaskets
The gaskets of the cover and flanges, as well as between bushings and cover, are usually made of
liquid resistant vulcanized cork sheet or silicone sealant.
If the gaskets are leaking, leaks can usually be sealed by tightening the screws (bolts).
When these gaskets have to be replaced, it is recommended to contact ABB.
Liquid resistant rubber rings are used as gasket for bushing bolts, shafts and spindles. All these
gaskets can be tightened and replaced from outside the tank.
When tightening the gaskets special care must be taken to prevent the breaking of screws (bolts)
or the gasket “floats away” (if not in a groove) caused by the heavy pressure. In particular stud nuts
must be tightened very carefully.
4.4.11. Surface protection

4.4.11.1. Painted surfaces
When repairing damaged paint, the points to be repainted shall be cleaned from rust, dirt and
grease before priming with a zinc rich primer prior to top coat paint.
4.4.11.2. Zinc coated surfaces
Zinc coated surfaces have a self-repairing, passivating, characteristic. Small damage as scratches
2
do normally not need repairing. Larger areas, above 50 mm , may need repair. After thoroughly
cleaning apply zinc-rich (between 65-69% zinc by weight, or >92% by weight metallic zinc in dry
film) paint to at least the same thickness as the original zinc coating. Do not remove any original
zinc during cleaning. The paint may be one-component (preferred) or two-component.

5. DISPOSAL AFTER USE
Scrapped transformers may harm the environment, they may, however, also represent a value if
treated correspondingly.
Some transformer owners prefer to scrap used transformers themselves.
If not, ABB have agreements with local waste processing plants and may dispose of used
transformers taking sustainable development in consideration.
Material disposal technology is continuously improving, thus the salvage value of a transformer is
expected to increase in the future. Transformers acquired today may after service life, e.g.20 years,
represent a higher value than those scrapped today. It is also expected that materials which today
are not recyclable may be treated differently in the future.
5.1. LOCAL REGULATIONS

Local regulations shall always be adhered to in disposing used transformers. Local authorities may
give guidance; also Internet community home pages may give advice.
If in doubt the local ABB Company can assist.
5.2. REUSE
Transformers contain valuable materials, which may be reused either as is or after reprocessing.
Examples are:
• Copper,
• Aluminium,
• Oil,
• Steel.
Insulation material, pressboard and paper, represent energy.
5.3. LANDFILL
Materials not re-circulated go to landfill or energy production. The landfill portion of the transformer
should be minimized.
5.4. LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT (LCA)

The environmental impact of transformers may be divided into five life cycle categories:
1. Raw material extraction, manufacturing and transport
2. Transformer production
3. Transport to site
4. Energy losses during service
5. Disposal after use
LCA calculations show that categories 1, 2 and 3 are negligible compared to 4.
A part of category 1 is regained during disposal, provided reuse of materials.
Life cycle assessment shows that the dominating environmental impact during a transformers life is
energy losses during service. The total losses consist of load losses and no load losses, both are
significant. The relation between load and no load losses depends on the transformer loading.
The lifetime energy losses are one of the reasons why ABB recommends an energy-effective
transformer layout.
5.5. PCB-CONTAMINATED OIL

PCB was used in many ways and was included in several different products, including transformer
and condenser oil, however it is harmful to the environment and develops cancer-causing dioxides
during normal combustion. The use of PCB is now prohibited.
Not all ABB transformer manufacturers used PCB, and those who did, stopped using it long before
the factories were acquired by ABB.
ABB can assist in the disposal of PCB-contaminated oil.

6. PHYSICAL FUNDAMENTALS
6.1. INTRODUCTION
A transformer is a static device with two or more windings that are linked to each other by means of
a strong magnetic field. Transformers are designed for specific purposes, such as the
measurement of voltage and current, or the transfer of signals or electric power. The design
requirements of transformers depend on the application. In measurement transformers, the
quantity measured must be transferred from the primary circuit to the secondary as exactly as
possible, while in signal transformers the signal must be transferred with a minimum of distortion.
This text concentrates on power transformers, where the main requirement is that it shall transfer a
certain amount of electric power at a constant frequency while the voltage is being changed from
one level to another with a minimum of power losses.
6.2. CHOICE OF SYSTEM VOLTAGE

Large power stations where the electric energy is generated are often situated far away from the
numerous places where the electric energy is consumed. The need for high voltage levels in
electric power transmission is illustrated in the following.
The power loss p in a 3-phase transmission line with a resistance R per phase and a current I
flowing in each phase is:
p = 3 ⋅ R ⋅ I2 (W) (1)
At a system voltage U the transmitted active power is:
P = 3 ⋅ U ⋅ I ⋅ cos ϕ (W) (2)

Equation (2) can be rewritten as:
P
I= (A) (3)
3 ⋅ U ⋅ cos ϕ
Inserted in the equation (1) gives:
R
p = P2 (W) (4)
U 2 ⋅ cos 2 ϕ
Equation (4) indicates that the power loss in the line is proportional to the square of the transmitted
active power and inversely proportional to the square of the system voltage.
In other words, the power loss will be lower when the system voltage is increased.
The choice of system voltage is a matter of economic balance. A high system voltage reduces the
transmission losses, but on the other side it requires more expensive lines, cables and
transformers.
Several hundreds of kilovolts are used for lines for lines transporting large quantities of electric
power over long distances. Closer to the consumers the power is distributed at lower voltage
levels. The voltage is taken down in several steps. While generator transformers are step-up
transformers, the distribution transformers are normally step-down transformers. The power rating
of distribution transformers is usually lower the closer to the consumer the transformers are
situated.
6.3. BASIC PHYSICS OF THE TRANSFORMER

The function of a transformer is mainly based on two physical phenomena.
One of them is the electromagnetic induction, which was discovered by Faraday in the 1830’s. The
induction law was formulated by Neumann in 1845.
Consider a loop of a conducting material enclosing a magnetic field Φ. If a change ∆Φ takes place
during a short time-interval ∆t, a voltage will be induced which will drive a current around in the
loop. The induced voltage ui is proportional to the quotient ∆Φ/ ∆t, or more correctly written on
differential form:
dΦ
ui = (V) (5)
dt

This is the scalar value of the induced voltage. To indicate also the direction of the induced voltage,
the induction law is written as:
dΦ
ui = − (V) (6)
dt
where the minus sign indicate that ui has the
direction that it will drive a current through the loop, which sets up a magnetic field with the
opposite direction of the change dΦ. In other words, the induced current strives to resist any
change in the magnetic field. When the flux increases, the induced current has the direction that
gives a flux with a direction opposite the direction of Φ. When the flux decreases, the induced
current has the direction that gives a flux with a direction in phase with Φ.
Figure 6-1
If the loop is replaced by a coil with N number of series-connected turns, the same induced voltage
will take place in each of the turns. The voltage induced in the whole coil will then be:
dΦ
ui = −N ⋅ (V) (7)
dt
The other physical phenomenon is that a conductor carrying an electrical current is surrounded by
a magnetic field.
H
I
Figure 6-2
To create a magnetic field that varies in time in a transformer a sinusoidal voltage is applied to the
primary winding which creates a magnetising current.
The windings are made as concentric shells around a central core of laminated steel plates, which
is formed as a closed loop for the magnetic field. Due to the magnetic properties of the steel the
magnetic flux will be several thousand times higher than it would have been without the steel core,
which makes the magnetic coupling between the windings strong.
When the terminals of the secondary winding are open, the relation between the applied voltage on
the primary side and the output voltage on the secondary side is the same as the relation between
the number of turns in the primary winding and the secondary winding respectively:
U1 N
= 1 (8)
U2 N2
or

N2
U 2 = U1 ⋅ (V) (9)
N1
When the secondary winding is loaded, the voltage ratio may differ considerably from the turn ratio
(see 6.5.), while the ratio between the primary and secondary currents fulfils the equation:
I1 ⋅ N1 = I 2 ⋅ N 2 (10)
with a deviation of one percent or less.
6.4. EQUIVALENT DIAGRAM

A simple equivalent diagram for the transformer can be drawn based on two measurements on the
transformer, one in no load and one in short-circuited condition.
I2
Z0 U20 U2 ZL
Figure 6-3
In no load condition (open secondary terminals) the total magnetising current and the active power
consumption are measured at rated voltage. The current has one dominant inductive component
and one smaller active component. These can be calculated from the measurements, and the real
and the imaginary components of transformer’s no load impedance Z0 can be found. This
impedance is not constant but will vary non-linearly with the applied voltage due to the non-linearity
of the magnetisation curve. The real part of Z0 represents the no load losses.
The other impedance in the diagram, Z, is found by short-circuiting the secondary terminals and
applying a voltage at the primary side. The current in the windings during this measurement shall
be equal to the rated current. To achieve this current an applied voltage of just a fraction of the
rated voltage will be sufficient. This voltage is called the short-circuit voltage and is usually
expressed as a percentage of the rated voltage. The impedance of the circuit is given by the
quotient of the short-circuit voltage divided by the rated current. The circuit is a parallel connection
of Z0 and Z. Because Z0>>Z the impedance of the parallel connection is equal to Z with a negligible
difference. The real part of Z represents the load losses of the transformer, and the imaginary part
is attributed to the magnetic leakage field. That is the part of the magnetic field, which is situated
outside the core.
6.5. VOLTAGE RATIO AND VOLTAGE DROP (OR RISE)

The voltage ratio of a transformer is normally specified in no load condition and is directly
proportional to the ratio of the number of turns in the windings.
When the transformer is loaded, the voltage on the secondary terminals changes from that in no
load condition, depending on
• the angle φ between the voltage on the secondary terminals of the transformer U2 and the
secondary current I2
• the value of the secondary current I2
• the short-circuit impedance of the transformer Z and its active and reactive components, r
and ±jx respectively
At no load the secondary voltage is U20. With the load ZL connected, the voltage at the secondary
terminals changes to U2. The corresponding vector diagram is shown in Figure 4. In the following
considerations symmetrical loading is assumed. The influence of the small magnetising current
(usually in the magnitude of 1% of the rated current) is negligible.

∆U2
φ
U20 ux φ
ur
I2
U2
Figure 6-4
From the vector diagram in Figure 6-4 the following relationship appears:
∆U 2 = I2 ⋅ r ⋅ cos ϕ + I2 ⋅ x ⋅ sin ϕ + U20 − U 220 − (I2 ⋅ r ⋅ sin ϕ − I2 ⋅ x ⋅ cos ϕ)

2 (V) (11)
∆U2 is the voltage drop, the arithmetic difference between U20 and U2. ur and ux are the active and
the reactive short-circuit voltages at rated current related to the rated voltage U20.
To calculate the relative voltage drop at any relative loading n equation (11) can be rewritten as
∆U2
= n(ur cos ϕ + u x sin ϕ) + 1 − 1 − n2 (ur sin ϕ − u x cos ϕ)
2 (12)
U20
I2 (13)
n=
I 2N
Example:n = 1 ur = 0,01 ux = 0,06 cosφ = 0,8 inductive

∆U 2
= 1 ⋅ (0,01 ⋅ 0,8 + 0,06 ⋅ 0.6 ) + 1 − 1 − 12 ⋅ (0,01 * 0,6 − 0,06 ⋅ 0,8 ) = 0,045
2 (14)
U 20
∆U 2 = 0,045 ⋅ U 20 (V) (15)
U 2 = U 20 − ∆U 2 = (1 − 0,045 ) ⋅ U 20 = 0.955 ⋅ U 20 (V) (16)
In other words, when a transformer with these values for ur and ux is loaded with rated current with
a power factor of 0,8 inductive the voltage on the secondary terminals decreases to 95,5% of the
voltage at no load.

Figure 6-5
Figure 6-5 shows an example of how the secondary voltage varies with various angles of ϕ and
load currents for the particular values ur = 1% and ux = 6%. Negative angles of ϕ mean lagging
(inductive) load current. Positive angles of ϕ mean leading (capacitive) load current.
Observe that at angle φ above a certain positive value the secondary voltage increases compared
to voltage at no load.
Figure 6-6 shows another example of how the secondary voltage may vary at various values of the
short circuit reactance ux and of cosφ. In general the secondary voltage decreases with increasing
ux. Observe that already at ux=7% and cosφ=0,9 the secondary voltage has dropped to about 90%
of the no load voltage.
The voltage drop is due to the consumption of active and reactive power in the transformer.
According to the IEC definitions (see clause 4.1 of IEC 60076-1) it is implied that the rated power of
a two-winding transformer is the input power. The output power differs from the rated power.
This is different from the definition in ANSI/IEEE, which states that the output power shall be equal
to the rated power, and that the voltage applied on the primary side shall be adjusted to
compensate for the voltage drop (or rise) in the transformer.
Users and installation planners are recommended to take the variation of the secondary voltage
during loading into account when specifying the transformer data. This may be especially important
for example in a case where a large motor represents the main load of the transformer. The highly
inductive starting current of the motor may then be considerably higher than the rated current of the
transformer. Consequently there may be a considerable voltage drop through the transformer. If
the feeding power source is weak, this will contribute to an even lower voltage on the secondary
side of the transformer.

Figure 6-6
The power factors (cosϕ) in Figure 6-6 are inductive. Both Figure 6-5 and 6-6 indicate that the
voltage drop in the transformer decreases when the power factor increases. A low voltage drop
increases the efficiency of the transformer.
6.6. EFFICIENCY
The efficiency of a transformer is calculated according to:
1
η% = ⋅ 100
P0 + PL ⋅ n 2
1+
P2 ⋅ n
where
P0 is the no load loss k(W) at rated voltage
PL is the load loss (kW) at rated current
P2 is the active power (kW) supplied to the load
n is the relative degree of loading. At rated current n=1.
P2 is calculated according to:

∆U 2
P2 = 3 ⋅ I2 ⋅ U 20 ⋅ (1 − ) ⋅ cos ϕ
U20
Example:
1600 kVA transformer
P0=1,560 kW PL=11,900 kW uz= 5,7% n=1 cosϕ=0,8 η=98,92%
cosϕ=1,0 η=99,16%
The efficiency of transformers is in general quite high.

6.7. NO LOAD (MAGNETISING) CURRENT AND NO LOAD LOSSES
The no load current and no load losses are attributed to the core and the special magnetic
properties of the core steel.
Ferromagnetic materials are characterised by their particular high relative permeability, up to 280
000. This means that a relatively small number of magnetising ampereturn per meter length of the
magnetic flux lines is required to obtain a strong magnetic field, which gives a strong coupling
between the windings of a transformer.
Unlike the permeability of other materials, which have constant permeability, a diagram is
necessary to describe the permeability of ferromagnetic materials, see Figure 6-7.
When a sinusoidal ac voltage is applied to the terminals of a transformer winding, a magnetising
current will flow through the winding and a magnetic flux will float in the core. The magnetic flux will
also be of sinusoidal shape, lagging 90 degrees after the applied voltage. The magnetising current
will not be sinusoidal but considerably distorted.
Figure 6-7 shows corresponding values of magnetic flux and magnetising current during one cycle
of the applied voltage. Starting at point a in the diagram, where the flux density and the
magnetising current have their maximum negative value. When the magnetising current and the
magnetic flux proceed towards smaller negative values, they follow the curve from a to b. At point b
the magnetising current is zero, but there is still remaining a magnetic flux in the core. This flux is
called the remanent magnetic flux.
When proceeding further along the curve to the right in the diagram the magnetising force changes
to positive direction. At point c the flux density in the core becomes zero. This value of the
magnetising force is called the coercive force.
Increasing the magnetising force further from point c, a flux in the positive direction starts to flow in
the core. At point d the current starts to decrease. The flux decreases also, but corresponding
values of corresponding values of current and flux do not follow the curve to the right in the
diagram. They follow the curve to the left.
T=Vs/m2
d
B
e
f c
H
A/m
Figure 6-7
At point e the current has decreased to zero. And again there is a remanent flux floating in the
core, this time with the opposite direction compared to the remanent flux at point b. Increasing the
current now in the negative direction, the flux decreases further and becomes zero at point f. From
point f on the flux changes direction and increases in the negative direction until it reaches point a.
Now one cycle of the applied voltage is completed.

The physical explanation for the described course of events is, expressed in a simplified way, that
a ferromagnetic material has numerous small magnets attached to its crystalline molecular
structure. Within certain domains these magnets have the same orientation. In the original state of
the material these domains are randomly orientated, and the magnetic field from each of them
practically cancels each other so there is no resulting magnetic field.
If the material is placed in an external magnetic field, this will have an impact on the orientation of
the domains. As the external field is increasing, more and more of the domains will change their
direction so the direction of their magnetic field coincides with the direction of the external field.
If the external field gradually decreases, more and more domains will slide out of the orientation
they got due to the external field. But when the external field has disappeared, there will still be a
considerable number of domains, which remain in the same direction as they got under influence of
the foregoing external field.
Exposed to an increasing external field of opposite direction, more and more domains will change
orientation. At a certain value of the external field, the orientation of the domains will be so mixed
that there is no resulting magnetic field from them. Further increase of the external field will cause
more and more domains to change their direction gradually so the direction of their magnetic field
coincides with the new direction of the external field.
Due to the many magnetic domains that become unidirectional, the total magnetic field will be
thousands of times higher than the original external field that directed the domains.
Reorientation of the domains is a gradual process that requires some time. This is the reason why
the magnetic flux lags behind the magnetizing force, which the diagram in Figure 6-7 illustrates.
This diagram is called the hysteresis loop. The word hysteresis comes from the Greek hystereo =
lag behind.
The hysteresis loop illustrates also that the slope of the curve decreases with increasing
magnetizing force. At a certain flux density the slope of the curve will become equal to µ0, the
permeability of air.
This means that no further increase in the magnetic flux can be obtained from the ferromagnetic
material. All the domains have now aligned their field with the external field. This is called magnetic
saturation. For the best commercially available core material today the saturation flux density is
2
slightly above 2,0 Tesla (Vs/m ).
The permeability is equal to the slope of the hysteresis loop. Because this slope varies during a
cycle of the applied voltage, the permeability is not a constant but varies during the cycle and
varies also with the peak value of the flux density.
To turn the direction of the magnetic domains requires supply of active energy. The required
3
energy is represented by the area within the hysteresis loop, which has the unit of Ws/m of core
material. The supplied energy changes to heat, which increases the temperature of the core. One
could imagine that there is friction present in the material when the domains turn around. The
supplied energy appears as losses in the transformer. They are called hysteresis losses, and they
are proportional to the frequency. At 50 Hz the hysteresis loop is run through 50 times per second.
The hysteresis losses per second will then be 50 times the area of the loop. The loop can be
displayed on the screen of an oscilloscope.
Materials with a narrow hysteresis loop, that is low coercive force, have low hysteresis losses.
As mentioned in the foregoing, the no load current is not sinusoidal.

Figure 6-8
Figure 6-8 shows a typical shape of this current, which can be constructed from the hysteresis
loop. It has a short peak value due to the low slope of the magnetising curves (the right and the left
strings of the hysteresis loop) at high flux densities. It is unsymmetrical on the two sides of the peak
value due to the width of the hysteresis loop.
The no load current measured at the delivery test and noted in the test report is the r.m.s.-value of
the non-sinusoidal no load current. For three-phase transformers the average value for the three
phases is noted.
Eddy current losses
Another component of the no load losses is the eddy current losses. The time-variable magnetic
flux induces currents running in paths perpendicular to the direction of the flux. These currents
produce losses in the core plates. These losses can be calculated by means of the following
formula:
P0 eddy = 1 ⋅ σ ⋅ ω 2 ⋅ d 2 ⋅ B 2 ⋅ V (W) (17)

24
where
σ is the conductivity of the core material
ω is the angular frequency
d is the thickness of the core plates
B is the peak value of the flux density
V is the volume of the core
The formula deserves some comments. It appears that the eddy current losses are proportional to
the conductivity of the core material. In modern core plate a few percents of silicon is alloyed to
reduce the conductivity and the eddy current losses. But if the silicon content exceeds a certain
limit, the material will be difficult to roll, slit and cut.
The eddy current losses are proportional to the square of the thickness of the plates. The choice of
plate thickness is a matter of economic balance between the capitalised value of the losses and
manufacturing costs. In practice the thickness is normally within the range 0,23 – 0,30 mm.
Anomalous losses
For the sake of completeness there is a third component in the no load losses which is called
anomalous losses that have been ascribed to a diffusion phenomena in the crystal grid of the
material.
The traditional way to measure the specific total losses in core steel expressed in W per kg core
steel has been by means of the Epstein frame. This is a quadratic frame made of the laminated
core steel to be investigated. The method is described in IEC 60404-2 (1996-03) Magnetic
materials – Part 2: Methods of measurement of the magnetic properties of electrical steel sheet
and strip by means of an Epstein frame.
It is relatively laborious and time consuming to prepare the samples for the Epstein measurement.
In order to establish a quicker method that facilitates measurements on a higher number of

samples, single sheet testers were developed. This makes it possible to state average and
variability values with higher statistical confidence.
In single sheet testers a magnetic field is created that is applied perpendicular to the surface of the
sample sheet at one end, floats along the length of the sheet and goes out again perpendicular to
the surface again at the other end. The method is standardised and described in IEC 60404-3
(2002-10) Ed. 2.1 Magnetic materials – Part 3: Methods of measurement of the magnetic
properties of magnetic sheet and strip by means of a single sheet tester.
The no load losses in a transformer core in W per kg core steel will normally be higher than the
values obtained from test samples in a laboratory. There are several reasons for this.
Modern low loss core steel is quite sensitive to mechanical strain and treatment. The large number
of thin core plates must be kept together by means of a certain pressure, which also may be
unevenly distributed along the core limbs and yokes. The joints between limbs and yokes where
the flux direction changes may not be perfect due to tolerances in the manufacturing. Particularly
the joints between limbs and the upper yoke are critical because the plates of the upper yoke are
more or less forced down after the core is raised and the windings are assembled on the limbs.
Burrs at the edges of the core plates influence the losses unfavourably. The increase in losses in a
real transformer core compared to the material measurements in laboratories is often expressed by
means of a factor called the ‘building factor’. This factor varies with the cross section area of the
core and with the design as well.
Experienced manufacturers are normally able to predict the no load losses with not more than a
few percent deviation from the measured losses. This is due to studies of the flux pattern in
transformer cores and mathematical models derived from regression analysis of the measured
losses of a large number of transformers.
Inrush currents
Inrush currents have sometimes been a problem from a protection point of view. Fuses have blown
or relays have disconnected the transformer immediately after energizing. This may create the
suspicion that there is something wrong with the transformer. An explanation of the phenomenon
will be given in the following.
The magnitude of the inrush current is a statistical variable depending on where on the sinusoidal
voltage curve the circuit breaker connects the transformer to the voltage source. The highest inrush
current occurs when the circuit breaker connects the transformer when the voltage passes through
zero.
When the circuit breaker disconnects the transformer from the voltage source, there will always
remain a remanent flux in the core, unless the disconnection takes place exactly when the flux
passes zero. The remanent flux will be a statistical variable. It will be at its maximum if the
disconnection happens when the flux has its maximum. The polarity of the remanent flux may be
positive or negative.
The induction law states that the induced voltage is proportional to the time derivative of the
magnetic flux.
u = dΦ (V) (18)
dt
This can also be seen the opposite way, the magnetic flux is the time integral of the voltage:
dΦ = u ⋅ dt (Vs) (19)
Φ = ∫ u ⋅ dt (Vs) (20)
Assuming that the voltage is sinusoidal and the integral is taken over the first half cycle of the
voltage, that is from 0 to π, where 0 is the time when the circuit breaker makes and π is the time
when the voltage changes direction:
π
Φ = ∫ U ⋅ sin( ωt ) ⋅ d(ωt ) = U(− cos π − ( − cos 0)) = 2U (Vs) (21)
0
To compare this result with the situation when the circuit breaker makes at the peak value of the
voltage, the integral is taken between the limits π/2 and π.

π
Φ= ∫ U ⋅ sin(ωt ) ⋅ d(ωt ) = U( − cos π − ( − cos π 2)) = U
π
(Vs) (22)
2
Equation (22) complies with the situation in continuous normal service.

From equation (21) it appears that the magnetic flux reaches a value, which is twice as large as it is
in normal service if the circuit breaker makes when the voltage passes through zero. This means
that the point of magnetic saturation in the core will be exceeded. The reactance of the transformer
is then very low compared to the large reactance at normal flux. A high current will then be drawn
from the energy source. This current will be of the same magnitude and character as a short-circuit
current, and will cause considerable mechanical forces in the primary winding. The forces are
proportional to the square of the current.
If the remanent flux Φr has the same direction as the flux calculated in the foregoing the total flux
will be
Φ t = 2Φ + Φ r (Vs) (23)
which makes the inrush current even higher.
Figure 6-9
Figure 6-9 illustrates the situation. The light grey curve marked Φ’ is the magnetic flux in the normal
stationary condition.
When the voltage changes direction at π, the current will decrease. But at 2π the current will
increase again. This course of events will continue with gradually decreasing peak values of the
current. The influence of the original remanent flux will also gradually disappear. The number of
cycles before stationary normal operation is reached ranges from less than 10 cycles for small
transformers up to several minutes for larger transformers.
A sudden increased sound level that follows the same declining development as the magnetic flux
can be heard.
The statistical probability that the absolute worst case will occur is not high. In most cases electrical
connection between the two poles of the circuit breaker will be established before metallic contact
between the poles takes place because of arcing between the poles. There is higher probability
that such arching will occur when the voltage difference between the poles is in the range of the
voltage maximum than when this voltage difference is close to zero.
The short-circuit power of the feeding source has also influence on the magnitude of the inrush
current. If the short–circuit impedance of the source is high, the inrush current will cause a voltage
drop across this impedance which will reduce the voltage at the transformer terminals. It can also
be noted that the worst case only occurs in one out of the three phases.
A characteristic of the inrush current is that it contains a second harmonic component because of
unsymmetrical half-cycles. Modern overcurrent relays and differential relays contain a control
circuit that reduces the sensivity of the relay when a second harmonic in the current exists. In that

way a releasing signal from the relay to the circuit breaker is prevented during inrush current, which
is a normal physical phenomenon and not a failure.
Inrush currents tend to be higher on modern transformers compared to transformers manufactured
say 40 years ago. The reason is that modern low loss core steel allows higher flux densities in the
core without unacceptable high core temperatures as a consequence.
6.8. LOAD LOSSES

The currents floating in the windings create losses due to the resistance in the windings. They are
2
equal to RI in each of the windings, where R is the direct current winding resistance and I the
current through the winding.
The eddy current losses come in addition. The winding conductors are situated in a time-varying
magnetic field due to the current floating in the conductors themselves. This magnetic field creates
eddy currents in the winding conductors. The consequence of the eddy currents is that the resulting
current in the conductors is unevenly distributed in the cross section of the conductor, which in turn
increases the losses.
The magnetic flux density varies also across the radial width of the winding. In a simple winding
configuration of a two-winding transformer, where the windings are situated as two concentric
shells, the flux density is highest at conductors nearest the duct between the shells. Consequently
the losses and also the temperature will highest in these conductors.
To avoid high eddy current losses the conductor dimension perpendicular to the magnetic flux lines
must be kept small. Further tall and slim windings have lower eddy current losses than low and
wide windings. However, in practise the design of a transformer is often a compromise between
different considerations, like for example short-circuit impedance and space limitations.
Because of the magnetic leakage field additional losses arise in the tank and in metal details
keeping the core and the windings firmly together.
2
The RI losses increase with the temperature while the additional losses decrease with the
temperature. The temperature that guaranteed losses shall be referred to is stated in the
standards.
6.9. SHORT-CIRCUIT IMPEDANCE

Users have sometimes particular requirements regarding the short-circuit impedance. Such
requirements may be determined by:
• parallel operation with existing units,
• limitation of voltage drop,
• limitation of short-circuit currents.
The transformer designer can meet the requirements in different ways:
• The size of the core cross-section. A large cross-section gives a low impedance and vice
versa,
• A tall transformer gives a low impedance and vice versa.
For each transformer there is, however, a smaller range which gives the optimum transformer from
an economic point of view, that is the lowest sum of the manufacturing costs and the capitalised
value of the losses.
Regarding smaller distribution transformers a high degree of standardisation in the manufacturing
may in certain cases constrain the designer’s ability to meet the requirements.
Short-circuit impedance Z is often expressed as uz in p.u. or in % according to the following
formulas:
u z = Ir ⋅ Z / Ur p.u. (24)
u z = 100 ⋅ Ir ⋅ Z / U r % (25)
Formulas (24) and (25) are valid for for single-phase transformers, where Ir and Ur are rated values
of current and voltage on either side of the transformer. For 3-phase transformers the nominator
must be multiplied with √3.
Based on measured short-circuit voltage the value of Zk expressed in ohm can be calculated from
the following formula:

u z% ⋅ U r u z% U r2
Z= = ⋅ Ω (26)
100 ⋅ Ir 100 Sr
for single phase transformers and
u z% ⋅ U r u z% U r2
Z= = ⋅ Ω (27)
3 ⋅ 100 ⋅ Ir 100 Sr
for 3-phase transformers. Sr is the rated power of the transformer.

From formulas (26) and (27) it appears that Z expressed in ohm is different depending on which
2
side of the transformer it is referred to, because the ratio Ur/Ir or Ur /Sr is different on each side of
the transformer, unless the turn ratio is equal to 1.
It follows that
2 2
Z 1  U r1  N 
=   =  1  (28)
Z 2  Ur 2   N2 
where the indices 1 and 2 refers to the two sides of the transformer. The relation between the
short-circuit impedance expressed in ohm referred to the two sides of the transformer is equal to
the square of the turn ratio or square of the rated voltage ratio.
Z has the active and reactive components R and jX. To find these components the load losses (PL)
are registered by means of wattmeters during the short-circuit measurement. Then
R= PL/Ir2 Ω (29)
X = Z2 − R2 Ω (30)
The real part of the short-circuit voltage is
R ⋅ Ir
ur = p.u. (31)
Ur
R ⋅ Ir
u r% = ⋅ 100 % (32)
Ur
For three-phase transformers a factor √3 is inserted in the nominator. There is a simple relation
between ur, the load losses PL and the rated power Sr of the transformer:
R ⋅ Ir R ⋅ Ir2 P
ur = = = L p.u. (33)
Ur Ur ⋅ Ir Sr
The relation ur = PL/Sr is also valid for 3-phase transformers. The imaginary part of uz can be
calculated as
u x = u r2 − u r2 p.u.
(34)
or %
X = Z2 − R2 Ω (35)
While X0 is mainly linked to the magnetic field in the core, X is linked to magnetic leakage field,
which mainly runs through the windings and the ducts between windings.

Figure 6-10
When the transformer is energized but not loaded, the practically the whole magnetic field goes in
the core. When loading the transformer with a lagging current, a part of the magnetic field is drawn
out from the core to the core window where the windings are situated. See Figure 6-10. The
magnetic flux in the core becomes smaller. Typically for distribution transformers the high voltage is
applied to the outer winding. The secondary low voltage winding is the inner winding where the
voltage decreases.
If a capacitive load is added the resulting current decreases because the capacitive current partly
compensates the inductive current. The leakage field becomes smaller and the flux in the core
increases and makes the voltage drop on the secondary side smaller.
If the transformer is loaded with a leading current, that is a current with a resulting reactive current,
which is capacitive, this capacitive load supplies reactive power to the transformer. The magnetic
flux in the core and the secondary voltage increase.
The reactive power of the magnetic energy of the leakage field is
Q = ω ⋅ LI 2 = 2πfLI 2 = XI2 VA(r) (36)

Here I is the load current flowing in either of the windings and X the reactance in ohm referred to
same side of the transformer as I.
X can be calculated based on the geometric dimensions of the windings and the number of turns.
For a simple two-winding arrangement the formula is:
t1 + t 2 L1 + L 2
X = 4π ⋅ 10 − 7 ( t 12 + ) k R N 2 ⋅ 2πf Ω (37)
3 hw
Dimensions in meter. N is the number of turns in the winding on the side to which X shall be
referred. See Figure 6-11.

⊗
IN IN hw
t1 t12 t2
Figure 6-11
In the formula (37) L1 and L2 are the mean circumference for the inner and outer windings
respectively. The formula is based on the assumption that the magnetic field lines goes vertically
along the whole height hw of the windings. This is in reality not the case. It can be seen from Figure
10 that some of the field lines towards the ends of the windings have an increasing horizontal or
radial component. The German professor W. Rogowski made a careful study on how to
compensate for this deviation from the assumption in the formula. The result of this study
(published early in the last century) was a correction factor
(t 1 + t 12 + t 2 )  −
πh w

kR = 1− 1 − e (t1 + t12 + t 2 )  (38)
πh w  
 
This factor has is known as the the Rogowski factor. In most practical cases its numerical value is
within the range 0,95 – 0,99. It makes the length of the leakage field duct a little longer, hw/kR
instead of hw.
The formula for ux expressed as a percentage of the rated voltage Ur is
u x = 2( t 12 +
t1 + t 2 L1 + L 2
) kR
(IN) f 10 − 2
% (39)
3 hw e t 0 50
where et0 is the number of volts per turn in no load condition.
Corresponding hand formulas exist also for more complicated winding arrangements. The short-
circuit reactance or short-circuit voltage calculated by means of these formulas comply very well
with the measured values. However, for high currents an addition for the reactance in the lead
assembly must be made.
6.10. ABILITY TO WITHSTAND SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENTS

IEC 60076-5 Power transformers – Part 5: Ability to withstand short circuit identifies the
requirements for transformers to sustain without damage the effects of overcurrents originated by
external short circuits.
For three-phase transformers with two separate windings, the r.m.s. value of the symmetrical short-
circuit current is calculated as:
U
I sc = kA (40)
3 ⋅ (Z + Z s )
Where Zs is the short-circuit impedance of the system.
U 2s
Zs = In ohms per phase (equivalent star connection) (41)
S

Where
Us is the rated voltage of the system, in kilovolts (kV);
S is the short-circuit apparent power of the system, in megavoltamperes (MVA).
U and Z are defined as follows:
U is the rated voltage Ur of the winding under consideration, in kilovolts (kV)
Z is the short-circuit impedance of the transformer referred to the winding under
consideration; it is calculated as follows:
u z ⋅ Ur2 In ohms per phase (equivalent

Z= (42)
100 ⋅ S r star connection)
where
us is the measured short-circuit impedance at rated current and frequency at reference
temperature, as a percentage;
Sr is the rated power of the transformer, in megavoltamperes (MVA).
The duration of the symmetrical short-circuit current must be limited to avoid excessive
overheating. According to IEC 60076-5 the duration shall be 2s, unless otherwise agreed between
purchaser and supplier. During this time the temperature in the windings shall not exceed certain
values given in IEC 60076-5, when calculated by means of formulas given in the standard.
Another aspect of the short circuit topic is the mechanical forces in the windings due to
overcurrents. Unlike temperatures that need some time to rise, the mechanical forces follow the
current instantaneously. The first cycles of a short-circuit current are asymmetric with respect to the
time axis. The degree of asymmetry depends on point of the sinusoidal voltage curve where the
short-circuit occurs. The degree of asymmetry is a statistical variable with its maximum when the
short-circuit occurs in the range where the voltage passes through zero and its minimum in the
range where the voltage has its peak value. This will be demonstrated in the following.
R X
Û sin(ωt + α )
i(t
Figure 6-12
Consider the circuit in Figure 6-12. Assume that the switch makes at the instant t = 0, thus
simulating a short-circuit. The current i(t) is expressed by the following equation:
i( t ) = Î ⋅ (sin(ωt + α − ϕ) − e
−t
τ
⋅ sin(α − ϕ)) A (43)
in which
Û
Î = A (44)
Z
that is the peak value of the symmetrical, stationary short-circuit current
Z = R + j ωL [Ω]
α = switching angle of the voltage u(t) at the instant of the short circuit [rad]
ϕ = phase angle of the circuit impedance (=arctg ωL/R) [rad]
τ = L/R = tgϕ/ ω [ s] (the time constant of the circuit)
-1
ω = 2·π·f [s ]

The current starts from zero and consists of two components:
• an alternating steady-state component of fundamental frequency,
• an unidirectional component decreasing exponentially with time.
The first peak value of the short-circuit current determines the maximum force that acts on the
windings. The maximum value of this current depends on the X/R ratio and the switching angle α. It
occurs in almost all cases when α = 0 (or π).
In power systems X >>R, which means that ϕ ≈ π/2.
Equation (43) can then with reasonable approximation be written as:
π −t
i( t ) = Î ⋅ (sin(ωt − ) + e τ ) A (45)
2
The first current peak closely corresponds to the time when ωt = π.
1,5
1
Isc p.u.
0,5
0
0 20 40 60 80
-0,5
-1
t (ms)
Figure 6-13
i = Î ⋅ k = I sc ⋅ 2 ⋅ k = I sc max A (46)
where the asymmetry factor k is

− πR (47)
k = 1+ e X
Figure 6-13 shows an example on how the short-circuit current elapses. In this example X/R = 8, k
= 1,68.
The peak factor is k·√2 and its dependence of X/R is shown in Figure 6-14. The peak factor value
in the example in Figure 6-13 is 2,38. The value of the first peak of the short circuit current is the
r.m.s. value of the stationary short circuit current multiplied with the peak factor.
In a real case with a transformer installed in a network:
X = the sum of the network and the transformer reactance [Ω]
R = the sum of the network and the transformer resistance [Ω]
X/R and the peak factor increase with increasing transformer power rating.

3,0
2,8
2,6
2,4
k√2
2,2
2,0
1,8
1,6
1,4
1 10 100
X/R
Figure 6-14
Mechanical forces in the windings
Current flows through the winding conductors, which are situated in the magnetic leakage field. The
conductors are then subject to mechanical forces.
These forces are not static. They are pulsating. Each time the current passes through zero the
forces are also zero. At normal load current the forces are small. They increase with the square of
the current, so during the high overcurrents that arise if a short-circuit in the system occur, the
forces must be given attention when designing the transformer. The short circuit current may
amount to 10 – 20 times the rated current of the transformer, which means that the forces in the
windings may be 100 – 400 times larger at a short circuit than in normal service.
The forces cause large movements in the windings. These movements are invisible for the human
eye. But rapid film recordings played in slow motion show the size of the movements and illustrate
the violence of the forces.
I
B
F=IХB
Figure 6-15
When considering the ability of a design to withstand it is usual to split the forces into radial and
axial components as indicated in Figure 6-15, which shows an upper part of an outer winding. The
radial force is directed outwards and causes a tensile force in the winding conductors. In the
corresponding inner winding the radial component is directed inwards. That may cause buckling of
the winding if it has not been made robust enough.
The axial forces are caused by the radial component of the magnetic field at the ends of the
windings. These forces may lead to tilting of the conductors between the axial spacers in the
winding. The force on each turn or disc adds together. The sum of the forces is balanced at the
other end of the winding. The whole winding is subject to a strong axial pressure. See Figure 6-16.

A B
A Axial current forces

B Resulting axial pressure
Figure 6-16
The ability to withstand tilting of the conductors depends on the diameter of the winding, the
distance between the spacers around the circumference and the dimensions of the conductor.
In case of axial “openings” in the winding, that is one or more places along the height of the
winding where there are no ampere-turns, there will be axial forces directed towards the yokes.
The framework keeping the core and windings together must be designed to be able to withstand
such forces.
In case of axial “openings” in the winding, that is one or more places along the height of the
winding where there are no ampere-turns, there will be axial forces directed towards the yokes.
The framework keeping the core and windings together must be designed to be able to withstand
such forces.
A more comprehensive treatment of the short-circuit topic is given in the book “SHORT-CIRCUIT
DUTY OF POWER TRANSFORMERS – THE ABB APPROACH” by Giorgio Bertagnolli, issued by
ABB. The book is available from ABB at request.
6.11. TRANSFORMER SOUND

Transformers in service cause sound, which in the long run may seriously discomfort people in the
environment.
Sound may be defined as any pressure variation in air (or other elastic media) that the human ear
can detect. The pressure variations travel through the medium from the sound source to the
listener’s ears. The number of cyclic pressure variations per second is called the frequency of the
sound, and is expressed in Herz (Hz). The frequency of a sound produces its own distinctive tone.
A transformer ‘hum’ is low frequency, fundamentally 100 Hz or 200 Hz, while a whistle is high
frequency, typically above 3 kHz. The normal range of hearing for a healthy young person extends
from approximately 20 Hz to 20 kHz.
A further characteristic used to describe a sound is the amplitude of the pressure variations, which
is expressed in Pascals (Pa). The weakest sound that a healthy human ear can detect is strongly
dependent on the frequency; at 1 kHz it has amplitude of 20 µPa. The threshold of pain
corresponds to a sound pressure of more than a million times higher. Therefore, to avoid the use of
large numbers, the decibel scale (dB) is used.

The dB-scale is logarithmic and uses 20 µPa as the reference level, p0, which then corresponds to
0 dB. Sound pressure level Lp expressed in dB is defined in the following equation:
p2
L p = 10 ⋅ lg dB (48)
p 02
where p is the sound pressure measured by a microphone. Sound pressure is a scalar quantity,
which means it has magnitude only.
To provide a feeling of how a few well-known types of sound are situated on the dB-scale some
values are listed below.
Source of sound Sound pressure level in dB
Quiet living area 45
Normal conversation at 1 m distance 60
Medium factory noise 75
Factory maximum limit 85
City street with heavy traffic 95
Circle saw at 1 m distance 105
Comprehensive investigations are made to correlate human perception of ‘loudness’ at various
frequencies and sound pressures. The curves in Figure 6-17 are results of such investigations.
These curves will vary somewhat from one person to another, but they can be regarded as average
curves for how young persons with healthy ears respond.
Each curve represents sound that is perceived as ‘equally loud’ across the whole frequency range.
The lowest curve that goes through zero dB sound pressure at1000 Hz represents the hearing
threshold. The human ear is not able to hear anything below this curve. It appears that the ear is
most sensitive in the frequency range between 3 and 4 kHz, where a sound pressure even below
20 µPa is audible.
For frequencies below 700 Hz the threshold curve ascends, which means that for the lower
frequencies the sound pressure has to be increased to make the sound audible. The curve also
rises at frequencies above 4 kHz.
The three upper curves go through 40, 70 and 100 dB at 1 kHz. A microphone responds quite
differently to sound pressure. In order to imitate the response curves of the human ear filters are
inserted in the measuring equipment. Three different filters are standardized, named A, B and C
filters. They imitate the curves going through 40, 70 and 100 dB at 1 kHz respectively.
Measurement results made with one of the three filters inserted are denoted dB(A), dB(B) or dB(C).
Ear sensivity curves
120
C-weighted filter
110
100
90 B-weighted filter
Sound pressure (dB)
80
70
60 A-weighted filter
50
40
30
20 Hearing threshold
10
0
-10
10 100 1000 10000 100000
Sound frequency (Hz)
Figure 6-17

When measuring the sound pressure around a transformer, the A-filter is used because this
corresponds to the sound pressure level that normally prevails.
The sound pressure caused by a transformer is measured in several points around the transformer
at a distance of 0,3 meters from the outer vertical surface of the transformer. This measurement
result is in itself of limited interest, because nobody normally is standing 0,3 meters from the
transformer. More interesting is the sound pressure level at larger distance from the transformer
where people may stay.
To be able to estimate the sound pressure at larger distance, the sound power level of the
transformer must be determined. The term ’sound power’ needs to be explained.
A sound source radiates power into the surrounding air resulting in a sound pressure field. Sound
power is the cause. Sound pressure is the effect. The sound pressure, which is heard or measured
with a microphone, is dependent on the distance from the source and the acoustic environment.
So, the sound pressure at a certain distance from the source alone cannot quantify the strength of
the source. It is necessary to determine the sound power of the source, which is independent of the
environment and a unique descriptor of the strength of the sound source.
Sound power is the rate at which energy per unit time is radiated from the source. Its dimension is
Watt. However, sound power Lw is normally also expressed in dB and logarithmic scale according
to the following formula:
W
L w = 10 ⋅ lg db (49)
W0
-13
In this formula W0 is an arbitrarily chosen reference value equal to 10 Watt, which corresponds to
a quite weak sound source. This reference value is chosen without regard to the previously
mentioned reference value for sound pressure.
The sound power of one of the strongest sound power sources of concern, a large jet motor, has a
18
sound power of about 100 000 Watts. The total power range to deal with is then 10 . Instead of
working with such extremely high figures in acoustical subjects, the whole power range is covered
by 180 dB.
Based on the measured sound pressure the sound power of the transformer in dB can be
calculated according to formulas given in IEC 60076-10 Ed. 1.0.
In a large free field the sound pressure at larger distances from the transformer can be calculated.
In practice there are often one or more walls or other items in the surroundings of the transformer
that will reflect sound from the transformer and make a prediction of the sound pressure at various
places in the neighbourhood difficult.
Sources of sound generation
The dominant generating source of transformer sound is magnetostriction. Magnetostriction is the
change in dimensions which takes place in certain materials when they are subjected to a change
-7 -5
in magnetic flux. In magnetic core steel the dimensional change is in the range of 10 to 10
meters per meter length at typical induction levels.
The effect does not depend on the sign of the flux, only on its magnitude and orientation relative to
certain crystallographic axes of the material. Therefore, when excited by a sinusoidal flux, the
fundamental frequency of the dimensional change will be twice the exciting frequency. The effect is
highly non-linear, especially at high, near saturation, induction levels. The non-linearity results in a
significant harmonic content in the vibration spectrum of the core.
In three-phase cores the change in dimension in each core limb does not occur simultaneously,
which means that the whole core will be subject to pulsating distortions that also generate sound.
A DC bias in addition to the AC magnetization of the core may significantly increase the vibration
amplitudes of the core and consequently the sound level. The DC bias may also cause a
considerable difference in the positive and negative peaks of the flux density, which in turn makes
the fundamental frequency of the sound equal to the frequency of the service voltage instead of
twice this frequency.

There are a few means available to the transformer designer to reduce the sound generated from
the core:
• Reduce the flux density in the core from the usual 1.7 – 1,85 Tesla down to 1,2 Tesla. This
can be done either by increasing the core cross section or by increasing the number of turns
in the windings. There is not much to gain in reduced sound level by going below 1,2 Tesla.
Reduced flux density gives larger geometric dimensions, increased load losses and higher
weight and manufacturing costs. The no load losses will decrease,
• Avoid combinations of core cross section and limb height that make natural frequencies of
the core coincide with frequencies of the magnetic field,
• Making the framework that holds the core together heavier and stiffer,
• Inserting a pad of damping material between the active part of the transformer and the tank
bottom.
Another source of sound from transformers is vibrations in the windings due to pulsating
mechanical forces acting on the winding conductors. The windings are situated in the magnetic
leakage field. The force acting on a winding conductor is proportional to the product of the current
floating in the conductor and the local flux density of the magnetic field where the conductor is
situated.
At normal flux densities in the core, 1,7 T and above, the sound due to the core will overshadow
the sound from the windings. But in cases where especially low sound levels are specified and the
flux density in the core is low (down to 1,2 T) in order to fulfil the required sound level, the sound
produced by the windings may give a noticeable contribution to the total sound level of the
transformer.
Plane metal plates between stiffeners in the transformer tank may act like a membrane of a
loudspeaker if any natural frequency of the plate coincides with a dominant frequency of the
vibrations from the active part. The total sound level of the transformer may in such situations be
considerably increased.
The measurement of sound from transformers may sometimes be disturbed by high background
sound or sound from one or several other strong sound sources in the surroundings. To determine
the sound power of the transformer in such situations sound intensity measurements are made.
Sound intensity is the time-averaged product of the pressure and particle velocity of the medium in
which the sound waves are propagating. Sound intensity is a vector quantity describing the
magnitude and direction of the net flow of sound energy at a given position.
It is outside the scope of this chapter to explain the physics that form the basis for determining the
sound power of a source by means of sound intensity measurements. We will just mention that two
closely spaced microphones are used and that the measurement procedure and the determination
of the results are described in IEC 60076-10.
Cooling fans create turbulent flows of air resulting in pressure fluctuations with a wide range of
frequencies. The sound level is highly dependent on the speed of the fan wheel periphery.
The transmission of sound from the transformer to the surroundings can be reduced by installing
sound-damping panels around the transformer or place the transformer inside a separate building.
Within large buildings transformer sound may propagate widely through structural parts of the
building, like floors and walls. Inserting plates of suitable damping material between the transformer
and its fundament can effectively reduce this.
The IEC transformer standards do not prescribe any permissible limits for transformer sound. They
just describe how sound characteristics of transformers can be determined. Permissible limits are
entirely subject to agreement between purchaser and supplier in each case.
The CENELEC transformer standard HD 428.1 S1:1992 has standardized limits for the sound level
for the smallest distribution transformers.

7. TRANSFORMER MATERIALS
7.1. CORE MATERIALS
Transformer cores are built from thin sheets of steel. These sheets are manufactured specifically
for use in transformers.
Core steel has low carbon content < 0.1%. Increased carbon content has a detrimental influence
on the hysteresis losses as well as the ageing properties.
Core steel is alloyed with silicon (Si). Silicon increases the specific electrical resistance, which
again reduces the eddy current losses in the core. Increased silicon content makes the core steel
brittle; therefore the content is kept below 3%.
Today, only grain-oriented steel is used. By cold rolling the steel sheets, the magnetic domains in
the steel sheet will tend to be oriented in the rolling direction.
One gets a material with very good loss properties in the rolling direction, and correspondingly poor
properties in the transversal direction. The rolling process requires special equipment with very
high surface pressure.
The grain oriented core steel is available in several grades. The different properties are obtained by
the raw material composition, the degree of cold rolling and different finishing treatments, for
example laser treatment. Laser treatment is a mechanical treatment which divides the magnetic
domains into smaller domains with lower losses as the result.
To minimise eddy current losses, the sheets must be insulated from each other. Earlier it was
common to use varnish or paper. Today the core steel is delivered ready insulated from the
manufacturer. The insulation is an inorganic material compatible with transformer oil and is
corrosion and temperature resistant. The insulating coating is very thin < 4 µm. A thin coating
means a good core fill factor.
The core is built up from many layers of core steel sheets. Suppose the core limb was built from a
solid iron bolt, the core would represent a short-circuited winding around itself, and the transformer
would not work. The mutually insulated sheets prevent such a short- circuit.
Eddy current losses in the core steel are proportional to the square of the thickness. Therefore the
steel sheets have to be thin in order to reduce the no load losses. Typical thickness is from 0.23
mm to 0.30 mm.
7.2. CONDUCTOR MATERIALS
From a technical and economical point of view there are two conductor materials that can be used,
copper (Cu) or aluminium (Al).
The choice of conductor material depends mainly on price and availability. The supply and demand
of copper and aluminium can vary quite significant on the world market, and thereby also price and
availability of conductors from the manufacturers.
Some customers prescribe copper only, for different reasons.
The physical dimensions of a transformer with copper windings are normally smaller than that of a
transformer with aluminium windings.
Conductor shapes are foil, round or rectangular wire.
The foil is not directly insulated. The round and rectangular wire is normally coated by varnish.
The use of varnish instead of paper improves the winding space factor due to smaller thickness,
and reduces the winding to liquid temperature gradient (winding to air temperature gradient for dry-
type transformers).
Rectangular wire can also be insulated by paper for thermal class 105 or with aramid for higher
temperature classes.
Cold working of the conductor increases the hardness and leads to increased the ability to
withstand short-circuit forces.

7.3. INSULATION MATERIALS
7.3.1. Solid insulation materials

7.3.1.1. General
A good insulation material must have the following properties:
1. High dielectric strength,
2. Good mechanical properties,
3. Long lifetime at operating temperature,
4. Easily workable.
Insulation material must withstand the operating temperatures that occur in the transformer during
the lifetime of the transformer.
Insulation materials to be used in liquid-immersed transformers must be compatible to the liquid.
7.3.1.2. Cellulose materials
Mainly used in oil immersed transformers with thermal class 105.
Cellulose insulation is made of slow growing types of wood, having long fibres. Long fibres give
long life-time, and high density gives high dielectric strength.
Cellulose products are compatible to mineral oil, and are easy to oil impregnate.
The impregnation is done under vacuum and elevated temperature, and the tiny cavities in the
cellulose are filled with oil. Thereby the dielectric strength is further increased. In case the cavities
were not filled with oil, these small air bubbles would cause partial discharges. Partial discharges
may in the long term escalate to a dielectric break-down.
Contaminants represent weaknesses in the insulation that may lead to dielectric break-down.
Cellulose insulation is specified in IEC 60554-3 for paper, and IEC 60641-3 for board.
7.3.1.3. Porcelain
Porcelain is mainly used for bushings in oil-immersed transformers. In some cases also used as
supports or spacers in dry type transformers.
7.3.1.4. Solid synthetic insulation materials
These materials are mainly used in dry type transformers or reactors having higher thermal classes
130, 155, 180, 220. These materials are more expensive than cellulose insulation.
Enamels are used as conductor insulation, and normally double coated. Several qualities for
different applications are available. Reference is made to IEC 60317
Epoxy resins used in combination with fillers, for example glass fibre and quartz powder is used for
insulation barriers and complete vacuum cast windings.
Polyesters can be used as insulation barriers, spacers and duct sticks. Reference is made to IEC
60893-3 and IEC 61212-3
Aramid fibre are used to manufacture insulation paper or board sheets in different thicknesses. The
material surface may be smooth or porous. The porous type can to a certain extent be oil
impregnated. The material has very good thermal properties, thermal class 220.
Aramid insulation is specified in IEC 60819-3 for paper, and IEC 60629-1 for board.

7.3.2. Fluids
7.3.2.1. General
The fluid in a transformer has several functions; the two most important are certainly insulation and
cooling. Another function is to carry information about the condition of the active part inside the
transformer.
Several requirements have to be fulfilled;
Chemical Electrical
Oxidation stability Breakdown voltage AC
Oxidation inhibitor content Breakdown voltage, impulse
Corrosive sulphur Dissipation factor
Water content Streaming charging
Neutralization value
Physical Additional
Viscosity Low particle content
Appearance Compatibility with other transformer
materials
Density Gassing properties
Pour point Aromatic structure
Surface tension Poly-aromatic structure
Flash point Solubility properties
7.3.2.2. Mineral oil

Important properties of mineral oil are specified in IEC 60296.
3
Flash point 145 °C, density 0,88 kg/dm , relative permittivity 2,2.
Mineral oil is the most common liquid used. Mineral oil is normally the reference to which all other
liquids are compared.
Mineral oil offers in most cases the best compromise between cost and technical properties, and
compatibility with other transformer materials is also very good.
7.3.3. Other fluids

These fluids are reserved for special applications, and are typically 5-6 times more expensive than
mineral oil.
The main motivation for using these fluids is improved fire safety and environmental impact.
Further these fluids are applicable for operation at elevated temperatures, however have limited
capabilities in extremely cold climates.
7.3.3.1. Dimethyl Silicone
Important properties of silicone fluid are specified in IEC 60836
3
Silicone fluid has slightly lower dielectric and cooling properties compared to mineral oil.
When it ignites it is self-quenching because it creates a layer of oxide. However, it is not self-
quenching related to arcing and electrical failures.
Silicone fluid is not used in on-load tap changers a.o. due to its poor lubrication properties.

7.3.3.2. Synthetic Ester
Important properties of synthetic ester are specified in IEC 61099
3
7.3.3.3. Synthetic Hydrocarbon
Important properties of synthetic hydrocarbon are specified in IEC 60867
3
7.3.3.4. Agricultural Ester
No applicable IEC specification.
3
This is good compromise between fire safety and environmental friendliness.
BIOTEMP is an ABB developed and patented agricultural ester, based on sunflower oil, see also
www.abb.com/ for additional information.

8. TESTING OF TRANSFORMERS
The information given below is an extract from IEC 60076-1 (1993-03) Clause 10. Testing of dry-
type transformers is described in IEC 60726 (1982) for further information. *Copyright © IEC,
Geneva, Switzerland. www.iec.ch
8.1. GENERAL REQUIREMENTS

• Tests shall be made at any ambient temperature between 10 °C and 40 °C, and with cooling
water if required at any temperature not exceeding 25 °C,
• Tests shall be made at the manufacturer's works, unless otherwise agreed between the
manufacturer and the purchaser,
• All external components and fittings that are likely to affect the performance of the
transformer during the test shall be in place,
• Tapped windings shall be connected on their principal tapping, unless the relevant test
clause requires otherwise or unless the manufacturer and the purchaser agree otherwise,
• The test basis for all characteristics other than insulation is the rated condition, unless the
test clause states otherwise,
• All measuring systems used for the tests shall have certified, traceable accuracy and be
subject to periodic calibration, according to the rules of 4.6 of ISO 9001.
NOTE: Specific requirements regarding accuracy and verification of measuring systems are under
consideration (see IEC 60606)
Where it is required that test results are to be corrected to a reference temperature, this shall be; for oil-
immersed transformers: 75 °C, and for dry-type transformers: according to the requirements in IEC 60726
8.2. ROUTINE TESTS

• Measurement of winding resistance (IEC 60076-1 10.2),
• Measurement of voltage ratio and check of phase displacement (IEC 60076-1 10.3),
• Measurement of short-circuit impedance and load loss (IEC 60076-1 10.4),
• Measurement of no-load loss and current (IEC 60076-1 10.5),
• Dielectric routine tests (IEC 60076-3),
• Tests on on-load tap-changers, where appropriate (IEC 60076-1 10.8).
PD test will be a routine test in the new IEC standard for dry-type transformers, now in process.
8.3. TYPE TESTS

• Temperature-rise test (IEC 60076-2),
• Dielectric type tests (IEC 60076-3).
8.4. SPECIAL TESTS

• Dielectric special tests (IEC 60076-3),
• Determination of capacitances windings-to-earth, and between windings,
• Determination of transient voltage transfer characteristics,
• Zero-sequence impedance(s) on three-phase transformers (IEC 60076-1 10.7),
• Short-circuit withstand test (IEC 60076-5),
• Determination of sound levels (IEC 60076-10),
• Measurement of the harmonics of the no-load current (IEC 60076-1 10.6),
• Measurement of the power taken by the fan and oil pump motors,
• Measurement of insulation resistance to earth of the windings, and/or measurement of
dissipation factor (tan δ) of the insulation system capacitances. (These are reference values
for comparison with later measurement in the field. No limitations for the values are given
here.).
NOTE: If tests other than those listed above are specified in the contract, such test methods are subject to
agreement

9. OVERVOLTAGES AND OVERVOLTAGE LIMITATION
Transformers may in service be exposed to voltages in excess of the normal operating voltage.
These overvoltages are classified with regard to their duration in two main groups:
• Temporary overvoltages (TOV)
• Transient overvoltages
A temporary overvoltage is a power frequency voltage of relatively long duration, ranging from less
than one second up to several hours.
A transient overvoltage is a short-duration overvoltage ranging from nanoseconds up to a few
milliseconds. The front time may vary from nanoseconds up to a few milliseconds. Transient
overvoltages may be oscillatory or non-oscillatory. They are usually unidirectional.
A transformer may also be exposed to combinations of temporary and transient overvoltages.
Transient overvoltages may be immediately followed by temporary overvoltages.
Overvoltages are also classified in two main groups with regard to their origin:
• Overvoltages caused by atmospheric phenomena,
• Overvoltages generated within the power system.
Overvoltages caused by atmospheric phenomena.
These are transient overvoltages mostly due to lightning strokes to earth near overhead lines
connected to the transformer, although lightning can in some cases also directly strike the line or
even the transformer.
The peak value of the voltage depends on the lightning current, which is a statistical variable.
Lightning currents of more than 100 kA have been registered. According to measurements on
overhead lines the 50% probability peak value of the lightning current is in the range 10 – 20 kA in
most investigations. The distance between the transformer and the spot of the lightning stroke has
an influence on the front time of the surge that strikes the transformer, the shorter distance from the
transformer the shorter front time.
Overvoltages generated within the power system.
This group contains both temporary and transient overvoltages due to sudden changes in the
service conditions in the power system. Such changes are caused by switching operations or
failures.
Temporary overvoltages are caused by earth faults, load rejections and low frequency resonance
phenomena.
Transient overvoltages occur when equipment is connected to or disconnected from the system.
They can also occur when external insulation flashes over. When switching reactive loads,
transient voltages may amount to 6 – 7 p.u. due to multiple transient current interruptions in the
circuit breaker with front times down to fractions of a microsecond.
Transformers are designed to withstand certain dielectric tests before delivery from the factory.
These tests shall verify that the transformer has a high probability of reliable operation.
The tests are specified in international or national standards. Service experience confirms that
transformers, which have passed such tests, are reliable with very few exceptions.
But an additional condition for the high service reliability is that adequate overvoltage limitation is
provided, because the transformer may in service also be exposed to more severe overvoltages
than those applied in the delivery test.
In power system planning the importance of considering all types of overvoltages that the
equipment may be exposed to should be emphasized. To be able to do this in an appropriate way,
physical understanding of the origin of the various types of overvoltages is necessary.
The magnitude of several kinds of overvoltages is a statistical variable. The ability of the insulation
to withstand overvoltages is also a statistical variable. It is a task for the system planner, who has
the overview and the knowledge about the system, to choose precautions to prevent overvoltage
damage on the equipment. This includes balancing the costs for such precautions against the
statistical risk for failures and their economical consequences. Suppliers of the equipment may
make guarantee reservations in cases where precautions regarding limitations of overvoltages are
missing or obviously insufficient.

9.1. LIMITATION OF TEMPORARY OVERVOLTAGES
9.1.1. Overvoltages due to earth-fault

A phase-to-earth fault may result in phase-to-earth overvoltages affecting the two other phases.
The system parameters determine such overvoltages, which can only be controlled by affecting
these parameters while designing the system.
It should be recognised that surge arresters are normally not suitable to limit temporary
overvoltages due to the duration of such overvoltages and the limited thermal capability of the
surge arresters.
The overvoltage on the sound phases during an earth-fault is usually expressed by means of the
earth fault factor. In the International Electrotechnical Vocabulary (IEV) issued by IEC the earth
fault factor is given the following definition:
The earth fault factor is at a given location of a three-phase system, and for a given system
configuration, the ratio of the highest r.m.s. phase-to-earth power frequency voltage on a healthy
phase during a fault to earth affecting one or more phases at any point on the system to the r.m.s.
phase-to-earth power frequency voltage, which would be obtained at the given location in absence
of any such fault. [IEV 604-03-06]
During a single-phase earth-fault the system will be in an unsymmetrical condition and the earth-
fault factor is calculated by means of symmetrical components. The complex impedances of the
system seen from the location of the earth-fault are:
Z1 = R1 + j X1 : resistance and reactance of the positive sequence system
Z2 = R2 + j X2 : resistance and reactance of the negative sequence system
Z0 = R0 + j X0 : resistance and reactance of the zero sequence system
If the following assumptions are made:
Z1 ≈ Z2, R1 << X1 and that the fault resistance R = 0,
a diagram, that illustrates how the earth-fault factor
at the location of the fault varies with X0/ X1 for different values of R0/X1, can be drawn.
The diagram is shown in Figure 9-1.
The curves show the earth-fault factor at the location of the fault. In extended resonant earthed
networks the earth-fault factor may be higher at other locations than the fault.
X is positive for inductive reactances and negative for capacitive reactances. The earth fault current
is inductive for X1/X0 > -2 and capacitive for X1/X0 < -2. When
X0/X1 = - 2 the system is in a resonance condition.
It can be seen that unfavourable combinations of the parameters X1, X0 and R0 will give very high
overvoltages that may destroy the surge arresters and the insulation of transformers and other
equipment. The high overvoltages can only be reduced by changing these three parameters.
When for example X0 and R0 both are zero, the earth-fault factor is 0,866, which means that the
highest voltage to earth on one of the healthy phases is 0,866 times the normal voltage between
phase and neutral. In this case the two healthy phases are each operating at half the line-to-line
voltage with opposite polarity referred to earth.
For small positive values of X0/X1, the earth-fault factor increases with increasing R0. For high
values of R0 the earth-fault factor approaches √3.
At high positive or negative values of X0/X1 the earth-fault factor approaches also √3 nearly
independent of R0.
At low negative values of X0/X1 the earth-fault factor may become very high, but it can be reduced
by selecting a high R0.
A low earth-fault factor has the advantage that it allows a low protection level of the surge
arresters. Thus the safety margin between the insulation level (BIL) of the transformer and the
protection level of the surge arresters can be kept relatively high, depending on the duration of the
fault, which is the other main parameter that influences the choice of the surge arresters.

Figure 9-1
The duration of the overvoltage corresponds to the duration of the fault and will remain until fault
clearing. In systems without earth-fault clearing the duration may be several hours. This will imply
surge arresters with higher protection level and lower safety margin regarding transient
overvoltages.
In insulation co-ordination knowledge about the earth-fault factor at various places in the network,
in different loading conditions and system configurations is of vital importance. A thorough system
analysis is necessary.
9.1.2. Load rejection overvoltages

A full load rejection in moderately extended systems can give rise to phase-to-earth and phase–to-
phase overvoltages with amplitude usually below 1,2 p.u. The overvoltage duration depends on
the operation of the voltage-control equipment and may be up to several minutes. Special
precautions to protect distribution transformers against overvoltages due to load rejection are
normally not needed
9.1.3. Overvoltages due to ferroresonance

Ferroresonance may occur in circuits with inductive elements having non-linear magnetizing
characteristics (reactors with iron core or transformers in no load or low load condition) and large
capacitive elements (lines, cables and capacitors).
The frequency of these overvoltages is equal or close to the frequency of the power system, that is
a low frequency.
Overvoltages due to ferroresonance may occur in certain fault situations like:
• malfunction of a circuitbreaker if it fails to break or close in one or two phases during
switching operation,
• one or two phase conductors are ruptured during earth fault, short-circuit or due to
mechanical stresses,
• fuses are blown in one or two phases.
Transformer failures caused by overvoltages due to ferroresonance do not seem to occur
frequently, but the risk is not negligible when the capacitive current of the system is of the same
size as the magnetizing current of the transformer. Providing automatic and quick disconnection of
the transformer in case the supply should fail in one or two phases will limit the duration of the
overvoltage and system instability and reduce the extent and probability of material damage.

9.2. LIMITATION OF TRANSIENT OVERVOLTAGES
The ability of a transformer to withstand transient overvoltages is characterised by its basic impulse
level (BIL), which corresponds to the peak value of the standard test voltage impulse. This is an
aperiodic voltage impulse with a front time of 1,2 µs and a time from the beginning to half the peak
value of 50 µs. The BIL of a transformer is also called the insulation level of the transformer.
Transformers connected to overhead lines should be protected against transient overvoltages
caused by lightning to secure high service reliability. Limitation of the overvoltage can be achieved
by means of:
• non-linear resistor-type surge arresters with series gaps,
• metal-oxide surge arresters without gaps,
• spark gaps, that is an open air gap between two terminals.
These devices are in most cases connected between each phase terminal of the transformer and
earth. If the neutral point of y- and z-connected windings is isolated or earthed through a high
inductance or resistance, a three-phase impulse wave will be reflected with the same polarity and
an increased peak value at the neutral point. For this reason the neutral point should also be
provided with overvoltage protection.
The protection level of surge arresters is normally selected lower than the insulation level of the
transformer in order to provide a certain safety margin. A protection level around 70% of the
insulation level of the transformer is frequently aimed at for the surge arresters at the phase
terminals. However, when using non-linear resistor-type surge arresters with series gaps, it must
be checked that the arc in the series gaps will extinguish with sufficient safety margin when the
transient overvoltage has passed away but with a sustained temporary overvoltage corresponding
to the actual earth-fault factor.
The protection level of a surge arrester in the neutral point is normally chosen to be around 3/4 of
the protection level of the surge arresters at the phase terminals.
To provide optimum protection the distance between the surge arresters and the terminals of the
transformer to be protected should be as short as possible. The same goes for the distance from
the earthing terminal of the arresters to the earth. In cases where short connections to the surge
arresters are difficult to achieve for practical reasons, selection of a higher insulation level for the
transformer should be considered.
Windings for rated voltages below 1000 V should also be protected in the same way when they are
connected to overhead lines.
In general metal-oxide surge arresters without gaps offers the possibility to select a lower
protection level than the non-linear resistor-type surge arresters with series gaps. Thus an
increased safety margin between the insulation level of the transformer and the protection level of
the surge arrester can be achieved.
It must be kept in mind that metal-oxide surge arresters also will be continuously exposed to the
normal service voltage, and in addition, to all kinds of smaller and larger temporary and transient
overvoltages, contrary to the non-linear resistor-type surge arresters with series gaps. In the latter
type the resistor is exposed only during transient overvoltages that are high enough to ignite the
series gaps.
Spark gaps have been widely used in the past especially at moderate rated voltages, but they have
several disadvantages:
• unpredictable sparkover voltage,
• long and unpredictable time delay to breakdown,
• strong dependence on wave shape,
• dependence on voltage polarity,
• dependence on ambient conditions,
• risk of creating an evolving fault,
• imposing a short-circuit condition on the network,
• creating chopped waves.
Due to the superior properties of metal-oxide arresters they are becoming more preferred instead
of spark gaps in modern systems. But in locations with frequent lightning storms with high lightning
currents spark gaps can be useful in combination with metal-oxide arresters. Spark gaps installed

at one or two poles of the overhead line away from the transformer will lead the highest current
surges to earth before they reach the metal-oxide arresters at the transformer terminals. In this way
the spark gaps will reduce the ageing of the arresters. A high number of high lightning current
surges will contribute to ageing of the arresters.
Transformers installed in locations where they are not exposed to lightning overvoltages will still be
exposed to transient overvoltages caused by switching operations.
The service experience regarding oil-immersed transformers in such locations indicates that they
seem to withstand such overvoltages without being protected by surge arresters.
9.3. SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS FOR DRY-TYPE TRANSFORMERS

In locations which are not exposed to lightning overvoltages, a higher failure rate on dry-type
transformers than on oil-immersed transformers has been observed on dry-type transformers when
adequate protection against transient overvoltages is missing. Failures have also occurred on dry-
type transformers in spite of being protected by surge arresters.
The explanation is that extremely steep overvoltages occur during prestrikes and reignitions in the
circuit breaker after the current has been chopped outside its natural passage through zero. The
internal overvoltages within a winding are not only depending on the peak value of the voltage
arising at the terminals, but also on the steepness of the voltage change at the terminals. Thus a
voltage with a peak value below the protection level of the arrester may damage the transformer if
the change in terminal voltage takes place in just a fraction of a microsecond. Oil-immersed
transformers seem to be more robust against such stresses compared to dry-type transformers.
For the latter type the need for adequate protection should be recognised.
Attention should be paid to the physical fact that the transient overvoltages that arise when
breaking inductive currents like the magnetizing current of a transformer is independent of the
system voltage. They increase with the magnetic energy stored in the transformer core at the
moment of current chopping. In other words, these transient overvoltages increase with the size of
the transformer, and are most severe for transformers for low system voltages due to their lower
insulation level. Because of the statistical nature of the size of the transient voltages, transformers
that are more frequently disconnected and energized are, if not adequately protected, more prone
to fail than transformers that are continuously energized for several years between each
disconnection.
To summarise this, the need to protect for example a 2000 kVA, 10 kV transformer that is
frequently switched in and out is higher than to protect a 100 kVA, 20 kV transformer that is
energized continuously for long periods without being disconnected.
Capacitors between transformer terminals and earth will reduce the number of reignitions in the
circuit breaker, or even in some cases eliminate them. The capacitors will also reduce the front
steepness of the incoming wave during energizing and reduce the risk of transformer failure
Switching of capacitor banks for phase compensation has sometimes caused failures in dry-type
transformers. The use of circuit breaker with opening and closing resistors has considerably
reduced such failures.
Another possibility is using circuit breaker with point-on-wave control, which close and open at the
most favourable time to minimize the transients.
9.3.1. Internal overvoltages caused by high frequency oscillations

Switching operations are always followed by high frequency oscillations in the kHz and MHz range,
with slow or rapid damping. If the damping is slow and the dominating frequency of the oscillations
coincide with one of the resonance frequencies of the transformer, high local turn-to-turn voltage
stresses within the winding arise and may cause a failure.
Opening and closing resistors on the circuit breaker will effectively damp such oscillations.
Alternatively the dominating frequency of the oscillations could be changed (lowered) by installing
additional capacitance. When choosing this solution, the resonance characteristics of the
transformer should be known and a careful study of the power system should be made.

9.4. TRANSFERRED OVERVOLTAGES IN TRANSFORMERS
Transferred voltages in transformers can have the following modes:
• electromagnetic transfer,
• electrostatic or capacitive transfer,
• oscillatory transfer through natural oscillations of the primary and/or the secondary circuits of
the transformer. The earth capacitances and the self-inductances of the windings form the
oscillation circuits.
Transferred overvoltages can be critical if:
• the secondary winding is not connected to the network,
• the secondary winding has a low rated voltage compared to the rated voltage of the high
voltage winding,
• the winding is the tertiary of a three-winding transformer.
Surge arresters between phase terminals as well as between phases might be justified. Annex E of
IEC 60071-2 goes a little more in detail on this subject.
In any case, the minimum precaution is that a secondary or tertiary winding that is not connected to
the network, should be earthed in one point, one corner of delta windings and preferably the neutral
of star windings.

10. MISCELLANEOUS
10.1. CE MARKING
The CE mark based on European Directives assists the free distribution of goods on the European
market. It is directed to the national standards supervising bodies. When the manufacturer applies
the CE mark, this states that the legal requirements for the commercial product have been met.
The CE mark is not a quality designation, a safety designation or a designation of conformity to a
standard.
The following three European Union Directives may be applicable to distribution transformer
installations:
The Machine Directive covers most types of machines, with the exception of certain special types
that are specifically excluded. The power supply companies and the manufacturers in Europe
(EURELECTRIC/UNIPEDE and CAPIEL) have always been of the unanimous opinion that high-
voltage equipment is not subject to the Machine Directive. The European Commission now shares
this view. It should also be noted that motors, by definition, are not covered by the Machine
Directive.
The EMC Directive is intended for application to almost all electrical equipment. However, fixed
installations (which are assembled at the site of operation) have to meet the EMC protection
requirements but they do not require a declaration of conformity, a CE mark nor an approval by any
competent authority. This also applies to all primary and secondary devices in these installations
(as components with no direct function).
The Low Voltage Directive (LVD) is applicable to independent low-voltage equipment which is also
used in distribution transformers and installations, such as control circuits, protection relays,
measuring and metering devices, terminal strips, etc. This equipment must conform to the LVD and
have a CE mark when purchased on the open market.
However, if control, measuring, protection and regulating equipment is a fixed component of high-
voltage substations and/or distribution transformers, it is not covered by the Low-Voltage Directive,
because by definition (as per IEC 60050-441) they are considered to be high-voltage products.
In conclusion it is noted that high-voltage equipment and installations, including secondary
installations, do not require a CE mark. However, they are subject to the relevant standards and
regulations.
10.2. DECLARATION OF CONFORMITY

A Declaration of Conformity (DoC) according to EN 45014 General criteria for supplier’s declaration
of conformity may be issued on demand by customers.
Such DoC will as a minimum identify the supplier, the product, the conformity statement, the
normative documents (with edition/date of issue) the transformer is in conformity with and possible
additional information. The DoC shall denote place and date of issue as well as name, function and
signature of the authorized person(s) acting on behalf of the supplier.
10.3. IP-CLASSIFICATION
10.3.1. General
IP classification describes to what extent electrical equipment, in this regard the transformer
terminals as well as accessories, are protected against touching and external influence such as
dust, pollution, moisture etc.
Reference is made to IEC 60529 for a detailed description on this subject. *Copyright © IEC,
Geneva, Switzerland. www.iec.ch
Explanation of numerals : IP23
The first characteristic numeral (2) describes the protection against solid foreign objects of 12.5mm
diameter and greater.
The second characteristic numeral (3) describes the protection against spraying water.

10.3.2. Degrees of protection against solid objects
Description Definition First Characteristic Numeral

Non-protected 0
Protected against solid The object probe, sphere of 1
foreign objects of 50 mm diameter shall not
50mm diameter and fully penetrate
greater
foreign objects of 12.5 mm diameter shall not
12.5mm diameter and fully penetrate
greater
2.5mm diameter and penetrate at all
greater
1.0mm diameter and penetrate
greater
Dust protected Ingress of dust is not totally 5
prevented, but dust shall
not penetrate in a quantity
to interfere with satisfactory
operation of the apparatus
or to impair safety
Dust tight No ingress of dust 6
10.3.3. Degrees of protection against water

Second characteristic
Description Definition
numeral
No protection 0
Protected against Vertically falling water drops shall have
vertically falling water no harmful effects 1
drops
Protected against Vertically falling water drops shall have
vertically falling water no harmful effects when the enclosure is
2
drops when enclosure tilted at any angle up to 15 degrees on
tilted up to 15 degrees either side of the vertical axis
Protected against Water sprayed at an angle up to 60
spraying water degreed on either side of the vertical 3
axis shall have no harmful effects
Protected against Water splashed against the enclosure
splashing water from any direction shall have no harmful 4
effects
Protected against water Water projected in jets against the
jets enclosure from any direction shall have 5
no harmful effects
Protected against Water projected in powerful water jets
powerful water jets against the enclosure from any direction 6
shall have no harmful effects

10.3.4. Comparison to NEMA ratings
IEC 60529 does not specify degrees of protection against mechanical damage of equipment, risk of
explosions, or conditions such as moisture (produced for example by condensation), corrosive
vapors, fungus, or vermin. The NEMA Standard for Enclosures for Electrical Equipment does test
for environmental conditions such as corrosion, rusty, icing, oil, and coolants. For this reason, and
because the test and evaluations for other characteristics are not identical, the IEC Enclosure
Classification Designations cannot be exactly equated with the enclosure Type numbers in the
NEMA Standard.
The following table provides an equivalent conversion from the enclosure Type numbers in NEMA
Standard to the IEC Enclosure Classification Designations. The NEMA enclosure type numbers
meet or exceed the test requirements for the associated IEC Classification; for this reason the table
cannot be used to convert from IEC Classifications to NEMA enclosure Type numbers.
NEMA Enclosure Type Number IEC Enclosure Classification Designation
1 IP10
2 IP11
3 IP54
3R IP14
3S IP54
4 and 4X IP56
5 IP52
6 AND 6P IP67
12 AND 12K IP52
13 IP54
10.4. TERMINAL DESIGNATION, IDENTIFYING TERMINALS

Unless the customer specifies terminal marking otherwise, the terminals should be marked
according to IEC 60616 TR.
10.4.1. Single phase transformer

The two terminals at the high voltage side should be marked 1.1 and 1.2.
The two terminals at the low voltage side should be marked 2.1 and 2.2.
10.4.2. Three phase transformer

1U, 1V, 1W, 1N for the high voltage side and 2U, 2V, 2W, 2N for the low voltage side.
Example of a Dyn connected transformer:
Figure 10-1
10.5. RATING PLATE

Transformers shall be provided with a rating plate of weatherproof material in visible position. All
entries on the plate shall be indelibly marked.
Please see standard IEC 60076-1 for complete description to the rating plate information for the
different types of transformers. *Copyright © IEC, Geneva, Switzerland. www.iec.ch

Below is the minimum information to be given for each transformer:
• Kind of transformer,
• Number of the applied standard,
• Manufacturer’s name,
• Manufacturer’s serial number,
• Year of manufacture,
• Number of phases,
• Rated power (kVA or MVA),
• Rated frequency (Hz),
• Basic insulation levels,
• Rated voltage and tapping range (V or kV),
• Rated currents (A or kA),
• Connection symbol,
• Short-circuit impedance (%),
• Type of cooling,
• Total mass,
• Mass of insulating oil.
• For dry-type transformers:
o Temperature class,
o Climatic class,
o Environmental class,
o Fire behavior class,
o Degree of protection (IP class).
The below is an example of the default ABB rating plate for transformers of type SDT and dry-type
transformers. When customer specification requires additional information, this will be added as
an extra plate or a different rating plate.

10.6. ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY (EMC)
10.6.1. Definitions
The International Electrotechnical Vocabulary (IEV) gives the following definition of EMC:
”The ability of an equipment or system to function satisfactorily in its electromagnetic environment
without introducing intolerable electromagnetic disturbances to anything in that environment.” [IEV
161-01-07]
Other relevant definitions are:
Electromagnetic disturbance
Any electromagnetic phenomenon which, by being present in the electromagnetic environment,
can cause electrical equipment to depart from its intended performance [IEV 161-01-05, modified]
Electromagnetic interference (EMI)
Degradation of the performance of equipment, transmission channel or system caused by an
electromagnetic disturbance.
NOTE The terms “electromagnetic disturbance” and “electromagnetic interference” denote
respectively cause and effect, but they are often used indiscriminately. [IEV 161-01-06]
Disturbance level
The amount or magnitude of an electromagnetic disturbance, measured and evaluated in a
specified way [IEV 161-03-01, modified]
Electromagnetic compatibility level

The specified electromagnetic disturbance level used as a reference level in a specified
environment for co-ordination in the setting of emission and immunity limits
NOTE By convention, the compatibility level is chosen so that there is only a small probability that it will be
exceeded by the actual disturbance level. [IEV 161-03-10, modified]
Immunity level
The maximum level of a given electromagnetic disturbance incident on a particular device,
equipment or system for which it remains capable of operating at a required degree of performance
[IEV 161-03-14]
10.6.2. Electromagnetic disturbances on transformers

Transformers may be exposed to various types of electromagnetic disturbances when operating in
public and industrial power supply systems.
Disturbance phenomena to consider are:
• harmonics,
• inter-harmonics,
• overvoltages,
• voltage unbalance,
• overcurrents,
• power frequency variation.
Harmonics
Harmonics are sinusoidal voltages or currents having frequencies that are whole multiples of the
power frequency at which the supply system is designed to operate.
Equipment with a non-linear voltage/current characteristic cause current harmonics.
Harmonic currents produce harmonic voltage drops across the impedance of the network.
IEC 60076-1 Power transformers Part 1: General assumes that the wave shape of the supply
voltage is approximately sinusoidal. This requirement is normally not critical in public supply
systems but may have to be considered in installations with considerable convertor loading. If the
total harmonic content exceeds 5% or the even harmonic content exceeds 1%, this should be
specified in the enquiry and in the order.
Current harmonics influence the load losses and the temperature rise, which may need
consideration in the transformer design.
In systems with considerable capacitive elements, like long cables or power factor correction
capacitors, there is a risk that harmonics cause shunt and series resonance in the network, which
in turn causes voltage magnification even at a point remote from the distorting load.
The magnetizing current of transformers contains harmonics due to the non-linear magnetizing
characteristic. The magnetizing current is in normal operation small, in the order of 1% of the rated
current of the transformers, and the influence of its harmonics is negligible. However, if the
transformer core is saturated due to an applied voltage higher than the rated voltage, the
magnetizing current and its harmonics will dramatically increase.
Interharmonics
Interharmonic currents and voltages have frequencies which are not an integer multiple of the
fundamental frequency. They can appear as discrete frequencies or as a wide-band spectrum. The
sources of interharmonics can be different types of convertors, induction motors, arc welding
machines and arc furnaces.
Interharmonics may need consideration in the transformer design.

Overvoltages
Quasi-stationary or steady state overvoltage causing an increase of more than 5% in the flux
density in the transformer core in relation to the core flux at rated voltage should be specified in the
enquiry and in the order.
The saturation flux density of modern core steel is 2,03 Tesla. Further increase in the magnetic flux
may cause unacceptable heating in structural details keeping the core together and in the tank. A
dramatic increase in the magnetizing current and its harmonics will also take place.
The topic of temporary and transient overvoltages is treated in chapter 9.
Voltage unbalance
IEC 60076-1 Power transformers Part 1: General assumes that the three-phase supply voltage is
approximately symmetrical in normal service conditions.
The predominant cause of voltage unbalance is unbalanced load. Due to the distorted voltage
triangle the voltage across one or two phase windings will be higher than rated. Consequently the
flux density in one or two limbs of the core will increase correspondingly. If saturation in these limbs
is reached, unacceptable heating in structural details keeping the core together and in the tank may
occur. Increase in the magnetizing current and its harmonics in the affected phases will be another
consequence. The sound level of the transformer may also increase.
It is not possible to make a general rule regarding permitted unbalance for transformers. Each case
must be treated individually. If the degree of unbalance is known before ordering the transformer, it
will be possible to take it into account in the design. Before connecting a dominant single-phase
load to an already existing transformer, it is recommended to analyse the situation first.
Overcurrents
IEC 60076-7 – Power transformers – Part 7: Loading guide for oil-immersed transformers (in
process) and IEC 60905 Loading guide for dry-type transformers provide advise regarding
overloading of transformers, continuously or intermittently.
Transformers may also be exposed to overcurrents due to short-circuits in the network. Such
currents may amount to 10 – 20 times the rated current of the transformer or even more. Large
pulsating mechanical forces will act on the windings and their supports during these currents. In
addition the high current density in the windings will rapidly increase the winding temperature.
Transformers are designed to withstand certain short-circuit currents, but the duration of the
currents must be limited to maximum 2 seconds by means of relays that disconnect the transformer
from the energy sources, unless a longer duration is agreed in the contract.
Service experience indicates that transformers from experienced manufacturers seldom fails
because of short-circuit currents.
Power frequency variation
In public supply systems the temporary frequency deviation from the nominal frequency is normally
not more than ±1 Hz. The steady-state deviation of frequency from the nominal frequency is much
less.
A frequency of 49 Hz instead of 50 Hz will increase the flux density in the transformer core by 2%
at the same applied voltage.
In supply systems isolated from public network (for example an island system) frequency variations
up to ±4% are expected. In such cases the flux density in the transformer core may increase up to
4%, and this should be taken into account when designing the transformer.
The maximum disturbance level in a network may be derived from theoretical studies or
measurements. The disturbance level is not a single value but varies statistically with location and
time. Because of this variability it is often very difficult or even impossible to determine the real
highest level of disturbance, which may appear very infrequently. It may, in general, not be
economical to define the compatibility level in terms of this highest value to which most devices
would not be exposed to most of the time.
It seems more appropriate to define the compatibility level as a value that only will be exceeded by
the disturbance level in very few cases, for example 1 or 2%.
The compatibility of transformers regarding overvoltages and overcurrents is verified by means of
various tests described in the IEC transformer standards 60076-3, 60076-5 and 60726. When

performing thermal testing on convertor transformers, the effect of harmonic currents is taken into
according to IEC 61378-1.
10.6.3. Electromagnetic field in the vicinity of transformers

Distribution transformers with voltage ratio from medium to low voltage for supply to commercial
and industrial consumers are often integrated into these consumers’ buildings. The electromagnetic
field from such transformers may disturb the performance of electronic equipment situated near by.
Or in other words, the magnetic field may exceed the immunity level of the electronic equipment.
IEC 61000-2-7 “Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) – Part 2: Environment – Section 7: Low
frequency magnetic fields in various environments” refers results from measurements taken at an
installation of a 315 kVA distribution transformer. The measurements were taken with field coils
and are considerably influenced by the presence of harmonics. For this reason two values are
stated for each location, one at 50 Hz and one at 0 kHz to 2 kHz. Typical measured maximum
values at various locations are given in the following table:
Magnetic field Magnetic flux density
Location [A/m] in air [µT]
50 Hz 0 kHz – 2 kHz 50 Hz 0 kHz – 2 kHz
Adjacent to transformer connections 200 300 250 380
Above transformer 15 60 20 75
Adjacent to low-voltage cables 20 70 25 90
Adjacent to but outside the roof 5 30 6 40
The magnetic field was detectable up to approximately 10 m from the physical enclosure of the
substation.
Practical experience from measurements of electromagnetic field around a transformer indicates
that the measured values are considerably depending on how the measurements are made. There
is so far no international standard describing how measurements of the electromagnetic field
around transformers shall be performed to achieve consistent results. Still the above example
indicates the magnitude of the field that can be expected.
CENELEC report R014-001 “Guide for the evaluation of electromagnetic fields around power
transformers” indicates formulas for calculation of field values for some simple geometric
configurations.
In cases where the field exceeds the immunity levels of various kinds of electronic equipment in the
vicinity of the transformer, appropriate shielding of the equipment or moving the equipment further
away from the transformer can solve the problem. ABB has developed solutions for shielding cable
boxes which reduce the electromagnetic field related to the LV cables and connections.
Contaminants on bushings of oil-immersed transformers and on windings of dry-type transformers
may, especially in the presence of moisture, cause electrical discharges, which in turn may cause
disturbance on electronic equipment. Appropriate routines for cleaning are recommended in
section 4.3.6.
10.6.4. Effect of electromagnetic fields on humans

With regard to health hazards a magnetic flux density of 100 µT at 50 Hz seem to be considered as
acceptable with high safety factor (250-500). For short time exposure the acceptable limit can be
doubled.
Research on the effect of electric and magnetic fields on health is still not complete.
Attention should be paid to the possible influence of such fields on heart pacemakers.

10.7. Quality, environment, sustainability
10.7.1. Quality
The functional reliability of transformer installations depends of the suitability and quality of the
transformer, components and the processes employed. ABB transformer factories have adopted
the European and International standard of quality
EN ISO 9001:2000 Quality management systems
Requirements
This standard emphasizes customer satisfaction, process approach and continuous improvement.
Most factories operate ISO 9001 certified management systems.
10.7.2. Environment
ABB requires that all manufacturing sites operate a certified environmental management system
according to the International standard
ISO 14001:1996 Environmental management systems
Specification with guidance for use
Thus, ABB has committed itself to work for environmental improvement and pollution reduction.
10.7.3. HSE, Health, safety and environment

ABB factories comply with national internal control regulations defining requirements for health,
safety and working environment.
10.7.4. Sustainability development

ABB is a signatory to the
International Chamber of Commerce (ICC)
Business Charter for Sustainable Development
and works actively to live up to this commitment and to fulfil its social responsibilities.
10.7.5. Customer review of management systems

Customers may review the general management system of the manufacturing sites; however
company secrets may be excluded.
The customers are obliged to only use information regarding ABB obtained in this way for their own
use, and not disclose anything to any third party unless this is agreed with ABB in writing.
10.8. UNITS AND CONVERSION TABLES
10.8.1. Basic Sl units

Units Units
Quantity
Symbol Name
Length m metre
Mass kg kilogramme
Time s second
Electric current A ampere
Thermodynamic temperature K kelvin
Luminous intensity cd candela
Quantity of substance mol mol

10.8.2. Multiples and sub-multiples of units
Factor Prefix Symbol Factor Prefix Symbol
12 -2
10 tera T 10 centi c
9 -3
10 giga G 10 milli m
6 -6
10 mega M 10 micro µ
3 -9
10 kilo k 10 nano n
2 -12
10 hecto h 10 pico p
1 -15
10 deka da 10 femto f
-1 -18
10 deci d 10 atto a
10.8.3. Electrical and magnetic quantities

SI unit
Quantity Symbol Other units symbol Relationship
Name
Electric ampere A
current,
magnetic
potential
difference
Electric volt V 1 V =1 W/A
voltage
electric
potential
difference
Electric siemens S 1 S = A/V
conductance
Electric ohm Ω 1 Ω = 1/S
resistance
Quantity of coulomb C ampere-hour Ah 1C = 1 As
electricity,
1 Ah = 3600
electric
As
charge
Electric farad F 1 F = 1 C/V

capacitance
2
Electric flux coulomb per C/m
density square
metre
Electric field volt per V/m
strength metre
Magnetic weber, Wb, Vs 1 Wb = 1 Vs
flux volt-second
Magnetic tesla T 1 T =1
2
flux density, Wb/m
(induction)
Inductance henry H 1 H = 1 Ωs
(permeance) =1 Wb/A
Magnetic ampere per A/m
field strength metre

10.8.4. General electrotechnical symbols
10.8.4.1. Mathematical symbols for electrical quantities (general)
Symbol Quantity SI unit
Q quantity of electricity, electric charge C
E electric field strength V/m
D electric flux density, electric displacement C/m²
U electric potential difference V
V, φ electric potential V
ε absolute permittivity constant F/m
permittivity for vacuum
ε0 -12 F/m
ε0 = 8,8541817 ·10 F/m
εr relative permittivity 1
C electric capacitance F
I electric current A
J, S electric current density A/m²
γ, σ specific electric conductivity S/m
ρ specific electric resistance, resistivity Ωm
G electric conductance S
R electric resistance Ω
E electromotive force V
10.8.4.2. Mathematical symbols for magnetic quantities (general)

Symbol Quantity SI unit
Φ magnetic flux Wb
B magnetic induction T
H magnetic field strength, magnetizing field strength A/m
F, Fm magnetomotive force A
U, Um magnetic potential difference A
µ absolute permeability H/m
absolute permeability for vacuum
µ0 -7 H/m
µ0 = 4π ·10 ·H/m
µr relative permeability 1
L self inductance H
M, Lmn mutual inductance H
10.8.4.3. Mathematical symbols for alternating-current

Symbol Quantity Sl unit
S apparent power W, VA
P active power W
Q reactive power VA(r)
φ phase difference rad
power factor = P/S = λ. For the special case of sinusoidal
λ
voltage and current λ = cos φ
δ loss angle rad
d dissipation factor, d =P/ S − P . For the special case of

2 2
sinusoidal voltage and current d=tanδ.

Z impedance Ω
R resistance Ω
X reactance Ω

10.9. LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ABB Asea Brown Boveri. www.abb.com

ANSI American National Standards Institute
CE Communauté Européenne. www.ce-marking.org
Comite Europeen de Normalisation
CEN
(European committee for standardization)
CENELEC Comite Europeen de Normalisation Electrotechnique
DIN Deutsches Institut fur Normung e.V. (German Institute for standardization)
DoC Declaration of Conformity
EMC Electromagnetic compatibility
HV High voltage
ICC International Chamber of Commerce
IEC International Electrotechnical Commission. www.iec.ch
IEEE The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.
IEV International Electrotechnical Vocabulary
IP International Protection (IEC 60529)
ISO International Organization for Standardization
LCA Life cycle Asessment
LDT Large distribution transformers
LV Low voltage
MDT Medium distribution transformers
NA Not applicable
NEMA National Electrical Manufacturers Association www.nema.org
PCB Polychlorinated biphenyl
PD Partial discharge
PTDT Power Technology, Distribution Transformers
SDT Small distribution transformers
SI Systéme Internationale d´Unites (International System of Units)
TOV Temporary overvoltage
VDE Assosiation for Electrical, Electronic & Information Technologies

11. BIBLIOGRAPHY
11.1. TRANSFORMER-RELEVANT STANDARDS
11.1.1. IEC Standards

IEC 60027-1 (1992, corrected and reprinted 1995-03-31)
Letter symbols to be used in electrical technology - Part 1: General
IEC 60027-1 am1 (1997-05)
Amendment 1 - Letter symbols to be used in electrical technology - Part 1: General
IEC 60050-441 (1984-01)
International Electrotechnical Vocabulary. Switchgear, controlgear and fuses
IEC 60050-441-am1 (2000-07)
Amendment 1 - International Electrotechnical Vocabulary. Switchgear, controlgear and fuses
IEC 60060-1 (1989-11)
High-voltage test techniques – Part 1: General definitions and test requirements
IEC 60071-1 (1993)
Insulation co-ordination – Part 1: Definitions, principles and rules
IEC 60071-2 (1996-12)
Insulation co-ordination – Part 2: Application Guide
IEC 60076-1 (2000-04) Ed. 2.1
Power transformers – Part 1: General
IEC 60076-2 (1993-04)
Power transformers – Part 2: Temperature rise
IEC 60076-2 Corr. 1 (1997-06)
Corrigendum 1 - Power transformers – Part 2: Temperature rise
IEC 60076-3 (2000-03)
Power transformers – Part 3: Insulation levels, dielectric tests and external clearances in air
IEC 60076-3 Corr. 1 (2000-12)
Corrigendum 1 - Power transformers – Part 3: Insulation levels, dielectric tests and external
clearances in air
IEC 60076-4 (2002-06)
Power transformers – Part 4: Guide to the lightning impulse and switching impulse testing –
Power transformers and reactrors
IEC 60076-5 (2000-07)
Power transformers – Part 5: Ability to withstand short circuit
IEC 60076-8 (1997-11)
Power transformers – Part 8: Application guide
IEC 60076-10 (2001-05)
Power transformers – Part 10: Determination of sound levels
IEC 60156 (1995-08)
Insulating liquids – Determination of the breakdown voltage at power frequency – Test
method
IEC 60214-1 (2003-02)
Tap-changers – Part 1: Performance requirements and test methods
IEC 60270 (2000-12)
High-voltage test techniques – Partial discharge measurements
IEC 60289 (1988-05)
Reactors
IEC 60296 (1982-01)
Specification for unused mineral insulating oils for transformers and switchgear
IEC 60296-am1 (1986-01)
Amendment no. 1

1)
IEC 60354 (1991-10)
Loading guide for oil-immersed power transformers
IEC 60422 (1989-04)
Supervision and maintenance guide for mineral insulating oils in electrical equipment
IEC 60475 (1974-01)
Methods of sampling liquid dielectrics
IEC/TR 60479-1 (1994-09)
Effect of current on human beings and livestock – Part 1: General aspects
IEC 60529 (2001-02)
Degrees of protection provided by enclosures (IP Code)
1)
IEC 60542 (1976-01)
Application guide for on-load tap-changers
IEC 60542-am1 (1988-01)
Amendment No. 1
IEC 60554-3-1 (1979-01)
Specification for cellulosic papers for electrical purposes. Part 3: Specifications for individual
materials. Sheet 1: General purpose electrical paper
IEC 60567 (1992-07)
Guide for the sampling of gases and of oil from oil-filled electrical equipment and for the
analysis of free and dissolved gases
IEC 60599 (1999-03)
Mineral oil-impregnated electrical equipment in service – Guide to the interpretation of
dissolved and free gases analysis
IEC/TR 60616 (1978-01)
Terminal and tapping markings for power transformers
IEC 60641-3-1 (1992-05)
Specification for pressboard and presspaper for electrical purposes – Part 3: Specification
for individual materials – Sheet 1: Requirements for pressboard, types B.0.1, B.2.1, B.2.3,
B.3.1, B.3.3, B.4.1, B.4.3, B.5.1, B.6.1 and B.7.1
IEC 60641-3-2 (1992-05)
Specification for pressboard and presspaper for electrical purposes – Part 3: Specification
for individual materials – Sheet 2: Requirements for presspaper, types P.2.1, P4.1, P.4.2,
P4.3, P.6.1 and P.7.1
IEC 60666 (1979-01)
Detection and determination of specified anti-oxidant additives in insulating oils
IEC 60695-1-40 (2002-11)
Fire hazard testing – Part 1-40: Guidance for assessing the fire hazard of electrotechnical
products – Insulating liquids
1)
IEC 60726 (1982-01)
Dry-type power transformers
IEC 60726-am1 (1986-01)
Amendment No. 1
IEC 60814 (1997-08)
Insulating liquids – oil-impregnated paper and pressboard – Determination of water by
automatic coulometric Karl Fischer titration
IEC 60836 (1988-08)
Specification for silicone liquids for electrical purposes
IEC 60836 Corr.1 (1993-12)
Corrigendum 1 - Specification for silicone liquids for electrical purposes
1)
New edition in process
1)
New edition in process
IEC 60867 (1993-09)
Insulating liquids – Specifications for unused liquids based on synthetic aromatic
hydrocarbons
IEC 60897 (1987-03)
Methods for the determination of the lightning breakdown voltage of insulating liquids
IEC 60905 (1987-12)
Loading guide for dry-type transformers
IEC 60944 (1988-09)
Guide for the maintenance of silicone transformer liquids
IEC 60970 (1989-06)
Methods for counting and sizing particles in insulating liquids
IEC 61039 (1990-10)
General classification of insulating liquids
IEC 61065 (1991-05)
Method for evaluating the low temperature flow properties of mineral insulating oils after
ageing
IEC 61065 Corr. 1 (1993-12)
Corrigendum 1 - Method for evaluating the low temperature flow properties of mineral
insulating oils after ageing
IEC 61099 (1992-05)
Specification for unused synthetic organic esters for electrical purposes
IEC 61099 Corr. 1 (1993-1)
Corrigendum 1 - Specification for unused synthetic organic esters for electrical purposes
IEC 61100 (1992-05)
Classification of insulating liquids according to fire point and net calorific value
IEC 61125 (1992-08 + corrigendum 1992-09)
Unused hydrocarbon-based insulating liquids – Test methods for evaluating the oxidation
stability
IEC 61144 (1992-12)
Test method for the determination of oxygen index of insulating liquids
IEC 61181 (1993-06)
Impregnated insulating materials – Application of dissolved gas analysis (DGA) to factory
tests on electrical equipment
IEC 61197 (1993-09)
Insulating liquids – Linear flame propagation – Test method using a glass-fibre tape
IEC 61203 (1992-12)
Synthetic organic esters for electrical purposes – Guide for maintenance of transformer
esters in equipment
IEC/TR3 61294 (1993-10)
Insulating liquids – Determination of the partial discharge inception voltage (PDIV) – Test
procedure
IEC 61378-1 (1997-09)
Convertor transformers – Part 1: Transformers for industrial applications
IEC 61619 (1997-04)
Insulating liquids – Contamination by polychlorinated biphenyls(PCBs) – Method of
determination by capillary column gas chromatography
IEC 61620 (1998-11)
Insulating liquids – Determination of dielectric dissipation factor by measurement of the
conductance and capacitance – Test method
IEC 61868 (1998-11)
Mineral insulating oils – Determination of kinematic viscosity at very low temperatures
IEC 61936-1 (2002-10)
– Power installations exceeding 1 kV a.c. – Part 1: Common rules

IEC 62021 (2003-06)
Insulating liquids – Determination of acidity – Part 1: Automatic potentiometric titration
11.1.2. CENELEC Standards

EN 50180: 1997 + corrigendum Apr. 1998
Bushings above 1 kV up to 36 kV and from 250 A to 3,15 kA for liquid filled transformers
EN 50216-1: 2002
Power transformer and reactor fittings – Part 1: General
EN 50216-2: 2002 +A1: 2002
Power transformer and reactor fittings – Part 2: Gas and oil actuated relay for liquid
immersed transformers and reactors with conservator
EN 50216-3: 2002 +A1: 2002
Power transformer and reactor fittings – Part 3: Protective relay for hermetically sealed
liquid-immersed transformers and reactors without gaseous cushion
EN 50216-4: 2002
Power transformer and reactor fittings – Part 4: Basic accessories (earthing terminal, drain
and filling devices, thermometer pocket, wheel assembly)
EN 50216-5: 2002 +A1: 2002
Power transformer and reactor fittings – Part 5: Liquid level, pressure devices and flow
indicators
EN 50216-6: 2002
Power transformer and reactor fittings – Part6: Cooling equipment – Removable radiators for
oil-immersed transformers
EN 50216-7: 2002
Power transformer and reactor fittings – Part 7: Electric pumps for transformer oil
EN50243: 2002
Outdoor bushings for 24 kV and 36 kV and for 5 kA and 8 kA, for liquid filled transformers
EN 50299: 2002
Oil-immersed cable connection assemblies for transformers and reactors having highest
voltage for equipment Um from 72,5 kV to 550 kV
EN 50336:2002
Bushings for transformers and reactor cable boxes not exceeding 36 kV
EN50386: 2002
Bushings up to 1 kV and from 250 A to 5 kA, for liquid filled transformers
EN50387: 2002
Busbar bushings up to 1 kV and from 1,25 kA to 5 kA, for liquid filled transformers
EN 60071-1:1995
Insulation co-ordination – Part 1: Definitions, principles and rules
EN 60071-1:1995 +A1: 2000
EN 60071-2:1997
Insulation co-ordination – Part 2: Application Guide
EN 60071-2:1997 +A12: 2002
EN 60076-1: 1997
Power transformers – Part 1: General
EN 60076-1: 1997 +A11: 1997
EN 60076-2: 1997
Power transformers – Part 2: Temperature rise
EN 60076-3: 2001
Power transformers – Part 3: Insulation levels, dielectric tests and external clearances in air
EN 60076-4: 2002
Power transformers – Part 4: Guide to the lightning impulse and switching impulse testing –
Power transformers and reactors

EN 60076-5: 2000
Power transformers – Part 5: Ability to withstand short-circuit
EN 60076-10: 2001
Power transformers – Part 10: Determination of sound levels
EN60137: 1996
Insulated bushing for alternating voltage above 1 kV
EN60156: 1995
Insulating liquids – Determination of the breakdown voltage at power frequency – Test
method
EN 60214: |997
On-load tap-changers
EN 60214-1: 2003
Tap-changers – Part 1: Performance requirements and test methods
EN 60567: 1992
Guide for the sampling of gases and of oil from oil-filled electrical equipment and for the
analysis of free and dissolved gases
EN 60599: 1999
Mineral oil-impregnated electrical equipment in service – Guide to the interpretation of
dissolved and free gas analysis
EN 60726: 2003
Dry-type transformers
EN 60814: 1997
Insulating liquids – oil-impregnated paper and pressboard – Determination of water by
automatic coulometric Karl Fischer titration
EN 61065: 1993
Method for evaluating the low temperature flow properties of mineral insulating oils after
ageing
EN 61099: 1992
Specification for unused synthetic organic esters for electrical purposes
EN 61100: 1992
Classification of insulating liquids according to fire point and net calorific value
EN 61125: 1993
Unused hydrocarbon-based insulating liquids – Test methods for evaluating the oxidation
stability
EN 61197: 1994
Insulating liquids – Linear flame propagation – Test method using a glass-fibre tape
EN 61203: 1994
Synthetic organic esters for electrical purposes – Guide for maintenance of transformer
esters in equipment
En 61378-1: 1998 + corrigendum Nov. 1998
Convertor transformers – Part 1: Transformers for industrial applications
EN 61620: 1999
Insulating liquids – Determination of dielectric dissipation factor by measurement of the
conductance and capacitance – Test method
HD 428.1 S1: 1992 +A1: 1995
Three-phase oil-immersed distribution transformers 50Hz, from 50 to 2500 kVA with highest
voltage for equipment not exceeding 36 kV – Part 1: General requirements and requirements
for transformers with highest voltage for equipment not exceeding 24 kV
HD 428.2.1 S1: 1994
Three-phase oil-immersed distribution transformers 50Hz, from 50 kVA to 2,5 MVA with
highest for equipment not exceeding 36 kV – Part 2: Distribution transformers with cable
boxes on the high–voltage and/or low-voltage side – Section 1: General requirements

HD 428.2.2 S1: 1997
voltage for equipment not exceeding 36 kV – Part 2: Distribution transformers with cable
boxes on the high–voltage and/or low-voltage side – Section 2: Cable boxes type 1 for use
on distribution transformers meeting the requirements of HD 428.2.1
HD 428.2.3 S1: 1998
voltage for equipment not exceeding 36 kV – Part 2: Distribution transformers with cable
boxes on the high–voltage and/or low-voltage side – Section 3: Cable boxes type 2 for use
on distribution transformers meeting the requirements of HD 428.2.1
HD 428.3 S1: 1994
voltage for equipment not exceeding 36 kV – Part 3: Supplementary requirements for
transformers with highest voltage for equipment equal to 36 kV
HD 428.4 S1: 1994
voltage for equipment not exceeding 36 kV – Part 4: Determination of power rating of a
transformer loaded with non-sinusoidal currents
HD 428.6 S1: 2002
voltage for equipment not exceeding 36 kV – Part 6: Requirements and tests concerning
pressurised corrugated tanks
HD 565 S1: 1993
Specification for silicone liquids for electrical purposes
HD 637 S1: 1999
Power installations exceeding 1 kV a.c.
R014-001: 1999
Guide for the evaluation of electromagnetic fields around power transformers
11.1.3. IEEE Standards

IEEE Std 259 – 1999
IEEE Standard Test Procedure for Evaluation of Systems of Insulation for Dry-type Specialty
and General Purpose Transformers
IEEE Std 637 – 1985 (R1992,2002)
IEEE Guide for the Reclamation of Insulating Oil and Criteria for Use
IEEE Std 638 – 1992 (R1999)
IEEE Standard for Qualification of Class 1E Transformers for Nuclear Generating Stations
IEEE Std 1276 – 1997
IEEE Guide for the Application of High-Temperature Materials in Liquid-Immersed Power
Transformers
IEEE Std 1388 – 2000
IEEE Standards for Electronic Reporting of Transformer Tests
IEEE Std 1538 – 2000
IEEE Guide for Determination of Maximum Winding Temperature Rise in Liquid-Filled
Transformers
IEEE Std C57.12.00 – 2000
IEEE Standard General requirements for – Liquid-Immersed Distribution, Power, and
Regulating Transfortmers
IEEE Std C57.12.01 – 1998
IEEE Standard General Requirements for Dry-Type Distribution and Power Transformers
Including Those with Solid-Cast and/or Resin-Encapsulated Windings
IEEE C57.12.20 – 1997
American National Standard for Overhead Distribution Transformers 500 kVA and smaller:
High Voltage, 34500 V and below: Low Voltage 7970/13800 Y V and below – Requirements

IEEE Std C57.12.21 – 1992
American National Standard Requirements for Pad-Mounted, Compartmental-Type, Self-
Cooled, Single-Phase Distribution Transformers With High Voltage Bushings; High-
voltage,34500 GRYD/19920 Volts and Below; Low-Voltage, 240/120 volts; 167 kVA and
Smaller
IEEE Std C57.12.22 – 1993 (R1998)
American National Standard for Transfomers – Pad-Mounted, Compartmental-Type, Self-
Cooled, Three-Phase Distribution Transformers with High Voltage Bushings, 2500 kVA and
Smaller, High-Voltage,34500 GrdY/19920 Volts and Below; Low-Voltage, 480 Volts and
Below – Requirements
IEEE Std C57.12.23 – 2002
IEEE Standard for Underground Type, Self-Cooled, Single-Phase, Distribution Transformers
with Separable Insulated High-Voltage Connectors; High Voltage 25000 V and Below, Low
Voltage 600 V and Below, 167 kVA and Smaller
IEEE Std C57.12.24 – 2000
American National Standard for Transfomers – Underground-Type, Three-Phase Distribution
Transformers, 2500 kVA and Smaller; Voltage, 34500 GrdY/19920 Volts and below; Low
Voltage, 480 Volts and Below – Requirements
IEEE Std C57.12.25.-. 1990
American National Standard for Transformers – Pad-Mounted, Compartmental-Type, Self-
Cooled, Single-Phase Distribution Transformers with Separable Insulated High-Voltage
Connectors, High-voltage,34500 GrdY/19920 Volts and Below; Low-Voltage, 240/120 volts;
167 kVA and Smaller-Requirements
IEEE Std C57.12.26 – 1992
IEEE Standard for Pad-Mounted, Compartmental-Type, Self-Cooled, Three-Phase
Distribution Transformers for Use with Separable Insulated High-Voltage Connectors (34500
GrdY/19920 Volts and Below; 2500 kVA and Smaller)
IEEE Std C57.12.28 – 1999
American National Standard Pad-Mounted equipment – Enclosed Integrity
IEEE Std C57.12.29 – 1991
American National Standard Switchgear and Transformers-Pad-Mounted Equipment-
Enclosure Integrity for Coastal Environments
IEEE Std C57.12.29 – 1999 Errata
American National Standard Pad-Mounted Equipment-Enclosure Integrity for Coastal
Environments (Replacement Figures Version)
IEEE Std C57.12.31 – 2002
IEEE Standard for Pole mounted Equipment – Enclosure Integrity
IEEE Std C57.12.32 – 2002
IEEE Standard for Submersible Equipment- Enclosure Integrity
IEEE Std C57.12.35 – 1996
IEEE Standard for Bar Coding for Distribution Transformers
IEEE Std C57.12.40 – 2000
American National Standard for Secondary Network Transformers Subway and Vault Types
(Liquid Immersed) – Requirements
IEEE Std 2C57.12.44 – 2000
IEEE Standard Requirements for Secondary Network Protectors
IEEE Std C57.12.50 – 1981 (R1998)
American National Standard Requirements for Ventilated Dry-Type Distribution
Transformers, 1 to 500 kVA, Single-Phase, and 15 kVA, Three-Phase, with High-Voltage
601 to 34500 Volts, Low Voltage 120 to 600 Volts
IEEE Std C57.12.51 – 1981 (R1998)
American National Standard Requirements for Ventilated Dry-Type Distribution
Transformers, 501 kVA and Larger, Three-Phase, with High-Voltage 601 to 34500 Volts,
Low Voltage 208Y/120 to 4160 Volts
IEEE Std C57.12.52 – 1981 (R1998)
American National Standard Requirements for Sealed Dry-Type Distribution Transformers,

501 kVA and Larger, Three-Phase, with High-Voltage 601 to 34500 Volts, Low Voltage
208Y/120 to 4160 Volts
IEEE Std C57.12.55 – 1987 (R1998)
American National Standard Requirements for Transformers - Dry-Type Transformers Used
in Unit Installations, Including Substations, Conformance Standard
IEEE Std C57.12.56 – 1986 (R1998)
IEEE Standard Test Procedure for Thermal Evaluation of Insulation Systems for Ventilated
Dry-Type Power and Distribution Transformers
IEEE Std C57.12.58 – 1991
IEEE Guide for Conducting a Transient Voltage Analysis of a Dry-Type Transformer Coil
IEEE Std C57.12.59 – 2001
IEEE Guide for Dry-Type Transformer Through-Fault Current Duration
IEEE Std C57.12.60 – 1998
IEEE Guide for Test Procedures for Thermal Evaluation of Insulation Systems for Solid-Cast
and Resin-Encapsulated Power and Distribution Transformers
IEEE Std C57.12.70 – 2000
IEEE Standard Terminal Markings and Connections for Distribution and Power transformers
IEEE Std C57.12.80 – 2002
IEEE Standard Terminology for Power and Distribution Transformers
IEEE Std C57.12.90 – 1999
IEEE Standard test Code for Liquid-Immersed Distribution, Power and Regulating
Transformers and IEEE Guide for Short Circuit Testing of Distribution and Power
Transformers
IEEE Std C57.12.91 – 2001
IEEE Standard Test Code for Dry-Type Distribution and Power Transformers
IEEE Std C57.18.10 – 1998
IEEE Standard Practices and Requirements for Semiconductor Rectifier Transformers
IEEE Std C57.19.00 – 1991 (R1997)
IEEE Standard General Requirements and Test Procedures for Outdoor Power Apparatus
Bushings
IEEE Std C57.19.01 – 2000
IEEE Standard Performance Characteristics and Dimensions for Outdoor Apparatus
Bushings
IEEE Std C57.19.03 – 1996 (R2002)
IEEE Standard Requirements, Terminology, and Test Code for Bushings for DC Applications
IEEE Std C57.19.100 – 1995
IEEE Guide for Application of Power Apparatus Bushings
IEEE Std C57.91 – 1995 (R2002)
IEEE Guide for Loading Mineral-Oil-Immersed Transformers
IEEE Std C57.91 – 1995/Cor 1 – 2002
IEEE Guide for Loading Mineral-Oil-Immersed Transformers Corrigendum 1 (Corrigendum to
IEEE C57.91 – 1995)
IEEE Std C57.93 – 1995
IEEE Guide for Installation of Liquid-Immersed Power transformers
IEEE C57.94 – 1982 (R1987/2000)
IEEE Recommended Practice for the Installation, Application, Operation, and Maintenance
of Dry-Type General Purpose Distribution and Power Transformers
IEEE Std C57.96 – 1999
IEEE Guide for Loading Dry-Type Distribution and Power Transformers
IEEE C57.98 – 1993 (R1999)
IEEE Guide for Impulse Tests

IEEE Std C57.100 – 1999
IEEE Standard Test Procedure for Thermal Evaluation of Liquid-Immersed Distribution and
Power Transformers
IEEE Std C57.104 – 1991
IEEE Guide for the Interpretation of Gases Generated in Oil-Immersed Transformers
IEEE Std C57.105 – 1978 (R1999)
IEEE Guide for the Application of Transformer Connections in Three-Phase Distribution
Systems
TM
IEEE Std C57.106 – 2002
IEEE Guide for Acceptance and Maintenance of Insulating Oil in Equipment
IEEE Std C57.111 – 1989 (R1995)
IEEE Guide for Acceptance of Silicone Insulating Fluids and Its Maintenance in
Transformers
IEEE Std C57.113 – 1991 (R2002)
IEEE Guide for Partial Discharge Measurement in Liquid-Filled Transformers and Shunt
Reactors
IEEE Std C57.116 – 1989 (R1994,2002)
IEEE Guide for Transformers Directly Connected to Generators
IEEE Std C57.120-1991
IEEE Loss Evaluation Guide for Power Transformers and Reactors
IEEE Std C57.121 – 1998
IEEE Guide for Acceptance and Maintenance of Less Flammable Hydrocarbon Fluid in
Transformers
IEEE Std C57.123 – 2002
IEEE Guide for Transformer Loss Measurement
IEEE Std C57.124 – 1991 (R1996,2002)
IEEE Recommended Practice for the Detection of Partial Discharge and the Measurement of
Apparent Charge in Dry-Type Transformers
IEEE Std C57.127 – 2000
IEEE Trial-Use Guide for the Detection of Acoustic Emissions from Partial Discharges in Oil-
Immersed Power Transformers
IEEE Std C57.131 – 1995
IEEE Standard Requirements for Load Tap Changers
IEEE Std C57.134 – 2000
IEEE Guide for Determination of Hottest-Spot Temperature in Dry-Type Transformers
IEEE Std C57.138 – 1998
IEEE Recommended Practice for Routine Impulse Test for Distribution Transformers

11.2. OTHER RELEVANT STANDARDS AND LITTERATURE
th
ABB Switchgear Manual, 10 edition
EN 45014 General criteria for suplier’s declaration of conformity
89/336/EEC Electromagnetic compatibility
73/23/EEC Low voltage equipment
98/37/EC Safety of machinery
Herbert Baatz: Überspannungen in Energieversorgungsnetzen
1956 Springer-Verlag
Rüdenberg: Elektrische Schaltvorgänge 5. Auflage 1974
ISBN 3-540-05766-8 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York
ISBN 0-387-05766-8 Springer-Verlag New York Heidelberg Berlin
R. Wilheim – M. Waters: Neutral Earthing in High-Voltage Transmission 1956 Elsevier Publishing
Company New York –Amstwerdam-London-Princeton
Giorgio Bertagnolli : -SHORT-CIRCUIT DUTY OF POWER TRANSFORMERS – THE ABB
APPROACH
11.3. CONTRIBUTORS
The following have contributed to the preparation of this Distribution Transformer Handbook
Name Section
Karlsen, Roar 2, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.4.1, 2.4.2, 2.5, 10.5
roar.karlsen@no.abb.com
Parma, Diego 1, 1.1, 1.2
diego.parma@ch.abb.com
Stang, Geir 3.4, 4, 4.2, 4.2.1, 4.2.2, 4.2.3, 4.2.4, 4.2.5,

4.2.6, 4.2.7, 4.2.8, 4.2.9, 4.2.10, 4.2.11,
geir.stang@no.abb.com
4.2.12, 4.3.2, 4.3.3, 4.3.4, 4.4, 4.4.2, 4.4.3,
4.4.4, 4.4.5, 4.4.6, 4.4.7, 4.4.8, 4.4.9, 4.4.10,
4.4.11, 10.4
Stryken, Egil 3, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 4.3, 4.3.1, 7, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 8,
8.1 8.2, 8.3, 8.4, 10.3, 10.3.1, 10.3.2, 10.3.3
egil.stryken@no.abb.com
Sund, John-Bjarne 4.1, 6, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6, 6.7, 6.8, 6.9,
6.10, 9, 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 9.4, 10.6, 11.1.1, 11.1.2,
john-bja@online.no
11.1.3, 11.2
Whitefoot, Kevin Proofing and use of language.
kevin.whitefoot@no.abb.com
Wilhelmsen, Reiulf 0, 0.1, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 5.5, 10.1, 10.2,
10.7.1, 10.7.2, 10.7.3, 10.7.4, 10.7.5, 10.8.1,
re-wilhe@online.no
10.8.2, 10.8.3, 10.8.4, 10.9, 11.2, 11.3, 12, 13
11.4. FEEDBACK
Any feedback regarding editorial changes, additional subject proposals etc. can be sent by E-mail
to Egil Stryken.
Any questions regarding the various subjects can be sent by E-mail to the author with a copy to
Egil Stryken.

12. EXTRACTS FROM
IEC 61936-1 (2002-10) POWER INSTALLATIONS
EXCEEDING 1 KV A.C. – PART 1: COMMON RULES
The information given in this section is an extract from IEC 61936-1 (2002-10) Power installations
exceeding 1 kV a.c. Common rules .
For full text, see the relevant standard. The numbering follows the numbering in the standard.
*Copyright © IEC, Geneva, Switzerland. www.iec.ch.
4 FUNDAMENTAL REQUIREMENTS
4.1 General
Installations and equipment shall be capable of withstanding electrical, mechanical, climatic and
environmental influences anticipated on site.
The relevant laws or regulations of an authority having jurisdiction shall have precedence.
5 INSULATION
As conventional (air insulated) installations cannot be impulse tested, the installation requires
minimum clearances between live parts and earth and between live parts of phases in order to
avoid flashover below the impulse withstand level specified for individual tested components of the
installation.
Insulation coordination shall be in accordance with IEC 60071-1.
Table 1 – Minimum clearances in air – Voltage range I ( 1 kV < Um ≤ 245 kV
Rated short- Rated lightning

Nominal Highest
duration power- impulse Minimum phase-to-earth and
voltage of voltage for
frequency withstand phase-to-phase clearance, N c
system equipment
Voltage withstand voltage voltage a
range
Un Um 1,2/50 µs Indoor Outdoor
r.m.s.
r.m.s. r.m.s. (peak value) installations installations
kV kV kV kV mm mm
20 60 120
3 3,6 10
40 60 120
40 60 120
6 7,2 20
60 90 120
60 90 150
10 12 28 75 120 150
95 160 160
75 120 160
15 17,5 38
95 160 160
95 160
20 24 50 125 220
145 270
145 270
30 36 70
170 320
I 45 52 95 250 480
66 72,5 140 325 630
185 b 450 900
110 123
230 550 1 100
185 b 450 b 900
132 145 230 550 1 100
275 650 1 300
230 b 550 b 1 100
150 170 275 650 1 300
325 750 1 500
275 b 650 b 1 300
b b
325 750 1 500
220 245 360 850 1 700
395 950 1 900
460 1 050 2 100
a The rated lightning impulse is applicable to phase-to-phase and phase-to-earth.
b If values are considered insufficient to prove that the required phase-to-phase withstand voltages are met,
additional phase-to-phase withstand tests are needed.
c For rod-structure.

6 EQUIPMENT
6.1 General requirements

6.1.1 Selection
Equipment shall be selected and installed to satisfy the following requirements:
a) safe construction when properly assembled, installed and connected to supply;
b) safe and proper performance taking into account the external influences that can be
expected at the intended location;
c) safe and proper performance during normal operation and in the event of reasonably
expected conditions of overload, abnormal operation and fault, without resulting in
damage that would render the equipment unsafe;
d) protection of personnel during use and maintenance of the equipment.
7 INSTALLATIONS
7.1 General requirements

This clause specifies only general requirements for the installations regarding choice of circuit
arrangement, circuit documentation, transport routes, lighting, operational safety and labelling.
Distances, clearances and dimensions specified are the minimum values permitted for safe
operation. They are generally based on the minimum values given in the former national standards
of the IEC members. A user may specify higher values if necessary.
NOTE For minimum clearances (N) of live parts, refer to 5.3 and to tables 1 and 2 and annex A.
National standards and regulations may require the use of higher clearance values.
Where an existing installation is to be extended, the requirements applicable at the time of its
design and erection may be specified as an alternative.
The relevant standards for operation of electrical (power) installations shall additionally be taken
into account. Operating procedures shall be agreed upon between manufacturer and user. Where
applicable, the documentation shall be provided with each installation to allow erection,
commissioning, operation, maintenance and environmental protection.
The extent of the documentation shall be agreed upon between the supplier and the user.
Diagrams, charts and tables, if any, shall be prepared in accordance with IEC 60617 and IEC
61082.
7.1.6 Operational safety
Operational safety installations shall be designed so that the escape and rescue paths and the
emergency exit can be safely used in the event of a fire, and that protection and environmental
compatibility are ensured.
Where necessary, installations themselves shall be protected against fire hazard, flooding and
contamination. If required, additional measures shall be taken to protect important installations
against the effects of road traffic (salt spray, vehicle accident).
8 SAFETY MEASURES
Installations shall be constructed in such a way as to enable the operating and maintenance
personnel to circulate and intervene within the framework of their duties and authorizations,
according to circumstances, at any point of the installation.
Specific maintenance work, preparation and repair work, which involve working in the vicinity of live
parts or actual work on live parts, are carried out observing the rules, procedures and work
distances as defined in national standards and regulations.

8. 6 Protection against fire
8.6.1 General
Relevant national, provincial and local fire protection regulations shall be taken into account in the
design of the installation.
NOTE Fire hazard and fire risk of electrical equipment is separated into two categories: fire victim and fire origin.
Precautions for each category should be taken into account in the installation requirements.
a) Precautions to fire victim:
i) space separation from origin of fire;
ii) flame propagation prevention:
− grading,
− liquid containment,
− fire barriers (e.g. REI fire-resistant materials 60/90),
− extinguishing system;
b) Precautions to fire origin:
i) electrical protection;
ii) thermal protection;
iii) pressure protection;
iv) fire resistant materials.
Care shall be taken that, in the event of fire, the escape and rescue paths and the emergency exits
can be used (see 7.1.6).
The user or owner of the installation shall specify any requirement for fire extinguishing equipment.
Automatic devices to protect against equipment burning due to severe overheating, overloading
and faults (internal/external) shall be provided, depending on the size and significance of the
installation.
Equipment in which there is a potential for sparks, arcing, explosion or high temperature, for
example electrical machines, transformers, resistors, switches and fuses, shall not be used in
operating areas subject to fire hazard unless the construction of this equipment is such that
flammable materials cannot be ignited by them.
If this cannot be ensured, special precautions, for example fire walls, fire-resistant separations,
vaults, enclosures and containment, are necessary.
8.6.2 Transformers, reactors
In the following subclauses, the word 'transformer' represents 'transformers and reactors'.
For the identification of coolant types, see 6.2.2.2. IEC 61100 classifies insulating liquids according
to fire point and net caloric value (heat of combustion). IEC 60726 classifies dry-type transformers
in terms of their behaviour when exposed to fire.
The fire hazard associated with transformers of outdoor and indoor installations is dependent on
the rating of the equipment, the volume and type of insulating mediums, the type and proximity and
exposure of nearby equipment and structures. The use of one or more recognized safeguard
measures shall be used in accordance with the evaluation of the risk.
NOTE For definition of risk, see ISO/IEC Guide 51.
Common sumps or catchment tanks, if required, for several transformers shall be arranged so that
a fire in one transformer cannot spread to another.
The same applies to individual sumps which are connected to the catchment tanks of other
transformers; gravel layers or pipes filled with fluid can, for example, be used for this purpose.
Arrangements which tend to minimize the fire hazard of the escaped fluid are preferred.
8.6.2.1 Outdoor installations

The layout of an outdoor installation shall be such that burning of a transformer with a liquid volume
of more than 1 000 l will not cause a fire hazard to other transformers or objects. For this purpose
adequate clearances, G, shall be necessary. Guide values are given in table 3. Where
transformers with a liquid volume below 1 000 l are installed near combustible walls, special fire
precautions may be necessary depending on the nature and the use of the building.

If it is not possible to allow for adequate clearance as indicated in table 3, fire-resistant separating
walls with the following dimensions shall be provided:
a. between transformers (see figure 6) separating walls. For example EI 60 in accordance with
the Official Journal of the European Community, No. C 62/23:
− height: top of the expansion chamber (if any), otherwise the top of the transformer tank;
− length: width or length of the sump (in the case of a dry-type transformer, the width or length
of the transformer, depending upon the direction of the transformer);
b. between transformers and buildings (see figure 7) separating walls. For example EI 60; if
additional fire separating wall is not provided, fire rating of the building wall should be
increased, for example REI 90 in accordance with the Official Journal of the European
Community C 62/23.
8.6.2.2 Indoor installations in electrical power systems
Minimum requirements for the installation of indoor transformers are given in table 4.
Table 3 – Guide values for outdoor transformer clearances
Clearance G to
Liquid volume other transformers or
Transformer type combustible building
L non-combustible
surface
building surface
m
m
1 000
<……< 3 7,6
2 000
2 000
Oil insulated ≤…….< 5 10
transformers (O) 20 000
20 000
≤…..< 10 20
45 000
≥ 45 000 15,2 30,5
Less flammable 1 000
liquid insulated <…….< 15,2 30,5
transformers (K) 3 800
without enhanced 15,2
≥ 3 800 4,6
protection
Less flammable Clearance G to building surface or adjacent transformers
liquid insulated Horizontal Vertical
transformers (K) with m m
enhanced protection 0,9 1,5
Clearance G to building surface

Fire behaviour class or adjacent transformers
Dry type Horizontal Vertical
transformers (A) m m
F0 1,5 3,0
F1 / F2 None None
NOTE Enhanced protection means
– tank rupture strength;
– tank pressure relief;
– low current fault protection;
– high current fault protection.
For an example of enhanced protection, see Factory Mutual Global standard 3990, or equivalent.
If automatically activated fire extinguishing equipment is installed, the clearance G can be reduced.

Table 4 – Minimum requirements for the installation of indoor transformers
Liquid volume
Transformer type Safeguards
l
Oil insulated transformers ≤ 1 000 EI 60 respectively REI 60
(O)
> 1 000 EI 90 respectively REI 90 or EI 60 respectively REI 60
and automatic sprinkler protection
Less flammable liquid
insulated transformers (K) EI 60 respectively REI 60 or automatic sprinkler
without enhanced protection
protection
Less flammable liquid ≤ 10 MVA and

insulated transformers (K) EI 60 respectively REI 60 or separation distances 1,5 m
with enhanced protection Um ≤ 38 kV horizontally and 3,0 m vertically
Fire behaviour class

EI 60 respectively REI 60 or separation distances 0,9 m
Dry-type transformer (A) F0 horizontally and 1,5 m vertically
F1 / F2 Non combustible walls

NOTE 1 REI represents bearing system (wall) whereas EI represents non-load bearing system (wall) where R is
the load bearing capacity, E is the fire integrity, I is the thermal insulation and 60/90 refers to time in minutes.
NOTE 2 Enhanced protection means
– tank rupture strength;
– tank pressure relief;
– low current fault protection;
– high current fault protection.
For an example of enhanced protection, see Factory Mutual Global standard 3990 or equivalent.
Doors shall have a fire resistance of at least 60 min. Doors which open to the outside are adequate
if they are of fire-retardant material and construction. Ventilation openings necessary for the
operation of the transformers are permitted. When designing the openings, the possible escape of
hot gases shall be considered.
Figure 6 – Separating walls between transformers

a
The wall in this area shall be designed to avoid spread of fire.
Figure 7 Fire protection between transformer and building
NOTE In addition, the water from the fire extinguishing (if any) should be considered
a
Containment: the entire quantity of fluid of the transformer plus rain water
Figure 8 – Sump with integrated catchment tank

a
Containment: minimum 20% of the fluid from the transformer
Figure 9 – Sump with separated catchment tank
NOTE In addition, the water from fire estinguishing installation (if any) should be considered
a
Containment outdoor: the entire quantity of fluid of the largest transformer plus rain
Containment indoor: the entire quantity of fluid of the largest transformer
Figure 10 – Sump with integrated common catchment tank
NOTE The dotted area denotes the volume of the entire quantity of insulating fluid of the
transformer spilled on the floor
Figure11 – Example for small transformer without gravel layer and catchment tank

9 PROTECTION, CONTROL AND AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
9.1 Monitoring and control systems

Monitoring, protection, regulating and control devices shall be provided, as necessary, for the
correct and safe functioning of the equipment.
Automatic devices, designed to offer selectivity and quick operation, shall provide protection
against the effects of unacceptable overload and internal and external faults appropriate to the size
and significance of installation.
Equipment shall comply with the severity class (see IEC 60255) corresponding to the part of the
installation in which it is located.
Facilities shall be provided for isolating the control circuit of each primary switching equipment or
each switchgear bay in order to allow maintenance of high voltage equipment to be performed
safely.
Provision shall be made to allow for repair, maintenance, and/or testing to be carried out on
protection and control devices without any danger to personnel or the equipment.
Control circuits and signalling circuits shall, preferably, be functionally separated. Tripping signals
shall be displayed on the protection panel if it exists.
Alarm and fault-indicating equipment shall clearly indicate danger and fault conditions; several
signals can be combined as a common signal to be transmitted to a remote control point.
The control equipment and system, including cables and cords, shall be designed and installed to
minimize the possibility of damage to the connected equipment due to electromagnetic
interference. Basic rules are given in 9.5.
The control equipment and system, including cables and cords, shall be designed and installed in
such a way that they minimize the danger from operating failure, inadvertent operation or incorrect
information. In meeting this requirement, influences such as voltage dips, supply failure, insulation
faults and electromagnetic interference effects shall be taken into account.
10 EARTHING SYSTEMS
10.1 General
This clause provides the criteria for design, installation, testing and maintenance of an earthing
system such that it operates under all conditions and ensures the safety of human life in any place
to which persons have legitimate access. It also provides the criteria to ensure that the integrity of
equipment connected and in proximity to the earthing system is maintained.
10.2 Fundamental requirements

10.2.1 Safety criteria
The hazard to human beings is that a current will flow through the region of the heart which is
sufficient to cause ventricular fibrillation. The current limit, for power-frequency purposes, should be
derived from IEC 60479-1 (curve C1). For substation design, this curve needs to be translated into
voltage limits for comparison with the calculated step and touch voltages taking into account the
impedance present in the body current path. Annex B shows curves of typical voltage limits. The
voltage limits shall take into account the following factors:
– proportion of current flowing through the region of the heart;
– body impedance along the current path (based on the 5 % values of table 1 of IEC 60479-
1);
– resistance between the body contact points and return paths (e.g. remote earth, earth
electrode);
– fault duration;
– fault current magnitude.
It must also be recognized that fault occurrence, fault current magnitude, fault duration and
presence of human beings are probabilistic in nature.

Annex A
(normative)
Values of rated insulation levels and minimum clearances based on
current practice in some countries
Table A.1 – Values of rated insulation levels and minimum clearances in air for
1 kV < Um ≤ 245 kV for highest voltages for equipment Um not standardized
by the IEC based on current practice in some countries
Rated short-
Nominal Rated lightning
Highest duration power-
voltage impulse Minimum phase-to-earth and
voltage for frequency
of withstand phase-to-phase clearance, N b
Voltage equipment withstand
system voltage a
range voltage
Un Um 1,2/50 µs Indoor Outdoor
r.m.s.
r.m.s. r.m.s. (peak value) installations installations
kV kV kV kV mm med mer
30 60 120
2,75 15 45 70 120
60 90 120
4,76 19 60 90 120
45 70 120
5,5 19 60 90 120
75 120 120
60 90 120
8,25 27 75 120 150
95 160 160
26 75 120 150
8,25
35 95 160 160
35 95 160 160
15
I 50 110 180 180
75 120 150
15,5 35 85 150 160
110 180 180
110 180
15 17,5 38
125 220
22 (20) 24 50 150 280
95 190 290
22 25 50 125 210
150
50 125 220
25,8
70 150 280
95 160
27 50 125 220
150 280
a
The rated lightning impulse is applicable phase-to-phase and phase-to-earth.
b
For rod-structure

13. INDEX
ABB Power Technology Distribution Information required with enquiry and order
Transformers ...............................................5 .................................................................. 10
ABB-Group ..................................................5 Inrush currents .......................................... 35
Abbreviations .............................................70 Inspection and maintenance during
Ability to withstand short circuit currents ....40 downtime................................................... 20
Accessories ...............................................12 Inspection during operation....................... 20
Agricultural Ester........................................51 Installation................................................. 14
Anomalous losses......................................34 Installation................................................. 82
Auto transformers ........................................9 installation, operation and maintenance.... 13
Basic physics of the transformer ................26 Insulation................................................... 81
Basic Sl units .............................................67 Insulation materials ................................... 49
Bibliography ...............................................71 Insulation resistance, off-circuit/on-load tap
Booster transformers ...................................9 changer ..................................................... 17
Bushings and joints....................................23 Interharmonics .......................................... 64
CE marking ................................................59 Internal overvoltages caused by high
Cellulose materials.....................................49 frequency oscillations................................ 57
CE-marking................................................59 Introduction ................................................. 5
CENELEC Standards.................................74 Investigation of transformer disturbances . 20
Choice of system voltage...........................26 IP-classification ......................................... 59
Common rules for power installations Landfill....................................................... 25
exceeding 1 kV ..........................................81 Large distribution transformers.................... 7
Conductor materials...................................48 LCA ........................................................... 25
Connecting transformer terminals to the LDT ............................................................. 7
networks ....................................................16 Life cycle assessment (LCA)..................... 25
Contributors ...............................................80 Lifetime ..................................................... 18
Core materials ...........................................48 Limitation of temporary overvoltages ........ 54
Customer review of the management Limitation of transient overvoltages........... 56
systems......................................................67 Litterature.................................................. 80
Declaration of Conformity ..........................59 Load losses............................................... 37
Declaration of Conformity (DoC) ................70 Load rejection overvoltages ...................... 55
Differential protection .................................19 Maintenance.............................................. 20
Dimethyl Silicone .......................................50 Maintenance during operation................... 20
Disposal after use ......................................25 Mathematical symbols for alternating-current
DoC............................................................59 quantities and network quantities .............. 69
Drives transformers......................................9 Mathematical symbols for electrical
Dry type .......................................................8 quantities (general) ................................... 69
Earthing .....................................................17 Mathematical symbols for magnetic
EARTHING SYSTEMS ..............................88 quantities (general) ................................... 69
Earthing transformers ..................................9 MDT ............................................................ 7
Eddy current losses ...................................34 Mechanical checks.................................... 17
Effect of electromagnetic fields on humans66 Mechanical forces in the windings............. 43
Efficiency ...................................................31 Medium distribution transformers ................ 7
Electrical and magnetic quantities..............68 Mineral oil.................................................. 50
Electrical clearances in air .........................16 Miscellaneous ........................................... 59
Electromagnetic compatibility ..............63, 80 Monitoring and control systems ................ 88
Electromagnetic disturbances on Multiples and sub-multiples of units .......... 68
transformers...............................................64 NEMA........................................................ 61
Electromagnetic field in the vicinity of Network connection................................... 16
transformers...............................................66 No load (magnetising) current and no load
EMC...........................................................63 losses........................................................ 32
Energizing..................................................17 Normal information.................................... 10
Environment...............................................67 Objective ..................................................... 2
Equipment..................................................82 Off circuit tap changer ............................... 24
Equivalent diagram ....................................28 Oil conservator with rubber sack ............... 24
Erection at site ...........................................15 On-load tap changer ................................. 24
Fluids .........................................................50 Operation .................................................. 18
Frequency..................................................19 Operational safety ..................................... 82
Frequency variation ...................................65 Other fluids................................................ 50
Fundamental requirements ........................81 Over voltage protection ............................. 20
Gas actuated relay.....................................19 Overcurrent protection .............................. 19
Gaskets......................................................24 Overcurrents ............................................. 65
General Electrotechnical formulas .............69 Overvoltages............................................. 65
Handling, lifting ..........................................14 Overvoltages and overvoltage limitation ... 53
Harmonics..................................................64 Overvoltages caused by atmospheric
HSE ...........................................................67 phenomena ............................................... 53
HSE, Health, safety and environment ........67 Overvoltages due to earth-fault ................. 54
IEC Standards ...........................................71 Overvoltages due to ferroresonance ......... 55
IEEE Standards .........................................76 Overvoltages generated within the power
Incoterms ...................................................14 system....................................................... 53

Painted surfaces ........................................24 Special precautions for dry-type transformers
Parallel operation.................................11, 19 .................................................................. 57
PCB-contaminated oil ................................25 Special tests.............................................. 52
Physical fundamentals ...............................26 Starter transformers .................................... 9
Porcelain....................................................49 Storage ..................................................... 15
Protection against fire ................................83 Surface protection ..................................... 24
Protection devices......................................19 Sustainability development ....................... 67
Protection, control and auxiliary systems...88 Synthetic Ester .......................................... 51
Protective equipment .................................17 Synthetic Hydrocarbon.............................. 51
PTDT ...........................................................5 Temperature rise and load capacity .......... 18
Quality........................................................67 Terminal designation................................. 61
Quality, environment, sustainability............67 Testing of transformers ............................. 52
Rating plate................................................61 Three phase transformer........................... 61
Receiving the transformer at site ...............15 Tightening torque ...................................... 16
Resibloc .......................................................8 Transfer of responsibility ........................... 14
Resin............................................................8 Transferred overvoltages in transformers . 58
Reuse ........................................................25 Transformer liquid and insulation .............. 23
Routine tests..............................................52 Transformer materials ............................... 48
Safety measures ........................................82 Transformer sound.................................... 44
Safety of machinery ...................................80 Transformer types and their application ...... 6
Safety precautions .....................................13 Transformer-relevant standards ................ 71
SDT..............................................................8 Transport................................................... 14
Short-circuit impedance .............................37 Type tests ................................................. 52
Single phase transformer.......................9, 61 Units and conversion tables ...................... 67
small distribution transformers .....................8 Vacuum cast ............................................... 8
Solid insulation materials ...........................49 Voltage ratio and voltage drop (or rise) ..... 28
Solid synthetic insulation materials ............49 Voltage unbalance .................................... 65
Sources of sound generation .....................46 Zinc coated surfaces ................................. 24
Special information ....................................11

Leaflet Ident. no. 1LAC000003 Printed in Germany (11.03-1000-PPI)
Business Area Distribution Transformers Note:

We reserve the right to make technical changes or modify the contents of this
Power Technologies Division document without prior notice. With regard to purchase orders, the agreed
P.O. Box 8131 Affolternstrasse 44 particulars shall prevail.
ABB does not accept any responsibility whatsoever for potential errors
8050 Zürich SWITZERLAND or possible lack of information in this document.
We reserve all rights in this document and in the subject matter and illustrations
Phone: +411317 7111 e-Mail: info@abb.com contained therein. Any reproduction – in whole or in parts – is forbidden without
www.abb.com ABB’s prior written consent.
Copyright© 2003 ABB
All rights reserved.

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Distribution Transformer Handbook

IEC / CENELEC related specifications

© Copyright 2003 ABB Ltd. All rights reserved.

Distribution Transformer Handbook Page 2

Page 3 Distribution Transformer Handbook

Distribution Transformer Handbook Page 4

1.2. ABB Power Technology Distribution Transformers – PTDT

Page 5 Distribution Transformer Handbook

Distribution Transformer Handbook Page 6

Transformers of this type are used for receiving the energy

2.2. MEDIUM DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS, MDT

Power range 315 - 5000 kVA

Transformers of this type are used to step down three-

Page 7 Distribution Transformer Handbook

Transformers of this type are used to step down three-phase high

2.4. DRY-TYPE DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS

2.4.1. Vacuum cast resin dry-type transformers

2.4.2. Resibloc® dry-type transformers

Resibloc® is an ABB patented process for the high voltage winding.

Distribution Transformer Handbook Page 8

2.5.1. Single phase transformers

2.5.2. Drives transformers

2.5.3. Additional products

Page 9 Distribution Transformer Handbook

3.1. NORMAL INFORMATION

Distribution Transformer Handbook Page 10

3.3. PARALLEL OPERATIONS

Page 11 Distribution Transformer Handbook

Distribution Transformer Handbook Page 12

Page 13 Distribution Transformer Handbook

Transformer lifting example

Distribution Transformer Handbook Page 14

4.2.5. Storage prior to energizing

4.2.6. Erection at site

Page 15 Distribution Transformer Handbook

Distribution Transformer Handbook Page 16

4.2.9. Protective equipment

4.2.10. Insulation resistance, off-circuit/on-load tap changer

4.2.11. Off-circuit/on-load tap changer

4.2.12. Mechanical checks

Page 17 Distribution Transformer Handbook

4.3.2. Temperature rise and load capacity

Distribution Transformer Handbook Page 18

4.3.3. Parallel operation

4.3.5. Protection devices

Page 19 Distribution Transformer Handbook

4.4.1. Inspection during operation

4.4.2. Maintenance during operation

4.4.3. Inspection and maintenance during downtime

4.4.4. Investigation of transformer disturbances

Distribution Transformer Handbook Page 20

SYMPTOMS PROBABLE CAUSES SOLUTIONS

Page 21 Distribution Transformer Handbook

4.4.4.2. Recording of disturbances

Distribution Transformer Handbook Page 22

4.4.5. Transformer liquid and insulation

4.4.6. Bushings and joints

Page 23 Distribution Transformer Handbook

4.4.8. On-load tap changer

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