Geophysics Notes

Geophysical Exploration & Seismic Interpretation PE-309
Lecture Notes Made by Maisam Abbas PE-038
Course Outline
1. Geophysical & Seismic Exploration Introduction
2. Gravity and Magnetic Methods- description and correction factors
3. Reflection and Refraction
4. Seismic Fundamentals
5. Seismic Methods- onshore and offshore
6. Seismic Data Acquisition-2D,3D, VSP; offshore & onshore equipment,
planning
7. Seismic Data processing
8. Seismic Interpretation basics
9. Interpretation pitfall
10.Sedimentary processes and depositional environment-stratigraphy, and
structural features
11.Sequence and seismic stratigraphy- sea-level changes and depositional
variations
12.Seismic Data Interpretation- 2D & 3D geophysical and geological aspects
13.Seismic data interpretation- mapping
14.Modern seismic exploration trends
15.Seismic facies analysis and reflection characteristics
16. GPS surveying, navigation and positioning methods
Books:
Exploration Geophysics by Mamdooh Gadallah
Elements of Petroleum Geology by Shelley
Prelude:
Our task is to create a picture of subsurface layers so as to look for potential
occurrence of oil and gas. Most common practice is performing operations, prior to
drilling, to look for oil and gas prospects.
Geophysical & Seismic Exploration Introduction
pg. 1
Geophysics is a field that integrates geology, mathematics, and physics in order to

examine and understand the earth's structure . A geophysicist is someone who
studies the Earth using gravity, magnetic, electrical, and seismic methods.
Subsurface Rock Geophysical properties:
1. Density
2. Magnetic Susceptibility (constant that indicates the degree of magnetization
of a rock in response to an applied magnetic field)
3. Electrical Conductivity
4. Radioactivity
5. Geothermal Properties (e.g. thermal conductivity)
6. Elasticity (Bulk and shear Modulus)
Methods of Exploration:
1. Seismic methods (based on elastic property of rock, examined using seismic
wave velocity, which changes due to difference in elastic properties of rock)
2. Gravity methods (based on rocks density)
3. Magnetic methods (based on rocks magnetic susceptibility)
4. Electrical methods (based on rocks conductivity)
5. Radioactive methods (based on rocks radioactivity)
6. Geophysical well logging
7. Geothermal methods
Gravity and magnetic methods identify basins and after that subsurface structures,
traps, layers and stratigraphy are identified by seismic which gives clue for
hydrocarbon. We have to imagine subsurface indirectly.
Geophysical explorations are performed on;
1. Airborne
2. Surface
3. Subsurface
4. Oceans
5. Lakes
Main branches of geophysics:

1. Solid earth geophysics
pg. 2
Theoretical geophysics (like, study of seismology)

Applied geophysics
2. Atmospheric geophysics
3. Space Geophysics
Gravity and Magnetic Methods (Description and Correction factors)
Gravity and magnetic exploration, also referred to potential fields exploration is
used to give geoscientists an indirect way to see beneath the Earths surface by
sensing physical properties of rocks (density and magnetization, respectively).
Potential field surveys are relatively inexpensive and can quickly cover large areas
of ground. The methods are relatively cheap, non-invasive and nondestructive
environmentally speaking. They are also passive that is, no energy needs to be
put into the ground in order to acquire data. The small portable instruments
(gravimeter and magnetometer) also permit walking traverses.
1. Gravity Method:
Introduction:
Gravity surveying measures variations in the Earths gravitational field caused by
differences in the density of sub-surface rocks. Gravity methods have been used
most extensively in the search for oil and gas, particularly in the twentieth century.
Theory:
The basis on which the gravity method depends is encapsulated in two laws
derived by Newton, namely his Universal Law of gravitation, and his Second Law
of Motion. The first of these two laws states that the force of attraction between
two bodies of known mass is directly proportional to the product of the two masses
and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centers of
mass. Consequently, the greater the distance separating the centers of mass, the
smaller the force of attraction between them is. If an object of mass m is placed on
the surface of earth, then;
Mem
F=G
R2
Where G=gravitational constant= 6.67x10-11 Nm2/kg2, Me=mass of earth=6x1024

kg, R=radius of earth=6371km.
pg. 3
Newton's Second Law of Motion states, The force acting on an object is equal to
the mass of that object times its acceleration. Considering the objects case, force
of gravity, F, is tending to accelerate the object by acceleration g.
F=mg
Equations 1 and 2 can be combined to obtain another simple relationship:
Me m
mg=G
R2
Me
g=G 2
R
This shows that the magnitude of acceleration due to gravity on Earth (g) is
directly proportional to the mass (Me) of the Earth and inversely proportional to the
square of the Earths radius (R). Theoretically, acceleration due to gravity should
be constant over the Earth. In reality, gravity varies from place to place because the
earth has the shape of a flattened sphere, rotates, and has an irregular surface
topography and variable mass distribution.
Principle of Operation:
What one weighs depends on the force of gravity at that spot and the force of
gravity varies with elevation, rock densities, latitude, and topography. Mass,
however, does not depend on gravity but is a fundamental quantity throughout the
universe.
When a mass is suspended from a spring, the amount the spring stretches is
proportional to the force of gravity. This force, F, is given by F = mg, where g is
the acceleration of gravity. Since mass is a constant, variations in stretch of the
spring can be used to determine variations in the acceleration of gravity, g.
pg. 4
Figure 2.1 illustrates the principle of gravity exploration. On the left the surface
elevation is moderate but there is a thick sedimentary section overlaying the
basement complex; lets say it is some igneous/metamorphic rock of higher
density. At the center the surface elevation is near sea-level and the subsurface has
a sedimentary section of normal thickness and density overlaying an average
basement complex. On the right the surface elevation is also moderate but there is
a thin sedimentary section resulting in the basement complex being close to the
surface.
The center part of Fig. 2.1 represents the normal earth situation and the
suspended mass stretches the spring a normal amount here. On the left, the thick
sedimentary section has lower density than the basement rocks so the pull of the
earth is reduced, resulting in the suspended mass stretching the spring less than the
normal amount. The situation on the right is the opposite. The higher density
basement rocks closer to the surface causes the pull of the earth to be greater,
stretching the spring more than the normal amount.
Gravity Units:
The normal value of g at the Earths surface is 980 cm/s2. The word normal value
refers to the value of g measured at sea-level, which is 980 cm/s2. In honor of
Galileo, the c.g.s. unit of acceleration due to gravity (1 cm/s2) is Gal. Modern
gravity meters (gravimeters) can measure extremely small variations in
acceleration due to gravity, typically 1 part in 109. The sensitivity of modern
instruments is about ten parts per million. So, cm/s2 is a bit large for measuring the
variations. Such small numbers have resulted in sub-units being used such as the:
pg. 5
1 milliGal (1 mGal = 10-3 Gal);

1 microGal (1 Gal = 10-6 Gal); and
1 gravity unit = 1 g.u. =0.1 mGal [10 gu =1 mGal]
The unit used for measuring residual gravity is the milligal (mgal), or one-
thousandth of a gal, where a gal is 1cm/s2. The gal is named for Galileo. So,
remember in problems of gravity corrections, since we are determining the
variation, the variation be better expressed in mGal.
pg. 6

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Geophysical Exploration & Seismic Interpretation PE-309

Lecture Notes Made by Maisam Abbas PE-038

Geophysical & Seismic Exploration Introduction

Geophysics is a field that integrates geology, mathematics, and physics in order to

Main branches of geophysics:

Theoretical geophysics (like, study of seismology)

Where G=gravitational constant= 6.67x10-11 Nm2/kg2, Me=mass of earth=6x1024

1 milliGal (1 mGal = 10-3 Gal);

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