DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

THIRD SEMESTER ,(EE/EEE)

SUBJECT:NETWORK THEORY

SUBJECT CODE-1303

SYLLABUS :NETWORK THEORY (3-1-0)

MODULE-I (10 HOURS)
Coupled Circuits: Self-inductance and Mutual inductance, Coefficient of coupling, dot convention, Ideal
Transformer, Analysis of multi-winding coupled circuits, Analysis of single tuned and double tuned
coupled circuits.
Transient study in RL, RC, and RLC networks by Laplace transform method with DC and AC excitation.
Response to step, impulse and ramp inputs.
Two Port networks: Two port parameters, short circuit admittance parameter, open circuit impedance
parameters, Transmission parameters, Image parameters and Hybrid parameters. Ideal two port devices,
ideal transformer. Tee and Pie circuit representation, Cascade and Parallel Connections.
MODULE-II (10 HOURS)
Network Functions & Responses: Concept of complex frequency, driving point and transfer functions for
one port and two port network, poles & zeros of network functions, Restriction on Pole and Zero
locations of network function. Impulse response and complete response.
Time domain behavior form pole-zero plot.
Three Phase Circuits: Analysis of unbalanced loads, Neutral shift, Symmetrical components, Analysis of
unbalanced system, power in terms of symmetrical components
MODULE-III (10 HOURS)
Network Synthesis: Realizability concept, Hurwitz property, positive realness, properties of positive real
functions, Synthesis of R-L, R-C and L-C driving point functions, Foster and Cauer forms
MODULE-IV (10 HOURS)
Graph theory: Introduction, Linear graph of a network, Tie-set and cut-set schedule, incidence matrix,
Analysis of resistive network using cut-set and tie-set, Dual of a network.
Filters: Classification of filters, Characteristics of ideal filters
BOOKS
[1]. Mac.E Van Valkenburg, Network Analysis,
[2]. Franklin Fa-Kun. Kuo, Network Analysis & Synthesis, John Wiley & Sons.
[3]. M. L. Soni, J. C. Gupta, A Course in Electrical Circuits and Analysis,
[4]. Mac.E Van Valkenburg, Network Synthesiss,
[5]. Joseph A. Edminister, Mahmood Maqvi, Theory and Problems of Electric Circuits, Schaum's
Outline Series, TMH
 MODULE- I (10 hrs)

1.Magnetic coupled circuits. (Lecture -1)

1.1.Self inductance
When current changes in a circuit, the magnetic flux linking the same circuit changes and e.m.f
is induced in the circuit. This is due to the self inductance, denoted by L.
di
V L
dt

FIG.1

1.2.Mutual Inductance
The total magnetic flux linkage in a linear inductor made of a coil is proportional to the
current
passing through it; that is,
Fig. 2
Li
. By Faradays law, the voltage across the inductor is equal to the time derivative of the total
influx linkage; given by,
di d
L N
dt dt

1.3. Coupling Coefficient

A coil containing N turns with magnetic flux _ linking each turn has total magnetic flux
linkage =N
. By Faradays law, the induced emf (voltage) in the coil is
d d
e N
dt dt
. A negative sign is frequently included in this equation to signal that the voltage polarity is
established according to Lenzs law. By definition of self-inductance this voltage is also given by
Ldi=dt; hence,

The unit of flux() being the weber, where 1 Wb = 1 V s, it follows from the above relation that
1 H = 1 Wb/A. Throughout this book it has been assumed that and i are proportional to each
other, making
L = (N) /I = constant

Fig.3

In Fig.3 , the total flux resulting from current i1 through the turns N1 consists of leakage flux,
11, and coupling or linking flux, 12. The induced emf in the coupled coil is given by
N2(d12/dt). This same voltage can be written using the mutual inductance M:
d
M N1 21
di2
di d
e M 1 N 2 12
dt dt
or
d
M N 2 12
di1
Also, as the coupling is bilateral,
d
M N1 21
di2
d d
M 2 N 2 12 N1 21
dt di2
k1 k2
N2 N1
di1 di2
d d2
k 2 N1 1 N 2
di1 di2
k 2 L1L2
Hence,mutual inductance , M is given by
M k L1L2
And the mutual reactance XM is given by
X M k X1 X 2
The coupling coefficient, k, is defined as the ratio of linking flux to total flux:

k 12 21
1 2

1.4.Series connection of coupled circuit ( lecture 2)

When inductors are connected together in series so that the magnetic field of one links with the
other, the effect of mutual inductance either increases or decreases the total inductance
depending upon the amount of magnetic coupling. The effect of this mutual inductance depends
upon the distance apart of the coils and their orientation to each other.
Mutually connected inductors in series can be classed as either Aiding or Opposing the total
inductance. If the magnetic flux produced by the current flows through the coils in the same
direction then the coils are said to be Cumulatively Coupled. If the current flows through the
coils in opposite directions then the coils are said to be Differentially Coupled as shown below.

1.4.1.Cumulatively Coupled Series Inductors

 Fig.4
While the current flowing between points A and D through the two cumulatively coupled coils is
in the same direction, the equation above for the voltage drops across each of the coils needs to
be modified to take into account the interaction between the two coils due to the effect of mutual
inductance. The self inductance of each individual coil, L1 and L2 respectively will be the same
as before but with the addition of M denoting the mutual inductance.
Then the total emf induced into the cumulatively coupled coils is given as:

Where: 2M represents the influence of coil L1 on L2 and likewise coil L2 on L1.

By dividing through the above equation by di/dt we can reduce it to give a final expression for
calculating the total inductance of a circuit when the inductors are cumulatively connected and
this is given as:
Ltotal = L 1 + L 2 + 2M

If one of the coils is reversed so that the same current flows through each coil but in opposite
directions, the mutual inductance, M that exists between the two coils will have a cancelling
effect on each coil as shown below.

1.4.2.Differentially Coupled Series Inductors

 Fig.5
The emf that is induced into coil 1 by the effect of the mutual inductance of coil 2 is in
opposition to the self-induced emf in coil 1 as now the same current passes through each coil in
opposite directions. To take account of this cancelling effect a minus sign is used with M when
the magnetic field of the two coils are differentially connected giving us the final equation for
calculating the total inductance of a circuit when the inductors are differentially connected as:
Ltotal = L 1 + L 2 2M
Then the final equation for inductively coupled inductors in series is given as:

Inductors in Series Example No2

Two inductors of 10mH respectively are connected together in a series combination so that their
magnetic fields aid each other giving cumulative coupling. Their mutual inductance is given as
5mH. Calculate the total inductance of the series combination.

Inductors in Series Example No3

Two coils connected in series have a self-inductance of 20mH and 60mH respectively. The total
inductance of the combination was found to be 100mH. Determine the amount of mutual
inductance that exists between the two coils assuming that they are aiding each other.
1.4.DOT RULE (lecture 3)
Fig.6
 Fig.7

The sign on a voltage of mutual inductance can be determined if the winding sense is

shown on the circuit diagram, as in Fig. To simplify the problem of obtaining the correct sign,

the coils are marked with dots at the terminals which are instantaneously of the same polarity. To

assign the dots to a pair of coupled coils, select a current direction in one coil and place a dot at

the terminal where this current enters the winding. Determine the corresponding flux by

application of the right-hand rule [see Fig. 14-7(a)]. The flux of the other winding, according to

Lenzs law, opposes the first flux. Use the right-hand rule to find the natural current direction

corresponding to this second flux [see Fig. 14-7(b)]. Now place a dot at the terminal of the

second winding where the natural current leaves the winding. This terminal is positive

simultaneously with the terminal of the first coil where the initial current entered. With the

instantaneous polarity of the coupled coils given by the dots, the pictorial representation of the
core with its winding sense is no longer needed, and the coupled coils may be illustrated as in

Fig. 14-7(c). The following dot rule may now be used:

(1) when the assumed currents both enter or both leave a pair of coupled coils by the dotted

terminals, the signs on the M-terms will be the same as the signs on the L-terms; but

(2) if one current enters by a dotted terminal while the other leaves by a dotted terminal, the

signs

on the M-terms will be opposite to the signs on the L-terms

1.5.CONDUCTIVELY COUPLED EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS

From the mesh current equations written for magnetically coupled coils, a conductively
coupled
equivalent circuit can be constructed. Consider the sinusoidal steady-state circuit of Fig. 14-9(a),
with
the mesh currents as shown. The corresponding equations in matrix form are

Fig.8

R1 j L1 j M I1 V1
j M
R2 j M 2 I 2 V2
1.6.Single tuned coupled circuit
R0
I1 I2

R1 Rs i2
AC i1 Ls
L1

Fig.9

Z11I1 Z12 I 2 E
Z21I1 Z 22 I 2 0
Z11 E
Z 0
I2 21

EZ 21
Z11 Z12 Z11Z 22 Z12 Z 21
Z
21 Z 22

E ( j M )
I2
R1 ( R2 jX 2 ) 2 M 2

For

L R

E ( j M )
I2
1
R1 R2 j Ls M
2 2

Cs

EM
VO
1 2
Cs R1 R2 j Ls M
2

Cs
FIG. variation of V0 with for different values of K

VO EM
A
E 1 2
ECs R1 R2 j Ls M
2

Cs

At resonance

EM
I 2r
R1R2 r 2 M 2

E (r M ) 1
V2 r 2

1 2
R R r
2
M Cs

M 1
Ar 2

1 2
R R r
2
M Cs

R1 R 1
M opt
r
1.7.Double tuned coupled circuit.(lecture-4)
Rs R1
R2

Cp i1 L1 L2 i2
AC

Fig.10

In this circuit the tuning capacitors are placed both in primary as well as secondary side.
From the figure the eq. impedance on primary side is, Z11,
Given by
1
Z11 R0 Rp j p Lp
C p

R1 jX1

1
Z 22 Rs j Ls
Cs

R2 jX 2

Z12 Z21 j M

Applying loop analysis

E1Z12
I2
Z11Z12 Z122
I E1M
V0 2
jCs Cs R1 jX 1 R2 jX 2 2 M 2
E1M

Cs R1 jX 1 R2 jX 2 2 M 2
V0 E1M
A E1
E1 Cs R1 jX1 R2 jX 2 2 M 2
 E1M 1

Cs R1 jX 1 R2 jX 2 M E1
2 2

Cs R1 jX 1 R2 jX 2 2 M 2

At resonance
E1r M
I 2res
R1R2 r2 M 2

E1 r M 1
Vores
R1R2 r M
2 2
r Cs

FIG. variation of V0 with for different values of K

Or,
E1M / Cs

R1R2 r2 M 2
Vo E1M / Cs
A res res E1
E1 R1 R2 r2 M 2
E1M 1

Cs R1 R2 r M E1
2 2

Cs R1R2 r2 M 2

For maximum out put voltage at resonance,

The denominator should be minimum
As
R1 R2
r2 M
M
R1 R2
M opt K crit Lp Ls
r
This value will give the optimum M
Mopt

2.Two-Port Networks

2.1.Terminals and Ports (lecture-5)

In a two-terminal network, the terminal voltage is related to the terminal current by the
impedance
Z=V / I.

Fig.1

In a four-terminal network, if each terminal pair (or port) is connected separately to another
circuit as in Fig. , the four variables i1, i2, v1, and v2 are related by two equations called the
terminal characteristics. These two equations, plus the terminal characteristics of the connected
circuits, provide the necessary and sufficient number of equations to solve for the four variables.

2.2.Z-PARAMETERS (open circuit parameters)

The terminal characteristics of a two-port network, having linear elements and dependent
sources,
may be written in the s-domain as

V1=Z11 I1+Z12 I2 (1)

V2=Z21I1+Z22 I2 (2)

Z11 = V1/ I1 (for I2=0)

 Z21 = V2/ I1 (for I2 =0)

Z12= V1 /I2 (for I1=0)

Z22 = V2 /I2 (for I1=0)

2.3.Y-PARAMETERS(short circuit parameters)

The terminal characteristics may also be written as , where I1 and I2 are expressed in terms of
V1 and V2.

I1 = Y11V1 + Y12V2 (3)

I2 = Y21V1 + Y22V2 (4)

this yields

Y11 =I1 /V1 forV2=0

Y11 =I1/V2 For V1=0
Y21=I2/V2 for V2=0
Y22 =I2/V22 forV1=0
5ohm

a 5 ohm 5 ohm c

5 0hm
d

Fig.2
Solution:

We can make two separate neyworks one a T netwotk comprising R1,R2,R3 and anetwork
containing R4 only.
a 5 ohm 5 ohm c

5 0hm
d

1
Y11 mho
7.5
1
Y12 mho
15
1
Y21 mho
15
 1
Y22 mho
7.5
Similarly for the next network
5ohm

a c

1
Y11 mho
5
1
Y21 mho
5
1
Y12 mho
5
1
Y22 mho
5
Ynet YT YB

1/ 3 4 /15
Ynet
4 /15 1/ 3 (ans)

Example.Find the Y parameters for the given circuit

a 1 ohm 2 ohm c
I1 I2

V1 V2
2 0hm
4 ohm
d

a 1 ohm 2 ohm c
I1
I2=0

V1
2 0hm

d
 I1
Y11
V1 V 0
2

1 1
Y11 mho
2 2 2
1
22
V
1 2
I 2 V
I2 1 2 2 1
2 22 4
I 1
Y21 2 mho
V1 I 0 4
2

a 1 ohm 2 ohm c
I1 I2

V2
2 0hm 4 ohm

b d

V2 5V2
I2 2
1 2 8
1 2 2 4
1 2
1 2 2 4
5
Y22 mho
8
1
Y12 mho
4 .

2.4.Transmission Parameters (ABCD parameters)

The transmission parameters A, B, C, and D express the required source variables V1 and I1 in
terms
of the existing destination variables V2 and I2. They are called ABCD or T-parameters and are
defined
by

V1 = AV2 BI2
I1= CV2 DI2
A =V1/V2 (for I2=0)

B= - V1/I2 (for V2=0)

C =I1/V2 (for I2=0)

D = - I1/I2 (for V2=0)

2.5.Hybrid parameters (lecture-6)

Short circuit and open circuit terminal conditions are used for determining the hybrid parameters.
H parameters representation used in modeling of electronic components and circuits.

V1 h11 h12 I1
I h
2 21 h22 V2

V1 h11 I1 h12V2
I 2 h21 I1 h22V2

V1 I
h11 , h21 2
I1 V 0 I1 V2 0
2

Are called input impedance and forward current gain

V I
h12 1 , and h22 2
V2 I 0 V2 I 0
1 1

Are called reverse voltage gain and out put admittance

2.6.Condition for reciprocity and symmetry in two port parameters

A network is termed to be reciprocal if the ratio of the response to the excitation remains
unchanged even if the positions of the response as well as the excitation are interchanged.
A two port network is said to be symmetrical it the input and the output port can be interchanged
without altering the port voltages or currents.

In Z parameters
 +
-I2
V1 In out

Fig.3

For short circuit and current direction output side is negative.

V1 Z11 I1 Z12 I 2
0 Z 21 I1 Z 22 I 2
From the above two equations

V1Z 21
I2
Z11Z 22 Z12 Z 21
Let us now interchange the input and output

0 Z11 I1 Z12 I 2
V2 Z 21 I1 Z 22 I 2
From these equations we find
V2 Z12
I1
Z11Z 22 Z12 Z 21
Assume
V1 V2
Then
Z12 Z 21
Symmetry in Z parameters

Keeping the output port open supplying V in the input side

We get,
V Z11I1
V
Z11
I1
And applying voltage at the output port and keeping the input port open
We get,
V Z 22 I 2
V
Z 22
I 2 so condition of symmetry is achieved for
Z 22 Z11
Similarly the other parameters can be studied and reported in table

parameter Condition for reciprocity Condition for symmetry

Z Z12 Z 21 Z 22 Z11
Y Y12 Y21 Y11 Y22
h h11 h21 h 1
ABCD AD BC 1 A D

+
-I1 In out V2

Fig.4

2.7.Interconnecting Two-Port Networks (lecture-7)

Two-port networks may be interconnected in various configurations, such as series, parallel, or

cascade connection, resulting in new two-port networks. For each configuration, certain set of
parameters may be more useful than others to describe the network.

2.7.1.Series Connection

A series connection of two two-port networks a and b with open-circuit impedance parameters
Za and Zb, respectively. In this configuration, we use the Z-parameters since they are combined
as a series connection of two impedances.

Fig.4

The Z-parameters of the series connection are

Z 11= Z11A + Z11B

Z12 = Z12A + Z12B

Z 21 = Z21A + Z21B

Z22 = Z 22A + Z 22B

Or in the matrix form

[Z]=[ZA]+[ZB]

2.7.2.Parallel Connection
Fig.6

Fig.6

Fig.6

Figure shows a parallel connection of two-port networks a and b with short-circuit admittance
parameters Ya and Yb. In this case, the Y-parameters are convenient to work with. The Y-
parameters
of the parallel connection are (see Problem 13.11):

Y11 = Y11A +Y11B

Y12 Y12A + Y12B

Y21 Y21A + Y21B

Y22 Y22A + Y22B

or, in the matrix form

[Y] = [YA] + [YB]

2.7.3.Cascade Connection
The cascade connection of two-port networks a and b is shown in Figure above. In this case the
transmission-parameters are particularly convenient. The transmission-parameters of the cascade
combination are

A = A aAb + B aCb
B =A aB b +B aD b
C =C aAb + D aC b
D =C aB b + D aDb

or, in the matrix form,

[T]=[Ta][Tb]

2.8. Y- parameters in terms of z- parameters (lecture-8)

V1 Z11I1 Z12 I 2 ,
Or,
(V1 Z12 I 2 )
I1
Z11
similarly
V2 Z21I1 Z 22 I 2
(V Z 22 I 2 )
I1 2
Z 21
Equating the two equations R.H.S
(V1 Z12 I 2 ) V2 Z 22 I 2

Z11 Z 21
(V1 Z12 I 2 )Z21 (V2 Z 22 I 2 )Z11
(V1Z21 Z12 Z21I 2 ) (V2 Z11 Z22 Z11I 2 )
(Z22 Z11 Z12 Z21 ) I 2 (V1Z21 V2 Z11 )
Z 21 Z11
I2 V1 V2
Z 22 Z11 Z12 Z 21 Z 22 Z11 Z12 Z 21
 Z11
Y21
Z 22 Z11 Z12 Z 21
Z11
Y22
Z 22 Z11 Z12 Z 21

Also from the two equations

V Z11 I1
I2 1
Z12
V Z 21I1
I2 2
Z 22
And equating the both we get
V1 Z11 I1 V2 Z 21I1

Z12 Z 22
(V1 Z11I1 )Z22 (V2 Z21I1 )Z12
(Z11Z22 Z21Z12 ) I1 V1Z 22 V2 Z12
Z 22 Z12
I1 V1 V2
( Z11Z 22 Z 21Z12 ) (Z11Z 22 Z 21Z12 )
Z 22
Y11
( Z11Z 22 Z 21Z12 )

Z12
Y12
DZZ

Hence the y parameters can be expressed in z parameters as given below

Y11 , Y12
Y12 , and Y22

2.9.Z parameters in terms of Y parameters

I1 Y11V1 Y12V2
(2.9.1)
I1 Y11V1 Y12V2
I 2 Y21V1 Y22V2
From the above equation we find
I1 Y11V1 Y12V2
 I1 Y12V2
V1
Y11
I 2 Y21V1 Y22V2
I Y V
V1 2 22 2
Y21
I 2 Y22V2 I1 Y12V2

Y21 Y11
I 2Y11 Y11Y22V2 Y21I1 Y21Y12V2
Y21Y12V2 Y11Y22V2 Y21I1 I 2Y11
(Y11Y22 Y21Y12 )V2 Y21I1 I 2Y11

Y21 Y11
V2 I1 I2
(Y11Y22 Y21Y12 ) (Y11Y22 Y21Y12 ) (2.9.2)

Y21I1 I 2Y11
V2
(Y11Y22 Y21Y12 )

I1 Y11V1 Y12V2
(2.9.3)

I1 Y11V1
V2
Y12
I 2 Y21V1 Y22V2
(2.9.4)

I 2 Y21V1
V2
Y22

I1 Y11V1 I 2 Y21V1

Y12 Y22

Y22 I1 Y22Y11V1 Y12 I 2 Y12Y21V1

(Y22Y11 Y12Y21 )V1 Y22 I1 Y12 I 2

Y22 Y12
V1 I1 I2
(Y22Y11 Y12Y21 ) (Y22Y11 Y12Y21 ) (2.9.6)
Y22
Z11
(Y22Y11 Y12Y21 )
Y12
Z12
(Y22Y11 Y12Y21 )
Hence,

Y22 Y12
Z11 , Z12
Y Y
Y Y11
Z 21 21 , andZ 22
Y Y

where, Y Y11Y22 Y21Y12

2.10.Z parameters in terms of ABCD parameters

I1 CV2 DI 2
1 D
V2 I1 I 2
C C
V1 AV2 BI 2
1 D
V1 I1 I 2 A BI 2
C C
A AD BC
V1 I1 I2
C C

A AD BC
Z11 , Z12
C C
1 D
Z 21 , andZ 22
C C

2.11.Z parameters in terms of hybrid- parameters

V1 h11I1 h12V2
(2.11.1)
I 2 h21I1 h22V2
(2.11.2)
Using the above equation we get,
h 1
V2 21 I1 I2
h22 h22
Putting the value of V2 in the first equation, we get,

h 1
V1 h11 I1 h12 21 I1 I2
h22 h22
 h h h h h
V1 11 22 12 21 I1 12 I 2
h22 h22
h h12
V1 I1 I2
h22 h22

Comparing the equations with governing equation of Z-parameters

h21 1
Z 21 , Z 22
h22 h22
h h
Z11 , andZ12 12
h22 h22

2.12.Y- parameters in terms of ABCD parameters

V1 AV2 BI 2
()

1 A
I 2 V1 V2
B B ()

I1 CV2 DI 2
()

1 A
I1 CV2 D V1 V2
B B

D AD BC
I1 V1 V2
B B

Hence,
D AD BC
Y11 , Y12
B B
1 A
Y21 , and Y22
B B
2.13. ABCD parameters in terms of Y- parameters

The governing equation for Y parameters

I1 Y11V1 Y12V2 (2.13.1)
I 2 Y21V1 Y22V2 (2.13.2)
Or,
Y22 1
V1 V2 I 2
Y21 Y21

For the above equation

I1 Y11V1 Y12V2
Putting the value of V1

Y 1
I1 Y11 22 V2 I 2 Y12V2
Y21 Y21

Y Y Y Y Y
I1 11 22 21 12 V2 11 I 2
Y21 Y21
Comparing the equation with governing equation for ABCD parameters we get

Y22 1
A , B
Y21 Y21
Y11Y22 Y21Y12 Y
C , andD 11
Y21 Y21
3.Transients in DC circuits and AC circuits

3.1.What do you mean by transient? (lecture-9)

Whenever a circuit is switched from one condition to another, either by a change in the
applied source or a change in the circuit elements, there is a transitional period during which the
branch currents and element voltages change from their former values to new ones. This period
is called the transient. After the transient has passed, the circuit is said to be in the steady state.
Now, the linear differential equation that describes the circuit will have two parts to its solution,
the complementary function (or the homogeneous solution) and the particular solution. The
complementary function corresponds to the transient, and the particular solution to the steady
state.

3.2.Transients in R-L circuit D.C and A.C source

3.2.1.Consider a series R-L circuit supplied by an DC source with a switch .

Step response of dc circuit.

Take the initial condition of the circuit before closing the switch. Applying KVL to the
given circuit. Taking laplace transform

V
RI ( s) L{sI ( s) i(0 )}
s

V
( Ls R) I ( s)
s

V
I ( s)
s( Ls R)
V /L
I ( s)
s ( s R / L)

A B
( )
s sR/L
A V / R
B V / R
V / R V / R
I ( s) ( )
s sR/L
 V V RL t
i(t ) e
R R
R
V t
i(t ) (1 e L )
R

Fig.1

3.2.2.Transient response of series R-L C circuit with step input.

Fig.2.

1/ s
I ( s)
R Ls 1/ Cs
1/ L
I ( s) 2
s ( R / L) s 1/ LC

1/ s
I ( s)
( s )( s )
2
R R 1
where ,
2L 2 L LC
Case1
Both roots era real and not equal

R 1

2 L LC
K1 K2
I ( s)
(s ) (s )
1/ L 1
K1
( s ) s L( )
1/ L 1
K2
( s ) s L( )
1 1
I ( s)
L( )( s ) L( )( s )
1 1
i(t ) e t e t
L( ) L( )

Case 2

R 1

2 L LC
 1 t
i(t ) te
L
Case3
R 1
, *
2L LC
Let
A0 jB *
A0 jB *

1/ L
I (s)
( s A0 jB)( s A0 jB)

K3 K3*
I ( s)
( s A0 jB) ( s A0 jB)

K3 (s A0 jB) I (s) s A jB
0

1/ L 1/ L
K3
( s A0 jB) s A jB j 2 B
0

1/ L
K3*
j 2B
So,

1/ L 1/ L
( )
j 2B j 2B
I (s)
( s A0 jB) ( s A0 jB)
Taking inverse Laplace transform
We get,

1 1
i(t ) e A0t e j Bt e A0t e j Bt
j 2 BL j 2 BL
Or,

e A0t e j Bt e j Bt
i (t )
BL j2

e A0t
i(t ) sin Bt
BL
3.2.3.Pulse response of RC series circuit (lecture-10)

In this section we will derive the response of a first-order circuit to a rectangular pulse. The
derivation applies to RC or RL circuits where the input can be a current or a voltage. As an
example, we use the series RC circuit in Fig. 7-17(a) with the voltage source delivering a pulse
of duration T and height V0. For t < 0, v and i are zero. For the duration of the pulse, we use (6b)
and (6c) in Section

Fig.3

v V0 (1 et / RC ) 0t T
 V0 t / RC
i e 0t T
R

When the pulse ceases, the circuit is source-free with the capacitor at an initial voltage VT .
VT V0 (1 eT / RC ) t T

taking into account the time shift T, we have

v VT (1 e(t T ) / RC ) t T
V
i T e (t T ) / RC t T
R
The capacitor voltage and current are plotted in Figs.(b) and (c)

3.2.4.R-L series with sine wave

Applying KVL to the circuit

Fig.4.

Applying KVL to the circuit

di
i(t ) R L Em sin t
dt
Taking Laplace transform

I ( s) R LsI ( s) sI (0) Em 2 2
s
Or

I ( s) R LsI ( s) 0 Em 2 2
s

I ( s)( R Ls) Em 2 2
s
Em
I ( s)
( R Ls) s 2 2
Or
Em
I ( s)
L( s R / L) ( s j )( s j )
K1 K2 K3
I ( s)
( s R / L) ( s j ) ( s j )
Em E
K1 2 m 2 2
L( s R / L) ( s j )( s j ) s R / L R L
Em Em
K2
L( s R / L) ( s j )( s j ) s j 2 j ( R j L)
Em Em
K3
L( s R / L) ( s j )( s j ) s j 2 j ( R j L)
Thus
Em L Em Em
I ( s) 2
( R L )(s R / L) 2 j ( R j L)(s j ) 2 j ( R j L)(s j )
2 2

Taking inverse Laplace Transform

Em L E ( R j L) jt E ( R j L) jt
i(t ) e Rt / L m 2 e m 2 e
(R L )
2 2 2
2 j(R L )
2 2
2 j ( R j 2 L2 )

********End of module I ****************

 MODULE-II(10 HOURS)

CHAPTER - 4

NETWORK FUNCTIONS & RESPONSES

4.1 INTRODUCTION(lecture-11)

In engineering, a transfer function (also known as the system function or network

function and, when plotted as a graph, transfer curve) is a mathematical representation for fit or
to describe the inputs and outputs of black box models.

All the systems are designed to produce a particular output, when the input is applied to
it. The system parameters, perform some operation on the applied input, in order to produce the
required output. The mathematical indication of cause and effect relationship existing between
input and output of a system is called the system function or transfer function of the system. The
Laplace transform plays an important role in defining the system function.

4.2 CONCEPT OF COMPLEX FREQUENCY

A complex number used to characterize exponential and damped sinusoidal motion in

the same way that an ordinary frequency characterizes the simple harmonic motion; designated
by the constants corresponding to a motion whose amplitude is given by , where A is a
constant and t is time.

A type of frequency that depends on two parameters; one is the which controls the
magnitude of the signal and the other is , which controls the rotation of the signal; is known
as complex frequency.
A complex exponential signal is a signal of type 1

= ... (4.2.1)

Where and s are time independent complex parameter and S = + j where is the
magnitude of X (t), sigma () is the real part in S and is called neper frequency and is expressed
in Np/s. is the radian frequency and is expressed in rad/sec. S is called complex frequency
and is expressed in complex neper/sec.
Now put the value of S in equation (4.2.1), we get

= +

=
By using Eulers theorem
 i.e. = +

= [Cos (t) + j sin (t)]

The real part is

X (t) = cos
()

And imaginary part is

X (t) = sin
()

The physical interpretation of complex frequency appearing in the exponential form will be
studied easily by considering a number of special cases for the different value of S.

Case no 1: When =0 and has a certain value, then, the real part is

X (t) = cos
()

X (t) = . 1

X (t) =
The imaginary part is zero (0),
Since S = + j, S = as = 0

Now there are also three cases in above case no 1.

(i) If the neper frequency is positive i.e. > 0 the curve obtains is exponentially
increasing curve as shown below.

X (t)

>0

t
Fig. 4.1
(ii) If < 0 then the curve obtain is exponentially decreasing curve as shown below.

X (t)

<0

t
 Fig. 4.2
(iii) If = 0 then the curve obtain is the steady state DC curve as shown below fig. 4.3

X (t)

=0

t
Fig. 4.3

Case no 2: When = 0 and has some value then, the real part is
= 0. cos()

= cos
()
And the imaginary part is
= sin
()

Hence the curve obtained is a sinusoidal steady state curve, as shown in the below figure.

X (t)

Img X (t) = sin

Real X (t) = cos

 Fig. 4.4

Case no 3: When and both have some value, then the real part is

= cos
()

And the imaginary part is

= sin
()

So, the curve obtained is time varying sinusoidal signal. These case no 3 is also has some two
cases

(a) When > 0

Real Part

Fig. 4.5

Imaginary Part

Fig. 4.6
 (b) When < 0

Real Part

Fig. 4.7

Imaginary Part

Fig. 4.8

4.3 NETWORK FUNCTIONS FOR ONE PORT NETWORK: (Lecture -12)

(a) Driving Point Impedance Function

The ratio of the Laplace transform of the voltage at the port to the Laplace transform of the
current at the same port, neglecting initial conditions is called driving point impedance function,
denoted as Z(s)

()
=
()

(b) Driving Point Admittance Function

The ratio of the Laplace transform of the current at the port to the Laplace transform of the
voltage at the same port, neglecting initial conditions is called driving point admittance function.
 ()
=
()

Example 4.3.1 For the given one port network shown in fig., find driving point impedance
function.

Fig.4.9

Solution: To find the driving point impedance for the given network, first convert the network
into s domain which is called transformed network.

Fig. 4.10

The transformed network is as shown in fig

1
Then, = + +

+ +1 +2 +1
=
=

Hence, the driving point impedance function of a given network is

2 ++1
=

Example 4.3.2 Find driving point admittance function for the given network having only one
port.
 Fig. 4.11

Solution: First transform the given network as shown in fig. 4.12

Fig. 4.12 Transformed network

When the branches are connected in parallel it is very easy to find admittance of an overall
function by adding admittances of individual branches which are connected in parallel.

Admittance of capacitive branch is given as

1
1 = =
1/

Admittance of the inductive branch is given as

1
2 =
+

Total admittance is given as

= 1 + 2 ()

1 + 2 + 1
= + =
+ +

Hence, the driving point admittance function of a given network is,

2 + + 1
=
+
4.4 NETWORK FUNCTIONS FOR TWO PORT NETWORK: (Lecture -13)

Fig. 4.13

For the two port network, there are two ports. The variables measured at port 1 are 1
and 1 () while the variables measured at port 2 are 2 and 2 (). This is shown in above fig.
4.13. The ratio of the variables measured at the same port either port 1 or port 2 defines driving
point function. Hence, for two port networks, we can define,

(a) Driving Point Impedance Function

This is the ratio of 1 () and 1 () at port 1, denoted as 11 () or the ratio of 2 () to 2 ()

at port 2, denoted as22 (). Both are driving impedance functions.

1 () 2 ()
11 = and 22 =
1 () 2 ()

(b) Driving Point Admittance Function

The reciprocals of the driving point impedance functions at the ports give the driving point
admittance functions at the respective ports. These are denoted as 11 () and 22 () at the two
ports respectively.

1 () 2 ()
11 = and 22 =
2 () 2 ()

4.5 TRANSFER FUNCTION OF TWO PORT NETWORK:

The function defined as the ratio or Laplace of two variables such that one variable is
defined at one port while the other variable is defined at the second port. Accordingly, four
transfer functions can be defined for two port network as,

1. Voltage Ratio Transfer Function

It is the ratio of Laplace transforms of voltage at one port to voltage at other port. It is denoted as
G(s).
 2 ()
=
1 ()

2. Current Ratio Transfer Function

It is the ratio of Laplace transforms of current at one port to current at other port. It is denoted as
(s).

2 () 1 ()
=
1 () 2 ()

3. Transfer Impedance Function

It is the ratio of Laplace transforms of voltage at one port to current at other port. It is denoted as
12 or 21 .

2 () 1 ()
21 = 12 =
1 () 2 ()

4. Transfer Admittance Function

It is the ratio of Laplace transforms of current at one port to voltage at other port. It is denoted as
12 or 21 .

2 () 1 ()
21 = 12 =
1 () 2 ()

Example 4.5.1 For given two port network find driving point impedance function and voltage
ratio transfer function.

Fig. 14

Solution: Transforming given network in s domain, the network will be as shown in below fig.
 Fig 15

To find voltage ratio transfer function, find 2 using potential divider rule as follows,

1/
2 = 1
+ 1/

2 1/
=
1 + 1

2 1
=
1 + 1

As port 2 is open circuited, 2 = 0.

Hence current 1 will flow through R and C.

1
1 = 1 +

1 + 1
= =
1

4.6 POLES & ZEROS OF NETWORK FUNCTIONS : (lecture-14)

In pole/zero analysis, a network is described by its network transfer function which, for
any linear time-invariant network, can be written in the general form:

() 0 + 1 ( 1) + +
= =
() 0 + 1 (1) + +

In the factorized form, the general function is:

 0 + 1 + 2 + ( + )
= .
0 + 1 + 2 + ( + )

The roots of the numerator N(s) (that is, ) are called the zeros of the network function,
and the roots of the denominator D(s) (that is, ) are called the poles of the network function. S
is a complex frequency.

The dynamic behavior of the network depends upon the location of the poles and zeros
on the network function curve. The poles are called the natural frequencies of the network. In
general, you can graphically assume the magnitude and phase curve of any network function
from the location of its poles and zeros.

+4
Example 4.6.1 A function given by = . Find the pole-zero plot.

Solution: In the above function the zero is at s = -4 and the pole is at s = 0. The pole-zero plot is
shown below in fig. 16
j

Fig. 16

2
Example 4.6.2 A function given by = . Obtain its pole-zero plot.
+2 ( 2 +2+2)

Solution: The zero is at s = 0 and the pole is at s = -2,(-1+j1),(-1-j1) . The pole-zero plot is
shown below in fig. 17

(-1+j1)
j

(-1-j1)

Fig. 17
4.7 RESTRICTION ON POLE AND ZERO LOCATIONS OF NETWORK FUNCTION

( Lecture -15)

The following are the restrictions on pole and zero location of network function:

(a) The co-efficient of the polynomials of numerator and denominator of the network
function H (s) must be real and positive.
(b) Poles and zeros, if complex or imaginary, must occur in conjugate pairs.
(c) The real parts of all poles and zeros must be zero or negative.
(d) The polynomial of the numerator or denominator cannot have any missing term between
those of highest and lowest order values unless all even order or all odd order terms are
missing.
(e) The degree of the numerator or the denominator polynomial may differ by zero or one
only.
(f) The lowest degree in numerator and denominator may differ in degree by at the most one.

+ +
Example 4.7.1 Check if the impedance function Z(s) given by = can
+ +
represent a passive one port network.

Solution: The given function is not suitable to represent the impedance of a one port network
due to the following reasons:

(i) In the numerator one co-efficient is missing.

(ii) In the denominator one co-efficient is negative.

4.8 IMPULSE RESPONSE

The system function is defined as,

()
H(s) = = ()

= . ()

Let the input impulse function ().

= ()

= () = 1

= . 1 = ()

Thus the Laplace of the response is same as the system function, for unit impulse input. Thus, if r
(t) is the impulse response of the network then as
 =

Impulse response =1 () = 1 () = ()

Thus () = () is nothing but the impulse response of the network.

Example 4.8.1 Find the impulse response of the network shown in below fig. 16. The excitation
is the voltage v (t) while the response is i (t).

Fig. 16

Solution:The excitation is v(t) and i(t) is response hence,

()
=
()

Fig. 17

As the initial condition is zero, the circuit can be transformed in the Laplace domain as shown in
above fig.

After applying KVL,

-I(s) R-I(s) Ls+V(s) = 0

I(s) [R + Ls] = V(s)

() 1
= =
() +

Example 4.8.2 Impulse response of a circuit is given as = + 2 , > 0. Find the

transfer function of the network.
Solution: L [Impulse Response] = Transfer Function

1 2
() = 2
+
(+1) (+1)

1+2(+1)
=
(+1)2

2+1
=
(+1)2

1
Example 4.8.3 The transfer function of a network is given by = . Find its impulse
1+
response.

1
Solution: = 1
1+

1
1
= 1
+

1
= /

4.9 COMPLETE RESPONSE

Complete response is the sum of forced response (steady state response) and source free
response (natural response). The response of a circuit or network with presence of source is
called forced or source response. This response is independent of the nature of passive elements
and their initial condition but this response completely depends on type of input. This response is
different for different types of input. Response of any circuit or network without any source is
called as source free response or natural response.

Example 4.9.1 For the circuit given below, find complete response for i(t) if v (0) =15 V.

12

i
+
V 0.1F
5 - 8

Fig.18
Solution: It is natural response due to the capacitor internal stored energy. This is a source free
first order RC circuit.


=

= 520 = 4

= = 4 0.1 = 0.4

= 15 0.4 = 15 2.5

() 15 2.5
= = = 0.75 2.5
12 + 8

4.10 TIME DOMAIN BEHAVIOR FROM POLE-ZERO PLOT (Lecture -16)

In time-domain analysis the response of a dynamic system to an input is expressed as a

function of time. It is possible to compute the time response of a system if the nature of input and
the mathematical model of the system are known.

Fig.19 Array of poles

The poles and are quite different from the conjugate pole pairs. Further, and are the
real poles and the response due to the poles and converges monotonically. The poles
and may correspond to the quadratic function,

2 + 2 + 2 = 0; > 1

And the roots

, = 2 1; >1 (1)
 The contribution to the total response, due to poles and is

The contribution to response due to the pole is predominant compared to that of as

. In this case, is dominant compared to . The pole is the dominant pole amongst these
two real poles. The response due to pole at dies down faster compared to that due to pole at
. The complex conjugate poles and which belong to the quadratic factor

2 + 2 + 2 ; >1

The roots are

, = j 1 2

Contribution to the total response by the complex conjugate poles and is

1 2 1 2
j + j

The factor exp( ) gives the decreasing function, whereas the factor exp(j 1 2 )
gives sustained oscillation. The resultant will give the damped sinusoid waveform, as shown in
fig. 20

Fig. 20 Nature of response for arbitrary magnitude for all poles.

Similarly, and are also the complex conjugate pole pair. The response due to and will
die down faster than due to and . Hence and are the dominant complex conjugate pole
pair compared to the complex pole pair and . The time domain response can be obtained by
taking the inverse Laplace transform after the partial fraction expansion,

1 +
+ + +
+

Where the residues and are complex conjugate, as also the residues and . Any
residues can be obtained as
 1
= ( )
.

The term ( ) is also a complex number expressed in polar co-ordinates as

= exp
( )

1 . .
= (1 + 2 . . )

10
Example 4.10.1 A transfer function is given by = .Find the time domain
+5+15 (+515)
response.

Solution: = 1 (5+ 15) + 2 (5 15)

(-5-j15)

-5

(-5+j15)

Fig.21

5
10 52 + 152 < 90 +
15
1 = = 5.267 < 18.4
30 < 90

5
10 52 + 152 < 90
15
2 = = 5.267 < 18.4
30 < 90

= 5.267 < 18.4 (5+ 15) + 5.267 < 18.4 (5 15)

 CHAPTER - 5

THREE PHASE CIRCUITS

5.1 INTRODUCTION (Lecture -17)

There are two types of system available in electric circuit, single phase and three phase
system. In single phase circuit, there will be only one phase, i.e. the current will flow through
only one wire and there will be one return path called neutral line to complete the circuit. So in
the single phase minimum amount of power can be transported. Here the generating station and
load station will also be single phase. This is an old system using from previous time.

In 1882, a new invention has been done on polyphase system, that more than one phase
can be used for generating, transmitting and for load system. Three phase circuit is the
polyphase system where three phases are sent together from the generator to the load. Each phase
is having a phase difference of 120, i.e. 120 angle electrically. So from the total of 360, three
phases are equally divided into 120 each. The power in three phase system is continuous as all
the three phases are involved in generating the total power. The sinusoidal waves for 3 phase
system is shown below

The three phases can be used as single phase each. So if the load is single phase, then one
phase can be taken from the three phase circuit and the neutral can be used as ground to
complete the circuit.

Fig. 1

5.2 IMPORTANCE OF THREE PHASE OVER SINGLE PHASE

There are various reasons for this because there are a number of advantages over single
phase circuit. The three phase system can be used as three single phase line so it can act as three
single phase system. The three phase generation and single phase generation are the same in the
generator except the arrangement of coil in the generator to get 120 phase difference. The
conductor needed in three phase circuit is 75% that of conductors needed in a single phase
circuit. And also the instantaneous power in a single phase system falls down to zero as in single
phase, we can see from the sinusoidal curve, but in three phase system the net power from all the
phases gives a continuous power to the load.

Till now we can say that there are three voltage source connected together to form a three
phase circuit. And actually it is inside the generator. The generator is having three voltage
sources which are acting together in 120 phase difference. If we can arrange three single phase
circuit with 120 phase difference, then it will become a three phase circuit. So 120 phase
difference is must otherwise the circuit will not work, the three phase load will not be able to get
active and it may also cause damage to the system.

The size or metal quantity of three phase devices is not having much difference. Now if
we consider the transformer, it will be almost same size for both single phase and three phase
because transformer will make only the linkage of flux. So the three phase system will have a
higher efficiency compared to single phase because of the same or little difference in mass of
transformer, three phase line will be out whereas in single phase it will be only one. And losses
will be minimized in three phase circuit. So overall in conclusion the three phase system will
have better and higher efficiency compared to the single phase system.

In a three phase circuit, connections can be given in two types:

1. Star connection
2. Delta connection

5.2.1 STAR CONNECTION

In star connection, there are four wires, three wires are phase wire and fourth is neutral
which is taken from the star point. Star connection is preferred for long distance power
transmission because it is having the neutral point. In this we need to come to the concept of
balanced and unbalanced current in power system.

When equal current will flow through all the three phases, then it is called as balanced
current. And when the current will not be equal in any of the phases, then it is unbalanced
current. In this case, during balanced condition, there will be no current flowing through the
neutral line and hence there is no use of the neutral terminal. But when there will be an
unbalanced current flowing in the three phase circuit, neutral is having a vital role. It will take
the unbalanced current through to the ground and protect the transformer.
Unbalanced current affects transformer and it may also cause damage to the transformer
and for this star connection is preferred for long distance transmission.
The star connection is shown below-

Fig. 2, 3
 In star connection, the line voltage is 3 times of phase voltage. Line voltage is the
voltage between two phases in three phase circuit and phase voltage is the voltage between one
phase to the neutral line. And the current is same for both line and phase. It is shown as
expression below

= 3 =

5.2.2 DELTA CONNECTION

In delta connection, there are three wires alone and no neutral terminal is taken. Normally
delta connection is preferred for short distance due to the problem of unbalanced current in the
circuit. The figure is shown below for delta connection. In the load station, ground can be used as
the neutral path if required.

In delta connection, the line voltage is same with that of phase voltage. And the line current is 3
times of the phase current. It is shown as expressed below,
= = 3

In a three phase circuit, star and delta connection can be arranged in four different ways-

1. Star-Star connection
2. Star-Delta connection
3. Delta-Star connection
4. Delta-Delta connection

But the power is independent of the circuit arrangement of the three phase system. The net
power in the circuit will be same in both star and delta connection. The power in three phase
circuit can be calculated from the equation below,

= 3

Since there are three phases, so the multiple of 3 is made in the normal power equation and
the PF is the power factor. Power factor is a very important factor in three phase system and
sometimes due to certain error, it is corrected by using capacitors.

5.3 ANALYSIS OF BALANCED THREE PHASE CIRCUITS(Lecture -18)

In a balanced system, each of the three instantaneous voltages has equal amplitudes, but is
separated from the other voltages by a phase angle of 120. The three voltages (or phases) are
typically labeled a, b and c. The common reference point for the three phase voltages is
designated as the neutral connection and is labeled as n. The three sources , and are
designated as the line-to-neutral voltages in the three-phase system.
An alternative way of defining the voltages in a balanced three-phase system is to define the
voltage differences between the phases. These voltages are designated as line-to-line voltages.
The line-to-line voltages can be expressed in terms of the line-to-neutral voltages by applying
Kirchoffs voltage law to the generator circuit, which yields
 =

Fig.4

Either a positive phase sequence (abc) or a negative phase sequence(acb) as shown below.

Fig.5

Inserting the line-to-neutral voltages for a positive phase sequence into the line-to-line equations
yields
= = 0 120

= 0 120 = 1 cos 120 (120 )
 1 3 3+ 3 3 + 1
= 1 + + = = 3
2 2 2 2

= 3 130

= 3 30

= = 120 120

= 120 120 = cos 120 (120 ) 120 + (120 )

3
= 2(120 ) = 2 = 3 1 90
2

= 3 90

= = 120 0

= 120 0 = cos 120 + 120 1

1 3 3 + 3 3 + 1
= + 1) = = 3
2 2 2 2

= 3 1150

= 3 150

If we compare the line-to-neutral voltages with the line-to-line voltages, we find the following
relationships,

Line-to-neutral voltages Line-to-line voltages

= 0 = 3 30
= 120 = 3 90
= 120 = 3 150

Line-to-line voltages in terms of line-to-neutral voltages:

= 3 30

= 3 30

= 3 30

The equations above show that the magnitudes of the line-to-line voltages in a balanced three-
phase system with a positive phase sequence are 3 times the corresponding line-to-neutral
voltages and lead these voltages by 30 .

= 3 150 = 120
= 3 30

= 0
= 120

Fig.6

Balanced three-phase circuits consist of a balanced three-phase source and a balanced

three-phase load can be of four varieties like Y-Y, Y- , . Common analysis
procedure for all the possible configurations are done.

5.3.1 EQUIVALENCE BETWEEEN A Y AND CONNECTED SOURCE (Lecture -19)

Let = 0 , = 120 , and = 120 be the three line voltages

observed in a three-phase circuit and let = ( + 30 ), = ( + 150 ), and
= ( 90 ) be the observed line currents where the observed phase lag of first line
current is expressed as 30 plus some angle designated by . If the source is within a black box
and have to guess whether it is a Y-connected source or a - connected source, it becomes
difficult to resolve the using the observed line voltage phasors and line current phasors. This is
so because both configurations shown in fig.7 will result in these observed line voltages and line
currents.
 Fig.7

Therefore if a balanced three-phase source is actually - connected, it may be replaced by an

equivalent Y-connected source for purposes of analysis. The details of phase source currents in
the actual - connected source can be obtained after the circuit problem is solved using the star
equivalent source.

5.3.2 EQUIVALENCE BETWEEEN A Y AND CONNECTED LOAD

The individual branch currents in the branches of delta in the actual -connected load can
be obtained after line quantities have been obtained by using its equivalent Y-connected model.
1
Three-phase symmetry and 3 factor connecting line currents and phase currents in a -
connected system can be used for this purpose. The impedance to be used in Y-connected load is
1
times the impedance present in -connected load as shown in fig. 8.
3

Fig.8

5.4 ANALYSIS OF UNBALANCED LOADS

Three-phase systems deliver power in enormous amounts to single-phase loads such as

lamps, heaters, air-conditioners, and small motors. It is the responsibility of the power systems
engineer to distribute these loads equally among the three-phases to maintain the demand for
power fairly balanced at all times. While good balance can be achieved on large power systems,
individual loads on smaller systems are generally unbalanced and must be analyzed as
unbalanced three phase systems.

5.4.1 UNBALANCED DELTA CONNECTED LOAD

An unbalanced condition is due to unequal delta connected load.

Example 5.4.1.1 A delta connected load as shown in fig. 9 is connected across three-phase 100V
supply. Determine all the line currents. Also draw the relevant phasor diagram showing all
voltages and currents. Given = 1000 , = 100 120 , = 100 240

j10 -j10

10
C
Fig. 9

Solution: Given: = 1000 , = 100 120 , = 100 240

1000
= = = 100 ,
10

100120
= = = 10 120 ,
10

100 240
= = = 10150
10

= = 1090 10150 = 1030

= = 10120 1090 = 5.17165

= = 10150 10120 = 5.17135



Fig.9 phasor diagram

5.4 NEUTRAL SHIFT

Fig. 10
For balanced three-phase, = 0. For unbalanced system, has some finite value, due to flow
of unequal currents in each of the phases, voltage appears at the neutral and its value can be
found as follows:

+ + = 0 + 0 + 0

= + + ( )

= + + ( + + )

Applying KCL at O, + + = 0

+ + + + = 0
+ +
= . . (5.4.1)
+ +

The equation 5.4.1 gives the neutral shift.

5.5 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS (Lecture -20)

When an unbalanced three-phase fault occurs, we can solve the three-phase circuit using
circuit theory. This is much more numerically complicated than the single phase circuit normally
used in balanced three phase circuits. The degree of difficulty increases with the third power of
the system size. For this reason, it is apparent that if we were to solve three different single-phase
circuits, it would be numerically simpler than solving the one three-phase circuit in one set of
equations. The purpose of this chapter is to break up the large three-phase circuit into three
circuits, each one third the size of the whole system. Next, we solve the three components
individually, and then combine the results to obtain the total system response.

5.5.1 FUNDAMENTALS OF SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS

It was Fortescue in 1918 who developed the idea of breaking up asymmetrical three-phase
voltages and currents into three sets of symmetrical components. These three basic components
are:
(1) The positive sequence currents and voltages (known also as the "abc" and often denoted by
the superscript "1" or " ",) shown on the fig 9. There is a phase shift 120 between any two
voltages.
1 = 1 = 1
 1 = 1

1 =2 1

Fig. 9

(2) The negative sequence currents and voltages (known also as the "acb" and often denoted
by the superscript "2" or " ") . Note the sequence of the phasors is the opposite direction
from the positive sequence (acb instead of abc). There is a phase shift 120 between any
two voltages.

2 = 2 = 2

2 = 2

2 =2 2

Fig. 10

(3) The zero sequence components of currents and voltages (often denoted by the superscript
"0") .Note that these zero sequence phasors are all in-phase and equal in magnitude.
0
0
0

Fig. 11

Here the phase shift operator is . the vector by 120 without changing magnitude.We will
need the vector 1120 , which is a unit vector at an angle of 120 degrees. It is easy to
see that 2 1240 1120 and 3 360 = 10 .
It is also clear that 1 2 0 .
 = + 1 + 2

= + 1 + 2

= +2 1 + 2

= + 1 + 2

= + 1 +2 2
In matrix form,
1 1 1 0
= 1 2 1 (5.5.1.1)
1 2 2
In one line we can write the above equation 5.5.1.1.

= 012

012 = 1

0 1 1 1 1
1 = 1 2
2 1 2

0
1 1 1 1
1 = 1 2
3
2 1 2

1
0 = ( + + )
3
1
1 = ( + +2 )
3
1
2 = ( +2 + )
3

Similarly, for current

1
0 = ( + + )
3
1
1 = ( + +2 )
3
1
2 = ( +2 + )
3
5.5.2 POWER IN TERMS OF SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS

Suppose in abc sequence, 3 complex power, = + +

= + +

= , =


=
..(5.5.2.1)

5.2.2.1 RELATION BETWEEN ACTUAL QUANTITIES (a,b,c) AND SEQUENCE

QUANTITIES

= 012

= 012
From equation 5.2.2.1,

= 012


012

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0

. = 1 2 1 2 =3 0 1 0 = 3
1 2 1 2 0 0 1

= 012 3 012
= 3 012
012

0
= 3 0 0 0 0
0

= 3 0 0 + 1 1 + 2 2

= 3. 012

************END OF MODULE -II ********************

Reference books:

(1) Hayt Kemerly Durbin, Engineering Circuit Analysis, Tata McGraw Hill Education
Private Limited, New Delhi,7th Edition
(2) Van Valkenburg, Network Analysis, PHI Learning Private Limited,New Delhi,3rd
Edition
(3) Chakrabarti, Circuit Theory, Educational and Technical Publishers,5th Revised Edition
 MODULE -III
Introduction to Realizability concept, Hurwitz property, positive realness,
properties of real functions, synthesis of R-L, R-C and L-C driving point functions,
Foster and Cauer forms

3.1. Network Function (lecture -21)

It is the relationship between the Laplace Transform of excitation to the Laplace Transform
of the response in an electrical network. This network function can be analyzed using the
pole-zero concept. A network function is characterized or depends on following factors:
Driving point impedance and admittance
Transfer impedance and admittance
Voltage and current transfer ratio
(a) Driving point impedance and admittance
For one-port network,
V s
Driving point impedance, Z s
I s
I s
Driving point admittance, Y s
V s

For two-port network,

Driving point impedance,
input voltage V1 s
Z11 s
input current I1 s
output voltage V2 s
Z 22 s
output current I 2 s
Driving point admittance,
input current I1 s
Y11 s
input voltage V1 s
output current I 2 s
Y22 s
output voltage V2 s

(b) Transfer impedance and admittance

V2 s
Transfer impedance, Z12 s
I1 s
 I2 s
Transfer admittance, Y12 s
V1 s

(c) Voltage and Current Transfer Ratio

V2 s
Voltage transfer ratio, G12 s
V1 s
I2 s
Current transfer ratio, 12 s
I1 s

3.2. Passive circuits (lecture -22)

A network can be represented by a network function. Some of the common properties of passive
RLC functions.
(i) They are real, rational functions.
(ii) They do not have poles (or zeros) on the right-half s-plane, nor do theyhave multiple
order poles on the j axis.
(iii)The resulting matrices are symmetric.

The LC network functionshave these additional properties.

(i) They are simple, that is there are no higher order poles or zeros.
(ii) All poles and zeros lie on the j axis.
(iii)Poles and zeros alternate.
(iv) The origin and infinity are always critical frequencies, that is, there will beeither a pole or
a zero at both the origin and at infinity.
(v) The multiplicative constant is positive.

The properties of RC network functions are:

(i) The poles and zeros of an RC driving point function lie on the non-positivereal axis.
(ii) They are simple.
(iii)Poles and zeros alternate.
(iv) The slopes of impedance functions are negative, those of admittancefunctions are
positive.
3.2. Realizability Concept
This problem deals with the design of the network function when the excitation and response
both are known. In this problem, the network function is usually realized as a physical passive
network.

Examples:
8s3 4s 2 3s 1
1. Synthesize the PR impedance. Z s
8s3 3s
Solution:
4s 2 1
Given, Z s 1 1 Z1 s
8s3 3s
 1

Z(s) Z1(s)

Fig.1

where
4s 2 1
Z1 s
8s 3 3s
1 8s3 3s s s
Y1 s 2 2s 2 2s
Z1 s 4s 1 4s 1 Y2 s

Y1(s) 2F Y2(s)

Fig.2

1 1 1
Z2 s 4s
Y2 s 4s 1
2
s

2H

Z2(s) 1F

Fig.3

Now, the complete synthesis is

1 2H

Z(s) 2F 1F
 Fig.4

The network function can be realizable if it satisfies certain conditions such as

(a) Hurwitz property

(b) Positive realness property

(a) Hurwitz property (lecture -23)

Examples:
2. Test whether the following function is Hurwitz or not. q s s 4 3s 2 2
Solution:
Given, q s s 4 3s 2 2 q1 s (say)
Here, q s consists of only even terms.
Then, q2 s q s 4s3 6s
Using continuous fraction method
q1 s
q1 s

s 4 3s 2 2
3 1
4s3 6s s 4 s 2 0 s
2 4

3 2
s 2 4s3 6s
2
16 8
4s3 s s
3 3

3 2
s 2
2
3 2 9
s s
2 4

2
s
3
2
s
3
1
22
s 3
3

0
Here, all the quotients are positive. So, the polynomial is Hurwitz.

3. Find the range of value of m in P(s) so that P(s) is Hurwitz.

 P s 2s 4 s3 ms 2 s 2
Solution:
Given, P s 2s 4 s3 ms 2 s 2 P1 s P2 s
Here, P1 s 2s 4 ms 2 2, P2 s s3 s
Using continuous fraction method
P1 s
P2 s

2 s 4 ms 2 2
s s 2s 4 2s 2 0 2s
3

m 2 s2 2 s3 s
2 1
s3 s s
m 2 m 2

m 2 s2 2
m 2 s m 2 s2 m 2 2 s

m 4 m 4

For the polynomial is Hurwitz, all the quotients must be positive. So, m 4 .

(b) Positive Real (PR) Function (lecture -24)

A network function given by
A s a0 s n a1s n 1 ... an
N s
Bs b0 s m b1s m1 ... bm
The function N(s) is called a PR function if
(i) N(s) is real when s is real
(ii) B(s) is Hurwitz polynomial
(iii)If, B(s) consists of quadratic function. Which means in case there are some roots or poles
on jw-axis,then they are simple and the residues are real and positive
(iv) Real part of N(s) is positive for all values of w.

Examples:
4. Test whether the following function is PR or not.
2s 2 2s 1
Z s
s 3 2s 2 s 2
Solution:
A s 2s 2 2s 1
Given, Z s
Bs s 3 2s 2 s 2
Here,
Step-1: All coefficients of A(s) and B(s) are positive
Step-2: check residues of B(s)
Characteristic equation: B s s3 2s 2 s 2 0

s 2 1 s 2 0
 1 1
Now, Z s
s 1 s 2
2

Both residues are positive

Step-3: Z s
A s

2s 2 2s 1


2s 2 1 2s

M1 s N1 s
Bs s 2s s 2
3 2

2s 2 2 s 3 s
M 2 s N2 s

D s M1 s M 2 s N1 s N 2 s 2s 2 1 2s 2 2 2s s 3 s 2 s 2 1
2

D jw 2 w2 1
2

Here, D jw is positive for all values of w. Hence, the given polynomial is a PR function.

4.3.Procedure of Testing PR Function (lecture -25)

(1) A(s) and B(s) must be Hurwitz
(2) N(s) must have simple poles (It has real and positive residues)
M1 s N1 s
(3) N s
M 2 s N2 s
Where M1(s) and M2(s) are even terms and N1(s) and N2(s) are odd terms
M s N1 s M1 s M 2 s N1 s N 2 s
Re N s Re 1
M 2 s N 2 s M 22 s N 22 s
M 22 s N22 s is always positive for any value of .
So, N(s) is a PR function if D s M1 s M 2 s N1 s N2 s s j 0

Examples:
4s 1
5. Test whether the following function Z s is PR or not.
s2

Solution:
A s 4s 1
Given, Z s
Bs s2
Here,
Step-1: All coefficients of A(s) and B(s) are positive
Step-2: B(s) has a simple root. So, Z(s) has simple pole.
Step-3: Check residues of B(s)
4s 1 4s 1
Characteristic equation: Z s
s2 s2 s2

s 1 s 2 0
2

A1 A 1 1
Now, Z s 2 2
s 1 s 2 s 1 s 2
2

Both residues A1 and A2are positive

Step-4:
 4 j 1 1 j 4 2 j 2 4 2 j 7 2 4 2
Re Z j Re Re Re
j 2 4 2 4 2 4
2

Here, for all values of , Re Z j 0
Hence, the given function is a PR function.

s 2 3s 5
6. Test whether the following function Z s is PR or not.
s2

Solution:
A s s 2 3s 5
Given, Z s
Bs s2
Here,
Step-1: All coefficients of A(s) and B(s) are not positive
Hence, the given function is not a PR function.

3.4. LC Network Synthesis (lecture -26)

Foster and Cauer first proposed the realization of these networks in various canonical
forms, in the 1920s. We will now examine each of these forms. There are four canonical
forms, relating to the realization of LC, RC and RL networks as follows.

3.4.1. LC Network Synthesis

A LC network is synthesized in two forms, i.e. Foster and Cauer form
3.4.1.1 Foster Canonical Form
(a) First Foster Canonical Form

Z s Z1 s Z 2 s ... Zi s ... Z n1 s Z n s
A0 2A s 2A s 2A s 2A s
Z s 2 2 2 ... 2 i 2 ... 2 n 12 2 n 2
s s 2 s i s n 1 s n
Where,
(i) C0 A0 pole at origin
 2 Ai s
(ii) has a pair of complex conjugate poles. From this we can find Ci and Li
s i2
2

as follows.
1 2A
Ci , Li 2i
2 Ai i
(iii) L represents A s means a pole at infinity.

Fig.5 (a) First Fosters Canonical Form and (b) Second Fosters Canonical Form

(b) Second Fosters Canonical Form (lecture -27)

Y s Y1 s Y2 s ... Yi s ... Yn s
B0 2B s 2B s
Y s 2 2 2 ... 2 i 2 ... B s
s s 2 s i
Where,
(iv) L0 B0 pole at origin
2 Bi s
(v) has a pair of complex conjugate poles. From this we can find Ci and Li as
s i2
2

follows.
1 2A
Ci , Li 2i
2 Ai i
(vi) C represents B s means a pole at infinity.

N.B.:
1. [Order of Num] > [Order of Den]
So, one zero is present at . The denominator has one s term, so one pole is present at
0 . Therefore, both first and last terms are present.
2. [Order of Num] < [Order of Den]
So, no pole is present at 0 . Therefore, both first and last terms are absent.

Example
7. The driving point impedance of LC network is given by

Z s 10
s 2

4 s 2 16 .

s s 9 2

Obtain first form Fosters network.

Solution:

Given,

Z s 10
s 2

4 s 2 16

s s 92

A0 A2 A2*
A s
s s j3 s j3

A0 10
s 2

4 s 2 16 71.11
s 2
9 s 0

A2 10
s 2

4 s 16 2
19.45
s s j 3
s j 3

1
C0 0.0141F
A0
L A 10 H
1
C2 0.0257 F
2 A2
2 A2
L2 4.322 H
22

L2=4.322H
C0=0.0141F 10H

Z(s)
C2=0.0257F

Fig.6

8. The driving point impedance of LC network is given by

Z s 8
s 2

4 s 2 25 .

s s 162

Obtain first form and second form of Fosters network.
Solution:
First form of Fosters network
Here, [Order of Num] > [Order of Den]
So, one zero is present at . The denominator has one s term, so one pole is present at
0 . Therefore, both first and last terms are present.
Given,

Z s 8
s 2

4 s 2 25

s s 162

A0 A2 A2*
A s
s s j4 s j4

A0 8
s 2

4 s 2 25 50
s 2
16 s 0

A2 8
s 2

4 s 2 25 27
s s j 4
s j 4

A0 8
1
C0 0.02 F
A0
L A 8H
1
C2 0.0185 F
2 A2
2 A2
L2 3.375 H
22

L2=3.375H
C0=0.02F 8H

Z(s)
C2=0.0185F

Fig.8

Second form of Fosters network

Given,

Y s

s s 2 16

8 s 4 s 25
2
2

Here, [Order of Num] > [Order of Den]
So, one zero is present at . The denominator has one s term, so one pole is present at
0 . Therefore, both first and last terms are present.
B0 B
Y s 2 2 B s
s s 4

B0
s 2

1 s 2 16 1

4 s 4
2
s 0

B2
s 2

1 s 2 16 1.125
s s j 2
s 0

1
B 0.25
4
1
L0 1H
B0
C B 0.25F
1
L2 0.5625 H
2 B2
2 B2
C2 0.444 F
22

0.5625H
Y(s) 0.25F
1H
0.444F

Fig.9

3.4.1.1 Cauer Form (lecture -28)

Step1
For a given input impedance Z(s), determine if the input impedance is LC- or RC-realizable.One
way to identify if the input impedance is LC-impedance is to locate the pole/zero on the complex
s-plane.If the input impedance is any rational function with a positive scale factor and with
simple poles and zeros (conjugate pairs) arranged in alternating order along the imaginary axis,
then this input impedance Z(s) is realizable as a LC network.For a realizable input impedance of
a RC network, the input impedance Z(s) must be a rational function, that has simple, alternating
poles and zeros located on the non-positive real axis with the critical frequency nearest to or at
the origin being a pole.
Step 2
Determine the type of network (Cauer I or Cauer II) to be implemented.Fig. 10 and Fig.11 show
the Cauer I and Cauer IILC networks and Fig. 12 and Fig. 13 show the Cauer I and Cauer II RC
networks, respectively.

Fig.10 Cauer I LC network

Fig. 11 Cauer II LC network

Fig. 12 Cauer I RC network

Fig. 13 Cauer II RC network

Step 3
Check asymptotic behavior of the input impedance.
 Cauer I LC: The first element is L, if Z(s) has a pole at s = infinity. Otherwise the first
element is C.
Cauer II LC: The first element is C, if Z(s) has a pole at s = origin. Otherwise the first
element is L.
Cauer I RC: The first element is R, if Z(s) has no zero at s = infinity. Otherwise the first
element is C.
Cauer II RC: The first element is C, if Z(s) has a pole at s = origin. Otherwise the first
element is R.

Step 4
If the first element is a shunt element, continued fraction expansion is done on input
admittance Y(s).
If the first element is a series element, continued fraction expansion is done on input
impedance Z(s).
Step 5
If Cauer I is chosen, arrange the numerator and denominator polynomials in
descending power of s.
If Cauer II is chosen, arrange the numerator and denominator polynomials in
ascending power of s.

***********End of module III*****