Indian Journal of History of Science, 51.3 (2016) 443-453 DOI: 10.

16943/ijhs/2016/v51i3/48847

Role of Experiments in the Progress of Science:

Lessons from our History
D P Roy*
(Received 05 April 2016; revised 28 July 2016)

Abstract
I shall discuss the history of Indian astronomy, Aurveda (life science), chemistry and metallurgy
to illustrate how downgrading experiments from scientific learning lead to the decline of ancient Indian
science and civilization. We shall see that in the glorious period of ancient Indian civilization, lasting
up to the 9th century, there was close interaction between experimental investigations and theoretical
analyses in each of these sciences. This was further augmented by two-way interactions with the other
advanced civilizations of that time. But both these interactions came to an end around 9th century, leading
to the stagnation and decline of Indian science and civilization over the next thousand years. This was
the cause rather than the consequence of its subjugation by external invaders, though it was no doubt
aggravated by the latter1.
Key words: Alchemy, Ancient Indian Science, Astronomy, Aurveda, Experiments, Metallurgy

1. Introduction interlinked to one another, so that all the three

Let me confess in the beginning that the had a synergetic growth during this period.
subject of this article is not the subject of my Moreover, there was a healthy interaction with
research. But it is a subject of my concern as an other advanced civilizations of that time, which
Indian scientist. And I shall present it largely in particularly influenced the advances in astronomy.
the words of some Indian scientists of very high However, all these interactions came to an end
esteem, who were deeply concerned about this towards the 9th century, leading to the stagnation
matter. My only role is one of compilation and and decline of Indian science and civilization over
occasional elaboration of their comments. the next thousand years.

The following sections discuss the ancient By the 19th century the only vestiges of
Indian chemistry, astronomy, metallurgy and that glorious civilization left was in the form of
Aurveda in that order. In each case there was close relics like the Delhi iron pillar and the anecdotal
interaction between experimental investigations evidences of highly skilled surgery and metallurgy,
and theoretical analyses during the glorious performed by some illiterate Indian practitioners
period of its history, lasting up to the 9th century. of these trades. This had profoundly stirred the
We shall also see that for the three technological conscience of the famous scientists of Indian
sciences of chemistry, metallurgy and Ayurveda, renaissance like Acharya P. C. Ray and Prof.
the experimental developments were closely Meghnad Saha, as we shall see below.

*Homi Bhabha Centre for Science Education, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research,V. N. Purav Marg, Mumbai 400088, India.
E-mail : dproy1@gmail.com
1
This article is dedicated to the memory of the famous nuclear physicist and erudite scholar, Prof. Manoj Kumar Pal, who passed
away on 3 March 2016.
444 Indian Journal of History of Science

2. Chemistry Brahmins, but practiced by men of all other

In his address as the Sectional President of castes. There were many pioneers in alchemy;
physics and mathematics of the Indian National and an outstanding figure named N g rju a
Science Congress (1926), Meghnad Saha quoted has been respectfully mentioned in Al-Brunis
the following lines from a 9th century Sanskrit India of early 11th century to have lived a century
text on chemistry, called Rasendra Cintmai earlier. But there could be several Ngrjuas in
by Dhuduknath, which was brought to his notice history, since Hsuan-tsang in 7th century refers to
by his teacher Acharya P. C. Ray. a famous Buddhist alchemist by that name to have
lived 5-6 centuries earlier! Alchemy was taught
I have heard much from the lips of savants, I have
in the monasteries of Nalanda, Vikramasila and
seen many formulae well-established in scriptures,
but I am not recording any which I have not done Udantapura till their destruction around 1200 AD
myself. I am fearlessly recording only those that by Bakhtiar Khilzi. After this the alchemists fled
I have carried out before my elders with my own to Tibet and Deccan (Wikipedia). P. C. Ray traces
hand. Only they are to be regarded as real teachers back the development of chemistry in India to
who can show by experiments what they teach.
this subaltern culture of alchemy, which survived
They are the deserving pupils, who can actually
perform them after having learned from their through the medieval period, away from the
teachers. The rest are merely stage actors. intellectual strata of society (Ray, 1956).
Why was this 9th century chemist recording
3. Astronomy
his views on the role of experiments in such
strong words? The reason was that by that time The Calendar Reforms Committee, set up
the downgrading of experiments from scientific under Meghnad Saha soon after independence,
learning and the consequent stagnation of science made a thorough review of the three periods
had already begun in India. Meghnad Saha and of Indian astronomy i.e. Vedic (1300 BC),
P. C. Ray were not only great scientists, but they Vedga (1300 BC 400 AD) and Siddhnta (400
were also great stalwarts of the Indian renaissance. 900 AD) periods. According to this review, during
As such they had a deep understanding of the the Vedga period the emphasis had shifted from
ancient Indian civilization in its merits as well collecting data from experimental observations
as its mistakes and limitations. So they were to achieving more computational precision.
highlighting the latter to the younger generations But the aka and Kusna dynasties brought the
so that they can learn from these mistakes and contemporaneous knowledge of astronomy from
overcome the limitations. The definition of stage Bactria to north-west India. This latest exposure
actors in science was taken quite seriously by Saha initiated the great spurt of activities towards the end
at the time of delivering his address; and he issued of this period by augmenting the experimentally
a warning apprehending that they could vitiate observed database. This ushered in the Siddhnta
the progress of new science in India (Pal, 2006). era (Pal, 2006). Srya Siddhnta is assigned to
I shall come back to this point and Acharya P. C. 3rd century AD, followed by a quick succession
Rays reflections on it at the end of this article. But of luminaries : ryabha and Varhamihira (~
for now let us continue with the history of Indian 500 AD), Brahmagupta and Bhskara I (~ 600
chemistry after the 9th century. AD), Lalla (8th century). ryabhaa authored
According to Acharya P. C. Ray (Ray, ryabha ya and a revised version of Srya
1956), Indian chemistry continued to develop for Siddhnta. He also had a profound influence on
a few centuries after this mainly as the empirical the development of Islamic astronomy. So there
science of alchemy. Alchemy was shunned by was a two-way interaction with other cultures
 Role of Experiments in the Progress of Science 445

during the Siddhnta era. Evidently the interacting were great exponents like Bhskara II (12 th
cultures all benefited from this, as they could learn century), Nlakahas Kerala School (15-16th
from each others strong points. The following century) and Samanta Chandra Sekhar (19th
two passages summarize the influence of other century), they were few and far between. Let me
cultures on Indian astronomy and that of the Indian quote a few lines from the keynote address to a
astronomy on other cultures (Wikipedia). national symposium on Samata Chandra Sekhar
The Yavanajtaka was translated from by the famous nuclear physicist and ex-director
Greek to Sanskrit by Yavanevara during 2nd of Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics, Prof. M. K.
century AD under aka king Rudradaman. His Pal (Pal, 2006).
capital Ujjain was the Greenwich of Indian The last exponent of Indian Siddhnta astronomy,
Astronomy. Later in the 6th century, Romaka Samanta Chandra Sekhar, lived in Orissa from
Siddhnta and Paulia Siddhnta, meaning the 1835 to 1904. He constructed his own instruments,
treatises of Romans and Paul, were two of the five acquired great skill in using them for accurate
observations of sun, moon, planets and stars.
treatises of Varhamihira called Paca-Siddhnta.
When he found by repeated observations that the
He wrote The Greeks, though impure, must be measured positions in most cases do not agree with
honoured since they were trained in sciences results computed using the famous Siddhntas,
and therein excelled others. Similarly Grgi- he boldly concluded that the latter are in error,
Sahit says The Yavanas are Barbarians, yet not his experimental determinations. He wrote his
the science of astronomy originated with them findings in Siddhnta Darpaa on palm leaves
and for this they must be revered like Gods. in Sanskrit using Oriya script. Prof. J. C. Ray of
These statements illustrate the positive attitude of Ravenshaw College, Cuttack, arranged to publish
it in Devanagari script through a Calcutta press
Indian astronomers to external influence during
thirty years later in 1899.
its glorious era.
The most glaring error of the Indian
On the other hand, Indian astronomy
classical Siddhntas is the prediction of the
reached China with the expansion of Buddhism
summer and winter solstices (the latter called
during the Han dynasty (25220 AD). Further
Makara Sakrnti), and the autumn and vernal
translation of Indian works on astronomy was
equinoxes (the latter called Viuva Sakrnti).
completed in China during the Three Kingdoms
era (220-265 AD). However, most detailed They were first determined using the simple devise
incorporation of Indian astronomy occurred only called Gnomon (Saku in India), in which the
during the Tang dynasty (618-907 AD). Arabs direction and length of the shadow of a vertical rod
adopted the sine function (inherited from Indian were measured to determine the cardinal directions
mathematics) instead of chords of arc used in and time (Fig 1).
Hellenistic mathematics. Another Indian influence The minimum shadow length marks
was an approximate formula used for timekeeping midday and its direction the cardinal north-south
by Muslim astronomers. Indian astronomy had direction. In tropical regions the largest midday
an influence on European astronomy via Arabic shadow length along north (south) marks winter
translations. Muhammad al-Fazaris Great (summer) solstice. And the two mid-points in
Sindhind, which was based on the Srya Siddhnta time between the two solstices mark the two
and the works of Brahmagupta, was translated into equinoxes. At the time of this calibration around
Latin in 1126. 400 AD Heliaal (Sun synchronous) rising of the
There was a gradual decline in Siddhnta constellation Capricorn (Makara) matched with
astronomy after the 9th century. Although there the winter solstice of 21-22 December and that
446 Indian Journal of History of Science

have been known to the Siddhnta astronomers of

India as well. So the question is why the necessary
recalibration to account for this drift was not
done. The reason could be one of societal attitude.
Firstly to dirty your hands with experiments;
and secondly when you find after yearlong
painstaking observations that your empirical
results are in conflict with the predictions of
time honoured scriptures, who will listen to
you? So the astronomers by and large chose the
easy option of following the scriptures on the
excuse that the Makara Sakrnti corresponds
to the alignment of sun with the celestial Makara
Fig.1. The Gnomon and its Shadow constellation rather than the terrestrial Makara
krnti, although the former has little relevance
to the terrestrial phenomena as mentioned above.
of Cancer (Karkaa) matched with the summer
In many parts of India the Viuva Sakrnti on
solstice of 21-22 June. That is why the southern
14 April, marking the start of the solar month
and northern tropics were named tropics of
of Baishakh, is even a more important festival
Capricorn (Makara krnti) and Cancer (Karkaa
than the Makara Sakrnti. It marks the start
krnti), while the equinoxes matched with the
of the new year in Bengal and Orissa, and also
vertical alignment of sun over the equator (Viuva
in Kerala, where it is called Viu Sakrnti. It is
rekh). However, precession of the earths rotation
celebrated in Mangalore as Bihu and in Assam
axis over the past 1600 years has resulted in a
as Bihu. It again comes after 23 days of the true
23 days gap between the celestial and terrestrial
Vernal Equinox; and in this case one does not even
markers. Evidently the terrestrial events like
have the alibi of a celestial marker by that name.
the change of season and harvest of crops are
The Indian Calendar Reforms Committee had
determined by the true solstice and equinox times
suggested removing the historical misnomers from
corresponding to the terrestrial markers rather than
the Baikh Sakrnti of 14 April and Mgha
the celestial ones. This is a glaring example of how
Sakrnti of 14 January, and recognize the true
blind following of the ancient scriptures without
Vernal Equinox and Winter Solstice in the Indian
experimental recalibration leads to wrong solstice
calendar as Viuva rekh Divas and Makara krnti
and equinox times.
Divas respectively. But it went unheeded.
Fig 2 (http://www.factmonster.com/
Another serious limitation of Indian
ipka/A0769237.html) is taken from an article of
astronomy of this period is the non-recording of
Prof. M. N. Vahia on why we observe Makara
purely empirical phenomena. The Chinese have
Sakrnti on 14 January (Vahia, 2014). It clearly
kept data of meteoric showers, 29 appearances
shows that the present solar alignment with the
of Halleys comet, 90 novae and supernovae
constellation Capricorn (Makara) indeed starts
along with intense sunspot activities (Pal, 2006).
at mid-January instead of the true winter solstice
Yet there is no Indian record of these empirical
of 21-22 December. The slow time drift of the
phenomena, presumably because they did not relate
solstice and equinox was empirically known to
to astronomical theories of that time. In particular,
the ancient Greek astronomers. Therefore it must
the spectacular Crab supernova explosion of 11th
 Role of Experiments in the Progress of Science 447

Fig. 2. Present solar alignment of different constellations over the year1.

century appeared as the second brightest object

after the moon in the night sky for several weeks.
It has been recorded by the Chinese, Arab and
even Mayan astronomers of Mexico. Yet there
is no credible evidence of Indian astronomical
record of this very important event. This was the
conclusion of Profs. J. V. Narlikar and S. Bhate
after a thorough search of the contemporary Indian
documents on an INSA project.

4. Metallurgy
India was a major exporter of ferrous
metals throughout ancient history. The iron pillars
of Delhi, originally from Vidisha (400 AD), and
of Dhar (1000 AD) stand living testimony to the
skills of ancient Indian metallurgists.
Fig. 3. The iron pillar of Delhi

1
http://www.factmonster.com/ipka/A0769237.htme
448 Indian Journal of History of Science

The Delhi pillar is 7 m high and weighs 6.5 But both of them had declined by the 18th century.
tons. It is 98% pure iron with a high Phosphorous The death blow to the Indian metal industry was
content to make it rust resistant. It is generally dealt by the British Colonial Government policy
believed that no other country had the capability of shipping iron ore to British plants at the cost of
to produce an iron mass of this size and purity till the Indian foundries.
the industrial revolution of 18th century. The Dhar
pillar had a weight of a little more than 7 tons and 5. Ayurveda
almost twice the height of the Delhi pillar, but is
The Indian Academy of Sciences has
now broken into three pieces. It also has a high
brought out a vision document on Aurvedic
Phosphorous content for rust resistance like the
Biology by Prof. M. S. Valiathan, who is a
Delhi pillar (Balasubramanian, 2002).
prominent cardiac surgeon and discoverer of
Equally important was the discovery of a famous heart valve, past president of Indian
steel production in Deccan by the carbonization of National Science Academy, past vice-chancellor
iron around 600 BC (Wikipedia). It was globally of Manipal University and presently a national
exported throughout the period of ancient Indian professor there. Prof. Valiathan is also an authority
history. There was a close triangular link between on Ayurvedic Biology not only as a theoretical
Alchemy, Metallurgy and Aurveda. Alchemy had scholar but one actively engaged in experiments to
two branches called Deha Siddhi and Loha Siddhi. scientifically test the efficacy of various Ayurvedic
The former dealt with the production of various procedures as well. Therefore my discussion of
Bhamas of Aurvedic medicine, while the latter this section will be largely based on the material
dealt with the chemicals used in metal smelting of this document (Valiathan, 2006). In fact I shall
and production of special quality metals like steel. be quoting many passages from this document,
The latter in turn was closely connected with the risking the charge of plagiarism, because I could
sharp edged instruments used in Aurvedic surgery. not have put them any better.
It is said that the surgical instruments of Suruta According to Valiathan (2006), the Sahit
were fabricated with Deccan steel. These three phase from 1st to 9th century AD is regarded as
sciences had a synergetic growth through the the golden age of Ayurveda. It had three major
period of ancient history up to the 9th century. texts called the Bhadtray viz1) Caraka Sahit
The state of Indian metallurgy after 1000 (1st century) is a redaction by Caraka of a treatise
AD has been discussed by Prof. B. Prakash composed by Agnivea several centuries earlier.
(Prakash, 2011). It saw a rapid decline during 11th- 2) On the other hand, Suruta Sahit (2nd-3rd
12th century as Ghaznavid and Ghorian invaders century) is a redaction by Ngrjua of the surgical
destroyed the iron producing industry and took treatise of Suruta, who is said to have lived
away many thousands of skilled workers as around 700 BC. 3) finally, Aga Sagraha and
slaves to bolster their own armament production. Aga Hdaya (8th9th century) are composed
However, during the Mughal period a subaltern by Vgbhaa.
culture of metallurgy was revived for large scale Carakas redaction was so highly creative
production of armaments and construction of that the new text came to be acclaimed as Caraka
large cannons, some weighing 20-40 tons. With Sahit. Here Ayurveda got its name for the first
some interruptions the Deccan steel export to Arab time, and it moved from a faith-based to a reason-
countries continued into the medieval period for based platform. It was encyclopedic in the coverage
making quality armaments. The famous Damascus of medicines, and recognized as the last word in
sword was made with Deccan steel (Wikipedia). internal medicine. It was translated into Persian,
 Role of Experiments in the Progress of Science 449

Arabic and Tibetan within 2-3 centuries and today, several texts in medicine, philosophy
spread its influence to central Asia, where Bower etc, which are no longer available in Sanskrit
manuscript of 400 AD with numerous quotes from original, are available in their Chinese and Tibetan
Caraka was discovered in 1890. Bower was an translations. What the barbarians destroyed in India
intelligence officer of British Indian army, who had a resurrection in other countries (Valiathan,
discovered this manuscript written on Parchment 2006). The last sentence refers to the destruction
in Brahmi script with some natives of central Asia of Nalanda by Bakhtiar Khilzi around 1200 AD.
and brought it to the Asiatic Society at Calcutta
(Wikipedia). Caraka Sahit was translated into
English in 19th century. Its popularity continues
in the 21st century, when a digital version was
prepared by Prof. Yamashita of Kyoto University
(Valiathan, 2006).
Surutas name is forever associated with
rhinoplasty (nose repair), the only surgical procedure
from India to have won global recognition in three
millennia! Suruta Sahit is a comprehensive
medical treatise with heavy surgical orientation, Fig. 4. Plastic repair of nose (Described by Suruta: a
dealing with surgical procedures, instruments, pedicle flap from the check was used; the eighteenth
century practitioner in Pune took the flap from
care of trauma, medications etc. Drawings of forehead
some surgical procedures and instruments are
shown in Figs 4-7 (Valiathan, 2006). Compared
to Caraka Sahit it has simpler language and
lower emphasis on the philosophical dimensions
of medical practice. This, along with its precise
drawings of surgical procedures and instruments,
suggest the compiler Ngrjua was more likely
to be a hands-on experimentalist rather than a
theoretical scholar. Many believe him to be the
Buddhist alchemist of that name described by
Hsuan-tsang; but there is no definitive evidence for
this (Wikipedia). Suruta Sahit enjoyed great
authority even beyond the Indian borders because
it was translated into Arabic under the Caliphate,
when Indian physicians were believed to have Fig. 5. Plastic repair of ear lobe (was recommended by
lived in Baghdad (Valiathan, 2006). Suruta when the ear lobe was destroyed by infection
following the piercing of ear)
There is little doubt that the Suruta and
Caraka Sahit were taught at Nalanda; and the Acharya P. C. Ray estimated the date of
large number of students from Tibet, China and composition of, Aga Samgraha and Aga
other east Asian countries would have carried Hdaya by Vagbhata to be 8th-9th century, when
home their copies and translations. Transfer of Ayurveda was on the threshold of stagnation (Ray,
knowledge was also facilitated by Indian teachers 1956). These texts accept the authority of Caraka
accompanying these home-bound disciples. Even and Suruta in no uncertain terms and present their
450 Indian Journal of History of Science

hastened the decline of Ayurveda. But the malady

had roots running deeper in the social history of
India, because the surgical techniques of Suruta
had more or less disappeared from the mainstream
of Ayurveda already by the time of Vgbhaa.
Cadaveric dissection was no more mentioned; and
the training of disciples did not include exercises
on cucumber, jackfruit and animal skin etc for
learning incision, extraction, scraping and other
surgical procedures (Valiathan, 2006).
So the Afghan/Turkish conquest of India
and destruction of Nalanda around 1200 AD were
not the causes but rather the consequences of the
decline in Indian science and civilization that
Fig. 6. Instrument- blunt (Yantras) A few from the 100 blunt had started at least a couple of centuries earlier.
instruments of Suruta
Mahmud of Ghazni raided India 17 times during
1000-1027 AD over a wide front from Mathura to
Somnath in Saurastra, destroying its monuments
and industries, plundering its wealth and taking
many thousands of its skilled workers as slaves.
Yet we did not learn our lessons and put our
house in order. Al-Bruni was a central Asian
scientist/scholar, who came to India in 1017 at the
behest of Mahmud of Ghazni and spent thirteen
years travelling through this country to write a
comprehensive book on the nation and its people.
Fig. 7. Instrument - sharp (Sastras) A few from the 20 sharp
His account is generally considered to be candid
instruments of Suruta
but objective. An extract from Al-Brunis account
of the Indian people is quoted below (http: www.
teachings in a simple and abridged manner for shunya.net/Text/Blog/AlBeruni India.html)
average students. Aga Hdaya accomplished
The Hindus believe that there is no country but
this objective admirably and became a popular
theirs, no nation like theirs, no king like theirs, no
favourite, thanks to the gift of poetic excellence religion like theirs. They are haughty, foolishly
that no other text could claim. After Vgbhaa, vain, self-conceited and stolid. They are by nature
the springs of creativity ran dry and a long phase niggardly in communicating that which they know,
of stagnation ensued for a thousand years in the and they take greatest possible care to withhold it
from men of another caste among their own people,
history of Ayurveda (Valiathan, 2006). still much more, of course, from any foreigner..
Of course some important texts of Ayurveda Their haughtiness is such that, if you tell them
of any science or scholar in Khorasan or Persia,
appeared during this phase along with many
they will think you to be both an ignoramus and a
dictionaries and commentaries on earlier texts. liar. If they traveled and mixed with other nations,
But there were no more Carakas and Surutas, they would soon change their mind, for their
nor the power-houses of learning like Nalanda. ancestors were not as narrow minded as the present
The preference of the Muslim rulers for Unani generation is.
 Role of Experiments in the Progress of Science 451

The last line of this passage is very Cruso on 1st January 1794. The report described
significant, because the nation had assimilated how a koomar caste man had borrowed an old
the aka and Kusna conquerors into the Indian razor for this occasion, dissected a flap from the
civilization in 2nd-3rd century AD. It had also forehead of the patient with much composure,
spread the Indian civilization throughout south- freshened the edges of the nasal defect and applied
east Asia through travelling tradesmen without the flap there on by rotation with a cement without
any bloodshed. And it had spread Buddhism over the aid of stitches, sticking plaster or bandages.
most of Asia through exchange of scholars. But The flap healed and an adhesion had taken
this vibrant nation with a pan-Asian outreach place seemingly in every part. It was a report
had folded up into its narrow regional, caste of this procedure, published in the Gentlemans
and sub-caste groups by 1000 AD. Moreover, Magazine of London in 1794, which caught the
lofty institutions like Nalanda had weakened attention of a surgeon, Dr. J. C. Caprue, FRS. He
considerably, because there was no empire to performed the operation for the first time in the
support them anymore. So it became an easy prey West and published a full length paper on An
for external aggressors. account of two successful operation for restoring
a lost nose from the integuments of the forehead
6. Surviving Subcultures of Surgical and in 1816.
Metallurgical Skills
6.2 Other Surgical Skills
The surgical procedures which disappeared
from the main stream of society survived however A similar eyewitness report on Surutas
among castes, considered low in the social couching for cataract was given by Dr. Ekambaram
hierarchy. Surutas nose repair is an interesting of Coimbatore in 1916. He found that the procedure
example. Barring a perfunctory reference, it was done by iterant Mohammedan Vaidyas who
received no serious attention in the Aurvedic followed the steps of Susrutas method (Valiathan,
texts; nor was it performed by reputed Vaidyas. Its 2006). Note that the procedures in Pune and
survival was discovered accidentally by British Coimbatore were done not by Ayurvedic physicians
observers in Pune towards the end of 18th century but by illiterate men, who had learned the
(Valiathan, 2006). techniques from an earlier generation. Treatment
of fracture by bonesetters, child delivery by dais
6.1 Pune Nose Repair Episode and many other procedures involving dirtying
of hand were relegated to lower caste persons,
Dr. Scott, a sympathetic British doctor
who did not understand their anatomical basis or
residing in Mumbai, had heard from one Capt.
rationale. It was as if the nations brain had been
Irvine in 1793 about the practice among gentoos
decoupled from its hand, which ensured that
of putting new noses on people who have had them
there could never be innovation based on true
cut off presumably for some criminal offence.
understanding.
He assured Dr. Scott that all the employees of the
East India Company in Pune were witness to the
6.3 Metallurgical Skills
operation which gave them a pretty good nose!
Dr. Scott then wrote to Mr. Findlay, the company There is also anecdotal evidence showing
surgeon in Pune, to ascertain the veracity of this the survival of a subculture of metallurgical
report because such an operation was unknown in skills among the lower castes (Valiathan, 2006;
Europe. Mr. Findlay sent a detailed report on the Dharampal, 1983). On the request of the Govt.
basis of eyewitness observation by himself and Mr. of Bengal in 1828, James Franklin, FRS, made a
452 Indian Journal of History of Science

thorough study of the ore, charcoal and furnaces claimed hundreds of thousands of citizens, who
used by the natives of Central India for making used their hands to make a living, ruin could be the
iron. He wrote the smelting furnaces, though only destination of their nation (M. S. Valiathan,
crude in appearance, are nevertheless very 2006).
exact in the interior proportions, and it has often
According to Suruta, the dissection of dead bodies
surprised me to see men, who are unquestionably
is a sine qua non (indispensible) to the students
ignorant of their principle, construct them with
of surgery, and this high authority lays particular
such precision. He went on to describe in detail
stress on knowledge gained from experiments
the geometrical and practical construction of the
and observations. But Manu would have none of
furnace, the construction and use of bellows,
it. According to Manu, the very touch of corpse
construction of two refineries for each furnace,
is enough to contaminate the sacred person of a
mode of smelting and refining etc. On getting
Brahmin. Thus we find shortly after Vgbhaa,
the product evaluated at the Sagar mint he
the handling of a lancet was discouraged and
wrote the bar iron was of the most excellent
anatomy and surgery fell to disuse and became,
quality, possessing all the desirable properties of
to all intents and purposes, lost sciences for the
malleability, ductility at different temperatures and
Hindus. It was considered equally undignified to
of tenacity of which I think it cannot be surpassed
sweat away at the metal furnaces. The sciences
by the best Swedish iron. Though the workmen
being thus relegated to the lower castes, and the
could not answer Franklins questions or explain
professions made hereditary, a certain degree of
the procedures used for hundreds of years by their
fineness, delicacy and deftness in manipulation
forefathers, he commented that the original plan
was no doubt secured. But this was accomplished
of this singular furnace must have been the work
at a terrible cost. The intellectual portion of the
of advanced intelligence (Dharampal, 1983). In
community being thus withdrawn from active
fact this was the relic of a civilization that had
participation in these sciences, the how and why
produced the iron pillars of Delhi/Vidisha in 400
of phenomenon the coordination of cause and
AD and Dhar in 1000 AD. Actually Vidisha and
effect were lost sight of. The spirit of enquiry
Dhar are both located in Central India, i.e. the
gradually died out among a nation, naturally prone
same geographical region as the above mentioned
to speculation and metaphysical subtleties, and
workmen of a much later period.
India for once bade adieu to experimental and
inductive sciences. Her soil was made morally
7. Conclusion unfit for the birth of a Boyle, a Descartes, or
The above anecdotes make poignant stories. a Newton; and her very name was expunged
But what lesson do we learn from them? Should from the map of the scientific world for a time
they make us happy or sad? Let me conclude by (P. C. Ray, 1956).
answering these questions in the words of Prof. Under these circumstances, Indias rout at
Valiathan and those of his inspiration, Acharya P. the East-West encounter of the 18th century was a
C. Ray, as quoted by him. foregone conclusion (Valiathan, 2006).
Reflections: The workmen doing the nose repair
in Pune, cataract couching in Coimbatore and ore Acknowledgement
smelting in Jabalpur were condemned to illiteracy, The author acknowledges partial support
low social status, poor self-esteem and little hope from the senior scientist fellowship of the Indian
of self advancement. Since this grim prospect National Science Academy.
 Role of Experiments in the Progress of Science 453

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