FLIGHT VEHICLE DESIGN (10AE81) Unit 1

CONCEPTUAL AIRCRAFT DESIGN

Operational specifications:
Military aircraft specifications are often derived using operational research
techniques, but include significant input from pilots and engineers.

1. Modes of operation:
The need exists for a close air support capable of operating in support of ground
troops in the vicinity of the forward edge of battle area (FEBA). Three modes of
operation are required.

Autonomous mode:
In this mode the aircraft is required to operate some 100 km behind the FEBA. The
targets will be first and second echelon troops - in particular main battle tanks, armored
fighting vehicles, armored personnel carriers and their support vehicles in daylight hours.

Forward air control mode:
In this mode, the aircraft is directed on to targets by a forward air control aircraft
(FAC). It is envisaged that the FAC aircraft would carry the complex electronic systems
required to direct, identify and mark targets.

Ground control mode:
In this mode the aircraft is directed onto targets by ground forces.

2. Mission radius:
The radius of action of the aircraft should be 500 km at 3.5 km altitude, optimum
speed with a 15 min loiter/search time and a 10% fuel reserve. These figures are based
upon the following mission at the specification payload:
(i) Cruise at optimum speed at low level 300 km to FEBA.
(ii) Accelerate to Mach Number (M) 0.8 at a height of 100 m and carry out mission. (100
km penetration to target.)
(iii) Optimum speed cruise at low level 300 km back to base.

3. Take-off and landing performance:

The aircraft should take off from semi-prepared strips in a distance of 880 m over
a 15 m obstacle. Landing ground distance should be 500 m.

4. Performance:
The following performance figures are required:
(i) Maximum speed: 0.8 at sea level (SL) with a specified payload (2.3.5 below); 0.9 at SL
with two advanced short-range air-to-air missiles (ASRAAM) alone.
(ii) Maximum operational height: 3500 m.

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(iii) Maximum-sustained g loading: 4g at specified payload at M 0.8 at SL.

5. Weapon loads:
Possible weapon loads include:
(i) Six 277 kg cluster bombs + two ASRAAM + gun + ammunition (specified payload).
(ii) Eight 500 kg low drag bombs + two ASRAAM + gun.
(iii) One JP233 fuselage store of2335 kg + two ASRAAM + gun.
(iv) Six short range air to ground guided missiles + two ASRAAM + gun.

6. Avionics fit:
The avionics fit comprises the following systems:
 Integrated communication, navigation and identification system. Inertial
navigation system.
 Controls and displays.
 Radar altimeter.
 Digital computers.
 Weapon management and interface unit (IFU). Tail warning (0.15 m diameter
antenna). Radar warning receiver.
 2-18 GHz jammer.
 Chaff and flare dispensers. Ground attack, laser range finder. Forward-looking
infra-red (FUR).
 2.4 Airline specification for a ISO-seat airliner
 This is an amalgamation of US and European specifications that were current in
mid-1980s, and led to the MD80 and Airbus A320-type designs.

Mission Requirements:
To balance the different aspects of the total performance while trying to optimize
based on well-defined mission requirements. There are many performance aspects that
can be specified by the mission requirements. These include

The aircraft purpose or mission profile;

The type(s) and amount of payload;

The cruise and maximum speeds;

The normal cruise altitude;

The range or radius with normal payload;

The endurance;

The take-off distance at the maximum weight;

The landing distance with 50 percent of the maximum fuel weight;

The purchase cost; and

Other requirements considered important.

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1. Aircraft Purpose:
The starting point for any new aircraft is to clearly identify its purpose. With this,
it is often possible to place a design into a general category. Such categories include
combat aircraft, passenger or cargo transports, and general aviation aircraft. These may
also be further refined into subcategories based on particular design objectives such as
range, take-off or landing distances, maximum speed, etc, The process of categorizing is
useful in identifying any existing aircraft that might be used in making comparisons to a
proposed design.
With modern military aircraft, the purpose for a new aircraft generally comes from
a military program office based on their requirements.
With modern commercial aircraft, a proposal for a new design usually comes as
the response to internal studies that aim to project future market needs. For example, the
specifications for the most recent Boeing commercial aircraft (B-777) were based on the
interest of commercial airlines to have a twin-engine aircraft with a payload and range in
between those of the existing B-767 and B-747 aircraft.

2. Payload:
The payload is what is carried on board and delivered as part of the aircraft’s
mission. Standard payloads are passengers, cargo, or ordnance, the first two are
considered nonexpendable payload because they are expected to be transported for the
complete duration or the flight plan. Military ordnance is expendable payload since at
some point in the flight plan it permanently leaves the aircraft. This includes bombs,
rockets, missiles, and ammunition for on-board guns.
For personal-or small general aviation aircraft, the payload includes the pilot as
well as passengers and baggage. For business, commuter, and commercial aircraft,
payload includes the passengers, baggage and cargo.

3. Cruise and Maximum Speeds:

The mission of an aircraft usually dictates its speed range. Propeller-driven
aircraft are usually designed to cruise at speeds between 150 to 300 knots. Jet powered
aircraft have higher cruise speeds that are normally specified in terms of Math number,
the typical cruise Mach number for business and commercial jet aircraft is from 0.8 to
0.85. This range of cruise speeds is close to optimum for maximizing the combination of
payload weight, range, and speed. The few supersonic commercial aircraft designs
(1) Have supersonic cruise speed as their principle design driver
(2) Sacrifice range and payload.
The cruise Mach number of the Concord is 2.02. It will carry 100 passengers with
a range of 3740 miles. Modern military jet combat and attack aircraft usually have a flight
plan that involves efficient cruise at high subsonic Mach numbers. This is usually in the
range from Mach 0.85 to 0.90.

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4. Normal Cruise Altitude:

The cruise altitude is generally dictated by the cruise speed, propulsion system and
cabin pressurization. An aircraft with an unpressurized cabin would cruise no higher than
10,000 feet. With propeller-driven aircraft, turbo-charged piston engines can maintain a
constant horsepower up to an altitude of approximately 20,000 feet. Higher altitudes are
possible with turboprop aircraft, such as the Piper Cheyenne, Which have a maximum
ceiling from 35,000 to 41,000 feet. The decrease in air density with higher altitude lowers
the drag, so that for these aircraft, the cruise range increases with altitude.
At higher subsonic Mach number, the turbo jet engine gives the highest efficiency.
For subsonic turbo-jet aircraft, there is an optimum altitude where fuel consumption is a
minimum. This occurs at approximately 36000 feet. Therefore it is the best altitude for
the efficient long range cruise of turbo-jet powered aircraft.

5. Range:
The range is the longest distance the aircraft can fly without refueling. In a flight
plan, range refers to the distance travelled during the cruise phase.
The choice of the range is one, of the most important decisions because it has a
large effect on the aircraft take-off weight. An aircraft that is intended to fly across the
United States should have a minimum range of 2500 nautical miles. A range of 3500
nautical miles would be necessary for transatlantic flights from East coast U.S. cities to
coastal cities in Western Europe.
Shorter range transports that are designed to fly between major cities in a regional
area should have a minimum range of 500 nautical miles.

6. Endurance:
Endurance is the amount of time an aircraft can fly without refueling. With a
reconnaissance aircraft, endurance is one of the main design drivers, For a commercial
aircraft, a flight plan will include an endurance phase to allow for time that might be
spent in holding pattern prior to landing. For operation within the continental United
States commercial aircraft are required to be able to hold for 45 minutes at normal cruise
fuel consumption. For international operation, the required hold time is 30 minutes.

7. Take-off distance:
The total take-off distance consists of the length of a runway needed to accelerate,
lift and climb to a prescribed obstacle height. The obstacle height is 50 feet for military
and small civil aircraft. And 35 feet for commercial aircraft. The take-off distance that is
required to accomplish this depends on different factors in the design such as the thrust-
to-weight ratio, and the surface of the air field that affects the rolling friction of the
landing-gear wheels.
Different designs can fall into standard categories for take-off and landing. A
conventional take-off and landing (CTOL) aircraft has distance that arc greater than 1000
feet. A short take-off and landing (STOL) aircraft can take off and landing under 1000

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feet. Both of these would have a ground roll portion during take-off and landing. A
vertical take-off and landing (VTOL) aircraft does not require a ground roll.
Personal and general aviation propeller-driven aircraft, which are intended to operate out
of smaller airport, need take-off distances of 1200-2000 feet. Larger twin engine propeller
commuter aircraft, which operate out of medium to large size airports, have take-off
distances from 3000- 5000 feet. Business and smaller Commercial jets have take-off
distances of 5000- 7500 feet, larger commercial jet transport aircraft require take-off
distances from 8000-11,000 feet. The lake-off distance is a function of the altitude of the
airport.

8. Landing distance:
The landing distance consists of the length of the runway needed to descend from
a specified height of 50 feet, touchdown, and break to a stop, Factors that affect the
landing distance are the maximum lift-to-weight and the surface of the air field, which
affects the landing-gear wheels braking friction coefficient. The lift-to-weight ratio
directly affects the slowest (stall) speed at which the aircraft can fly.
For commercial aircraft, the landing distance is determined with half of the fuel
weight at take-off remaining and with an additional two-thirds distance to account for
pilot variability. Even with these measures, the landing distances are almost always less
than the take-off distances.

9. Purchase Cost:
The purchase cost of an aircraft involves the costs incurred in the research,
development, test, and evaluation (RDT&E) phase of the new aircraft design, and the
acquisition (A) or production cost of customer order aircraft. The cost estimates are based
on “cost estimating relationships” or CERs, this is depends on structure weight. Therefore
heavier aircraft will cost more than smaller, lighter aircraft. Similarly, aircraft with higher
cruise speeds are expected to cost more than slower aircraft.

10. Federal aviation regulations:

Any aircraft design must consider standards and regulations that are set by
government association. Civil aircraft designed, built, and operated in the United States
must satisfy the provision of the Federal Aviation Regulations (FARs). The FARs are
continually being updated to incorporate additional requirements that come about due to
increased time and experience with existing aircraft. Electronic listing of the FARs can be
obtained through a World Wide Web link to the Flight Standards Service of the U.S.
Federal Aviation Association (FAA).
Sections of the FARs that are of particular interest to designers are Air Worthiness
Standard, General operating and Flight Rules, and Operations. Air Worthiness standards
parts 23 and 25 in particular define different categories of aircraft based on such
characteristics as number of passenger and maximum take-off weight. These categories
are important in making comparison to other aircraft with regard to flight performance, or
other design drivers.

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