Investigation of the reverse power flow requirements

of high penetrations of small-scale embedded

generation
L.M. Cipcigan and P.C. Taylor

Abstract: The research carried out to investigate the ability of power transformers to facilitate the
required power flows associated with the anticipated high penetrations of small scale embedded
generation (SSEG), within small-scale energy zones (SSEZs) is described. A small-scale energy
zone is defined as a section of low-voltage, network with a high penetration of SSEGs, controllable
loads and energy storage units. SSEZs, coupled with active control techniques, have the potential to
assist the growth of SSEGs by removing network constraints and enabling blocks of aggregated and
controlled SSEGs to participate more effectively in energy markets and network operational tasks.
The research focused on identifying the reverse power flow and thermal-rating constraints imposed
by power transformers. The analysis was performed using an approved UK generic PSCAD/
EMTDC electrical network model, with varying levels of SSEGs. Simulations were carried out
examining cases with a uniform distribution of SSEGs contained within a number of SSEZs. It
was observed that in some cases the reverse power flow capability of the primary transformers
would exceed if each customer installed an SSEG with a rating of approximately 1 kW.

1 Introduction capability of primary transformers fitted with on-load tap

changers; Section 3 presents the technical modelling of a
Historically, distribution network operators (DNOs) have generic UK distribution network with multiple SSEZs;
planned and managed their distribution networks on a Section 4 presents the simulation conditions used in this par-
passive basis with a unidirectional flow of both real power ticular study; Section 5 discusses the implications of the
(P) and reactive power (Q) from higher to lower voltage reverse power flow requirements caused by high penetration
levels. With a significant and uniform penetration of of SSEGs. Finally, in Section 6 the conclusions are drawn.
small-scale embedded generations (SSEGs) the power
flows may become reversed. In this context, a new approach 2 Related work
to the organisation and operation of the network based on
active management techniques may be required [1]. In order to identify the distributed generation penetration
Distribution transformers are used to enable the connec- level that can be accommodated by the distribution
tion of embedded generators to the distribution networks network, an analysis of the reverse power flow capability
and are referred to in terms of operating voltage and of distribution and primary transformers is first required.
nominal rating. The rating of a transformer indicates the The issue for distribution transformers is relatively
amount of power it can transfer between its two sets of term- simple. The distribution transformers have a thermal
inals. Primary transformers usually have a nominal rating rating that should not be exceeded beyond limit. This
and a cyclic emergency rating and they are usually sized rating is symmetrical and therefore does not vary depending
to accommodate maximum peak demand load without on the direction of the power flow.
becoming overloaded. As a result, these transformers are When considering primary transformers the situation is
often actually loaded to only a small fraction of their more complex as the limiting factor is often the on-load tap-
rated power, possibly as little as 50% or less [2]. In tra- changing (OLTC) mechanism which imposes an asymme-
ditional radial networks it is often the case that primary trical power flow limit. Concerning primary transformers,
transformers are located in pairs to ensure compliance the physical constraints that limit the switching process
with Engineering Recommendation P2/5 [3]. are identified in [4] where calculations of the reverse
The research work carried out at Durham University to power flow capability are carried out using an optimisation
address the challenges related to the potential reverse real technique. The developed model is applied particularly to
power flow that would be caused by future SSEG high pen- one type of single-resistor tap changer that is mounted on
etration scenarios is presented. the 33 kV high-voltage side. An important factor for the
The article is organised as follows: Section 2 presents reverse power flow capability was identified to be the con-
related work which has analysed the reverse power flow figuration of the high-voltage side windings. Finally, con-
clusions on the variation of the reverse power flow
# The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2007 capability with respect to vector group, size of transformers,
doi:10.1049/iet-rpg:20070011 resistance of the bridging resistor and power factor are pre-
Paper first received 26th February and in revised form 29th May 2007 sented. It was found that for the single resistor type
The authors are with the School of Engineering, Durham University, Science 33/11.5 kV primary transformer, with a nominal rating of
Site, South Road, Durham, DH1 3LE, UK 7.5 MVA, the reverse power flow capability was 66.3% of
E-mail: l.m.cipcigan@durham.ac.uk rated capacity.
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 On-load tap-changing transformers and their associated in Table 1, were used during the simulation studies described
automatic voltage-control relays play an important role in in the subsequent sections of this article.
keeping customer voltages within tolerance limits and it is Fig. 1 presents the dynamic PSCAD/EMTDC model of a
well known that this is a priority for distribution network generic UK distribution network [8] which was developed
operators [5, 6]. The effects on the automatic-voltage to analyse the reverse power flow capability of both
control relays based on power flow changes are of particular primary and distribution transformers. The model was
interest, and in [5] it was identified that the limiting factor developed with different levels of aggregation [9]:
for the embedded generation connection is the range of
the tap positions available on the primary-substation trans- † Upper level of aggregation: the virtual power station
formers. High penetration can cause the lowest available (VPS) concept was defined as an upper level of aggregation
position to be reached and a subsequent loss of voltage which acts as the interface with the 33 kV network. The
control, and it was found that this problem is not caused VPS comprises of a section of LV network with a radial
by the control relay but that it is a limitation of the transfor- layout, with a lumped generator and lumped load connected
mer itself. According to [6] transformer tap-changers may on the feeder and eight MV/LV substations (11/0.433 kV)
not be adequately rated to accept significant flows of connected to a 3.0 km 11 kv feeder. Seven of the substations
reverse real power and the voltage control schemes for tap are represented as simple lumped generators and lumped
changers may also be affected by the flows of reverse real load while the last one is represented in detail. In total
and reactive power. there are 384 domestic single-phase house loads on each
A number of areas where additional work is required in substation (Fig. 1a).
order to remove potential barriers to the connection of † Second level of aggregation; the detailed MV/LV distri-
additional generation were identified in [7]. This report bution substation comprises of one 11/0.433 kV ground
states that AREVA is developing solid-state tap changers mounted distribution transfomer, delta-connected primary
and it is expected that the tap changers would have full and a wye-connected secondary winding with a rating of
reverse power capability and these could be retrofitted to 500 kVA, and four Small Scale Energy Zones. Each zone
the existing transformers or could be fitted to new transfor- is connected on an outgoing 400 V three phase feeder. In
mers. The document also describes the development of a total there are 384 customers (96 customers on each zone)
two-position tap changer for smaller distribution transfor- distributed equally between the feeders cables. Three
mers and this would give an increased range of operation zones are represented as lumped generation and lumped
by providing low-high-load positions, winter/summer or load while one zone is represented in full detail (Fig. 1b).
load/generation positions. Dynamic transformer-rating
equipment is presented as an option for closer control of PSCAD/EMTDC was selected for modelling the SSEZs as
the maximum transformer load and a possible means of it allowed variable wind speed studies to be conducted and the
postponing reinforcement requirements. It was found that, network effects to be evaluated, it also allowed the effects of
potentially, dynamic ratings could increase the allowable aggregation to be studied. Another attractive feature of the
loading by 10 – 20% [7]. PSCAD/EMTDC SSEZ model is that it allows the dynamic
effects of active controllers to be observed. Active controller
3 Small-scale energy zones modelling development is an important aspect of the research being
carried out at Durham University .
A three-wire representation of the MV/LV network was The most important technical characteristics of the MV/
dynamically modelled in PSCAD/EMTDC. The system LV network under study are presented in the following
comprises 192 small-scale energy zones (SSEZ), with subsections.
wind generation distributed uniformly along the LV
network and 18 432 customers supplied. Each SSEZ con- 3.1 Primary transformers
tains 96 customers. The summation of each of these
SSEZs is referred to as a Virtual Power Station (VPS). The high voltage (HV)/MV primary substation feeding the
Domestic loads have been represented as purely resistive MV network comprises two transformers in parallel with a
components. Load demand figures produced by the nominal rating of 7.5 MVA and a Cyclic Emergency Rating
Electricity Association show that the minimum and (CER) of 15 MVA. A primary substation with two transfor-
maximum demand figures are 0.16 kVA and 1.3 kVA, mers has a firm or secure capacity of 15 MVA in the winter,
respectively, after diversity has been taken into account which is reduced to only 7.5 MVA in the summer [2]. Each
[8]. For this study 100% penetration was defined to describe transformer has an impedance of 18%, an X/R ratio of 15
a situation where all customers have installed a SSWT of and is equipped with on-load taps at the HV winding [8].
1.1 kW capacity. 200% penetration describes a situation Its connection group is YY0, which corresponds to a wye-
where each customer has installed a SSWT of 2.2 kW connected primary and a wyeconnected secondary winding.
capacity. The maximum capacity of the VPS for a number In addition to increasing and decreasing nominal vol-
of penetration scenarios was calculated taking into consider- tages, many transformers are equipped with tap changers
ation these assumptions as seen in Table 1. The penetration in order to realise a limited range of voltage control.
levels and corresponding VPS generation capacities, shown OLTC transformers are usually employed to correct

Table 1: Main characteristics of SSEZ

SSEZ network topology Generation type Max. no. of SSEZ Load type min. SSEG penetration levels and
corresponding VPS maximum
capacities

0.16 kW 50% 100% 150% 200%

urban radial network wind urban-specific 192 Household domestic 10 MW 20 MW 30 MW 40 MW

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Fig. 1 SSEZs with wind generation connected to LV distribution network
a Virtual power station model
b Detailed model of a SSEZ
c Detailed model of a segment

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voltage profiles on an hourly or daily basis to accommodate characteristics of the turbine and the generator are deter-
load variations. With an OLTC the transformer voltage ratio mined according to the mean wind speed.
can be varied in steps by adding or subtracting turns. Fig. 2 † For variable wind speed conditions a time series of turbu-
presents some basic tap-winding connection configurations lent wind speed data is the input of the model using an X-Y
according to [10, 11]. transfer function block as an interface with an external file
Two different principles of OLTC are generally applied: containing the turbulent wind speed data generated using
resistor-type tap-changing or reactance-type tap-changing. the method outlined in [13]. The variable wind speed is
There are two methods used to perform a tap-change oper- used for all wind turbine models and on all levels of
ation with respect to the duty of contacts: the flag cycle and aggregation.
the pennant cycle. The flag cycle is the most frequently used
method in the case of divider switches as well as selector
4 Simulation conditions
switches. The advantage of this method is that it ensures
maximum reliability when the OLTC operates with over- The simulation conditions used in this study are presented in
load. The power transfer function can be symmetrical or the following subsections.
asymmetrical, the former providing similar switching
conditions for forward or reverse power flow through the
transformer [11]. 4.1 Primary and distribution transformers

3.2 Cables in 11 kV distribution network In PSCAD there are two transformer models available and
in this particular study, three single-phase transformers,
The 11 kV distribution cables are constructed from copper which include saturation effects but do not include coupling
conductors and have been represented by single-phase inductances between the windings, were used. The coupling
resistances and reactances related to the R, L equivalents inductances were neglected because balanced transformer
of two sizes of cable: 185 mm2 and 95 mm2 with the par- loading conditions were maintained throughout the simu-
ameters presented in Appendix [8]. The total length of lations. The positive sequence leakage and copper losses
each 11 kV feeder is 3 km, comprising two 0.75 km long were calculated using the transformer X/R ratio, no temp-
sections of 185 mm2 cable and two 0.75 km long sections erature correction being taken into consideration.
of 95 mm2 cables. All 11 kV cables have been represented The primary-substation 33/11.5 kV transformers are
in PSCAD/EMTDC by single-phase resistances and modelled with on-load tap changers and the tap settings
reactances. are set up and down with 1.67% tap steps in order to
ensure the voltage at the MV side is maintained between
3.3 Distribution transformers 11.0 kV and 11.1 kV. Fig. 3 presents the action of the tap-
changer in order to control the voltage on the MV side, it
Each of the eight MV/LV distribution substations feeding was assumed that both of the primary transformers were
the LV network comprise a single ground-mounted transfor- operated such that they always had the same tap position
mer 11/0.433 kV of vector group Dy11 (a delta-connected and therefore no circulating currents are taken into con-
primary and a wye-connected secondary winding) with a sideration. The upper bound of 1.1 and lower bound of
rating of 0.5 MVA. The transformer has an impedance of 0.94 are the UK LV statutory limits of the 0.433 kV
5% and an X/R ratio of 15 [8]. network.
As the 11/0.433 kV transformers are not equipped with
3.4 Wind generator model an on-load tap changer, the variations can only be limited
by controlling the MV voltage.
The wind turbine model is implemented in PSCAD/
EMTDC and the parameters used for simulations are
based on a commercially available Small Scale Wind 4.2 Penetration scenarios
Turbine (SSWT) designed for an urban environment [12].
The main purpose of the power flow analysis presented in
In PSCAD, the complete wind generator cycle is composed
this article was to identify different SSWT penetration
of the following components:
levels that could cause reverse power flow back up onto
† The wind source component which simulates all wind the 11 kV and 33 kV networks. The following levels of pen-
conditions and in this study a mean wind speed of etration were considered, from 0% (as a base for compari-
10.7 m/s is used. son) through 100% penetration (all customers have
† A 2.5 kW, 3 bladed horizontal axis wind turbine is con- installed a SSWT of 1.1 kW capacity) up to 200% pen-
nected to a Squirrel Cage Induction Generator. The rated etration (all customers have installed a SSWT of 2.2 kW
capacity), (see Table 1). As the network operator has no
control over the embedded generator all decisions concern-
ing the network must be made considering the worst poss-
ible conditions of the generation for any set of network
conditions. In this study, the worst case scenario was con-
sidered to be the maximum generation output, minimum
load consumption case. In this case, the power flow in the
network is reversed from the conventional situation.

4.3 Wind speed conditions

Throughout the simulations a mean wind speed of 10.7 m/s

was used. This was selected to represent a period of high
Fig. 2 Basic connection configurations of tap windings [11] wind power availability in an urban environment and one
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Fig. 3 Voltage regulation case tree structure for tap-changer position

at which most urban wind turbines would be operating at † In one direction of movement of the OLTC, the circulat-
maximum power output. ing current starts flowing before through-current is diverted
from the main contacts.
† In the other direction of movement, the through-current
4.4 Loading conditions is diverted from the main contacts before the circulating
currents start flowing.
The loading conditions were designed to exhibit a worst
case scenario in terms of the impact of SSEG within the
LV network. Therefore each load customer was assigned The main switching contact has to break the through-
the Electricity Association’s minimum demand figure of current in one switching direction and the circulating
0.16 kVA [8]. current minus the through-current in the other switching
direction. The maximum current to be switched occurs
when the vectorial sum of these two currents becomes
4.5 Generation location maximal. This is reached when the phase angle between
the two currents is 908 which means at power factor zero.
The study assumed a uniform penetration of SSWTs across
According to [11], the circulating current is determined
the LV network and uniform penetration of the SSEZs
by the relevant step voltage and the transition resistor.
on the MV/LV substation and it was found that reverse
Fig. 5 shows the locus curve of the output voltage Ū of
power flow through the 11/0.433 kV distribution transfor-
the transformer when moving from one tapping to the adja-
mer is first experienced at approximately 10% penetration.
cent one [11].
For single-resistor tap changer configurations that are
5 Investigation of transformer power flow mounted on the HV side (33 kV) of the primary transfor-
constraints mers the reverse power flow capability is only 66.3%, of
rated capacity, according to the optimisation model devel-
Reverse power flow capability is limited by at least two oped in [4]. On the basis of the simulation study performed,
main transformer characteristics: nameplate rating of the the threshold was exceeded for a SSEG penetration level of
transformer and tap-changing mechanism. 54.7% (Fig. 6) taking into consideration the reduced power
flow capabilities.
According to tap changer manufacturers’ data some tap
5.1 Reverse power flow constraints of the changers mounted on the HV transformer side present
primary-substation transformers

For the primary-substation transformer it was found that

there is a reverse real power flow back onto the 33 kV
power system and a threshold occurs for 82.5% penetration
when the nominal rating of 7.5 MVA is quoted as presented
in Fig. 4.
A problem identified by the DNOs is that the design of
some primary transformers load tap changers is such that
reverse power flow may not be possible or may be limited
to significantly less than the rating of the transformer [14].
For example, tap changers employing the asymmetrical
pennant cycle normally use selector switches and are used
with a load current flow in one direction only. The following Fig. 4 Power flow through primary-substation transformers with
operation is more typical: nominal rating as a threshold

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Fig. 5 Output voltage locus curve [11]
Fig. 7 Power flow through distribution-substation transformer

5.2.2 Variable wind speed: For variable wind speed

studies each wind turbine and each lumped generator was
presented with a different wind input profile, each with an
average wind speed of 10.7 m/s. This wind regime rep-
resents a particularly windy day in the context of an urban
environment. Variable wind conditions could cause fluctu-
ating power which can change the power flow direction
several times a day as the result of power output and
demand changes, and Fig. 8 presents the variable active
power flow through the distribution transformer for 114%
penetration.
Fig. 6 Power flow through primary-substation transformer for In this study, it was found that aggregation of a number of
single resistor changer type wind turbines rapidly smoothes the net power output com-
pared to the power output from an individual wind
turbine. In order to quantify the smoothing effect of the
aggregation, the power output profiles were analysed.
reverse power flow capabilities reduced to as little as 30%, of Fig. 9 shows the variation in power output, as a percentage
rated capacity, in this case the reverse power flow limit is of the average output, for a single turbine and for the aggre-
experienced at a SSEG penetration level of 25%. gated outputs of two, three and four turbines (see Segment 4
in Fig. 1c). It can be seen that the variations decrease, from
5.2 Power flow constraints of the 7– 2%, as the number of turbines being aggregated
distribution-substation transformers increases. The issue of the aggregation effects of SSWT at
both ac and dc are discussed in greater detail in [15].
5.2.1 Constant wind speed: The constant wind speed As a consequence of the variable wind speed regime and
study confirms that the 500 kW rating of the 11/0.433 kV the aggregation effect arising from multiple wind turbines,
distribution transformer would be exceeded at 107% pen- the transformer is loaded between 73% and 118%. Clearly,
etration as presented in Fig. 7. It has been assumed that the transformer hot-spot winding temperature will tend
the distribution transformers can pass 100% of their rating to follow this loading pattern. The transformer hot-spot
in the reverse direction and this is a reasonable assumption, winding temperature is usually the principal factor limiting
though it will not be true for all distribution transformers, the extent to which a power transformer can be loaded.
and it would not be the case for some ‘on load’ tap-changing Higher winding hot-spot temperatures cause degradation of
transformers. the winding insulation material [16].

Fig. 8 Power flow through distribution transformer, 114% penetration and variable wind speed
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 aggregated blocks of SSEGs, contained within multiple
SSEZs, to interact more effectively with electricity
markets and potentially to provide ancillary services, such
as distribution network voltage control support.

7 Acknowledgments

The work presented has been performed within the project

‘Intelligent active energy management for small scale
energy zones,’ funded by the EPSRC. The authors would
also like to thank CE Electric UK and EON UK for their
Fig. 9 Power output variations for different numbers of wind
support during this work.
turbines aggregated
8 References

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3 ER P2/5: ‘Security of Supply’, Electricity Association, 1978
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It is clear that the change in real power flows caused by
embedded generation has important technical implications for
the power system. Therefore it may become necessary to 9 Appendix
limit the net export to the higher voltage system through the
transformers and this could be achieved through the use of an 11 kV distribution cables parameters used in PSCAD/
active local controller operating within the zone. This would EMTDC models
allow control of the generation outputs as well as control of 11 kV PICAS cable, 3-core 185 mm2 copper conductors
the load and energy storage devices within the zone to minimise
resistance 0.164 V/km
reverse power flow. Active control within a zone should enable
the costs of replacing or modifying transformers to be avoided. reactance 0.08 V/km
The simulation results have provided valuable infor- cable length 2  0.75 km long
mation for identifying the network constraints which
11 kV PICAS cable, 3-core 95 mm2 copper conductors
would be encountered for potential future high penetrations
of SSEGs. The next step for this research will be to use the resistance 0.32 V/km
PSCAD/EMTDC SSEZ model to investigate the use of reactance 0.087 V/km
active network management techniques not only to over- cable length 2  0.75 km long
come these network constraints but to allow large

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