14 Chapter 5
14 Chapter 5
14 Chapter 5
5.1 Introduction
Point B marks the end of purely elastic straining and the point of
initiation of plastic deformation. It is known as the upper yield point. At
the upper yield point, a laminar plastic zone known as Luder’s band,
inclined at approximately 45° to the tensile axis appears at a local
stress concentration. During the subsequent elongation under constant
stress, several Luder’s bands appear and gradually spread over the
entire specimen.
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Figure 5.1 Stress-Strain curve of metals in simple tension for ductile material
/ /
/ /
/ /
Figure 5.2Stress- strain curve of metals with effect of unloading and reverse loading
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At E, the rate of work hardening is unable to keep pace with the
fracture at F.
(See figure 5.2) in the plastic range and the load is subsequently
were analyzed using either upper bound theory or slip line field theory.
Although analytical and numerical studies of metal deformation
gg
process are not fully understood. An accurate predictive model is yet to
be developed. The common plane strain model, which has been
frequently used, depends on the machining condition. The deformation
process is complex with large strains and strain rate as well as wide
range of temperatures creating special difficulties in developing reliable
process models. Many predictive models are based on idealized shear
plane and rely on experimental inputs.
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5.3 Concept Of Plasticity And Finite Element Formulation
Where j' and J\ are the second and third invariants of the deviatoric
stresses,
l, (5.4)
=e// 2 Ojj&kk
=*(*■) (5.5)
in which k is a material parameter to be determined. The second
deviatoric stress invariant, J'2 can be explicitly written as:
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a, - a
(5.7)
Where (5.8)
For some materials, notably soils, the yield surface may not strain
harden but strain soften instead, so that the yield stress level at a point
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decreases with increasing plastic deformation. Therefore, an isotropic
model, the yield curve contracts progressively without translation.
Consequently yielding implies local failure and the yield surface
becomes a failure criterion.
k = wp (5.9)
Where
Wp = \a,I(dsll)p (5.10)
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Stress states for which f<x,; = k represent plastic states, while
Then if, df< o elastic unloading occurs (elastic behavior and the
stress point returns inside the yield surface; df = o neutral loading
(plastic behavior for perfectly plastic material) and the stress point
remains on the yield surface and df > o plastic loading (plastic behavior
of a strain hardening material) and the stress point remains on the
expanding yield surface.
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the plastic strain increment is proportional to the stress gradient of
quantity termed as the plastic potential Q, so that
(<&,)„(5.17)
day
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indicates that the normality condition is an acceptable assumption for
metals. Thus on use of equations (5.15), (5.16) and (5.18) the
complete incremental relationship between stress and strain for elasto-
plastic deformation is found to be
^ + £-^) ^ (5.21)
local tangent to the curve continually varying and is termed the elasto-
plastic tangent modulus, et . The hardening law k = k(ic) could just as
easily be expressed in terms of the effective stress, a (since it is
proportional to J2) to give, forthe strain hardening hypothesis
equation (5.13)
5= = //(£„) (5.22)
^ = H’(ep) (5.23)
dsp
For uniaxial case under consideration o-, = a, a2=a3=o and thus faorm-
equation (5.8)
cr=4$l2){(j'iJa'ij}yi=<y (5.24)
dep = (5-25)
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Equations (5.24) and (5.25) explain the apparent arbitrary constants
employed in the definition of a and sp, since these terms are required
hypothesis and from equation (5.13) dK = dse for the strain hardening
hypothesis.
Rearranging equation (5.27) we get
F(a,ie) = f(a)-k(ie) = 0 (5.28)
By differentiating equation (5.28) one have
nf? dF, dF , .
(5.29)
da die
or
aTda - AdX = 0 (5.30)
with the definitions
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dF_ dF dF dF dF dF dF
aT (5.31)
da dax day da, dayx da,x ’ daxy
’ ’ ’ ’
and
1 dF
A=- dK (5.32)
dydrc
The vector ‘a’ is termed the flow vector. Equation (5.21) can be
immediately rewritten as
ds = [DYlda + dl^- (5.33)
da
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Note that the full differential may be employed in the last term
since ay is a function of k only. Employing the normality condition in
are respectively the effective stress and strain. Thus equation (5.40)
becomes
dK = cry dsp = dAa7a (5.41)
= (5.43)
A = H' (5.45)
Thus A is obtained to be the local slope of the uniaxial stress/plastic
strain curve and can be determined experimentally from equation (5.26)
Numerical computation of the flow vector ‘a’
aT = J JL JUL (5.46)
’
\dax do)y drxy daz ’ ’
a = tfjCj + a-fCj + a3 C3 (5.47)
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Where a! = {1,1, 0,1}
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7. Function ioadcon
8. Function solve
9. Function bmatps
10. Function modps
11. Function dbe
12. Function linear
13. Function output
14. Function increm
15. Function algor
16. Function residu
17. Function conver
18. Function invar
19. Function yieldf
20. Function flowpl
m
5.4.2 Function Input
The role of this subroutine is to accept most of the input data
required for analysis of elasto-plastic problem. This subroutine follows
UntK
closely^ that of the function of input in the elastic problem. Some
changes are as below.
‘nalgo’ is the parameter controlling the nonlinear solution
algorithm
nalgo = 1 Initial stiffness method. The element stiffness are
computed at the beginning of the analysis and remains unchanged
thereafter
nalgo = 2 Tangential stiffness method. The element stiffness are
recomputed during each iteration of each load increment
nalgo = 3 Combined algorithm. The element stiffness are recomputed
for the first iteration of each load increment only.
Nalgo = 4 Combine algorithm. The element stiffness are
recomputed for the second iteration of each load increment
The yield criterion to be employed ‘ncrit’
Ncrit = 1 Tresca, ncrit = 2 Von Mise’s
‘nstre’ - total number of increments in which the final loading is to be
applied ‘nstre’ number of independent stress components for the
application
3 - Plane stress/strain
4 - Axial symmetry
The list of material properties for the elasto-plastic applications is
elastic modulus E, poisson’s ration, material thickness, strain hardening
component, yield stress value of the material,
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5.4.3 Function Increment
The role of the subroutine is to increment the applied loading or
any proscribed displacements according to the load factors specified as
input. This subroutine is accessed on the first iteration of each load
increment. The total load can be applied in various load increment
factors. This subroutine reads the factor for the current load increment
and adds this to the variable ‘tfact’ which gives the total load that is
being applied on the structure. Depending on the variable ‘facto’ the
load factor for current increment, the rload array is multiplied by this
factor and is stored in the array ‘eload’, the load for current increment.
It inserts appropriate values in the fixity array to control any prescribed
displacements.
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5.4.6 Function Yieldf
The function of the subroutine is to calculate the flow vector ‘a’ as
per equation (5.46), (5.47) and (5.48)
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necessary to determine what proportion is elastic and which part
produces plastic deformation and then adjust the stress and strain
terms until the yield criterion and the constitutive laws are satisfied.
This subroutine in turn calls ‘bmats’, ‘modps’, ‘linear’, ‘invar’, yieldf’,
and ‘flowpl’ subroutines. The residual forces obtained after a particular
iteration is applied as the nodal forces for the next iteration of the
particular load increment. The airm is to make the residual forces on
each node to zero by means of which convergence can be achieved for
the nonlinear numerical solution.
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eg is the elastic reversible deformation and is the inelastic
irreversible permanent deformation. In case of elasto-plastic modeling
em=ep i where epis the plastic deformation. In case of creep, the
externally imposed variable may be temperature, variation, humidity
etc, ejn=ecwhere ecis the creep deformation. The difference between
the total deformation and plastic deformation is the main cause for
spring back effect, also it may not be predominant as the variation of
temperature, humidity etc.
The loads applied are 4000 Newton, 6200 Newton and 6500
Newton respectively. These plots are obtained for elasto-plastic
material model for the comparison. Figure 5.4 illustrates X and Y
deformation considering the reversible elastic strain.
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behaviour. After the load is released, the residual stress due to elastic
strain also relived producing the spring back effect. The difference
between total deformation and plastic strain gives the spring back
effect. This is illustrated in the figure 5.5. In this case the value of the
spring back varies from 0.025mm to 0.035mm. It is also observed the
spring back effect is not appreciably in X direction deformation compar-
to the spring back effect in Y direction. This clearly indicates that the
to
spring back effect is not only affect deformation in Y-direction but also
/\
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Displacement in X-Direction
0 9 9 9 9 9 9 0 9
i
------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- 1-
1
(iutu) juaiusoeiedsia-X
1
11
1
1
Nodal Point
(a)
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Displacement in X-Direction
X-Displacement (mm)
Nodal Point
(a)
Displacement in Y-Direction
Y-Displacement (mm)
(b)
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Figure 5.5 Elastic and plastic strain to show the spring back
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