SEMANDA Final Thesis
SEMANDA Final Thesis
SEMANDA Final Thesis
Julius Semanda
(CE300-0009/12)
2014
Declaration
This thesis is my original work and has not been submitted to any other university for
examination.
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Signature Date
Julius Semanda
This Thesis has been submitted for examination with my approval as University
Supervisor
……………………. ………………………...
Signature Date
……………………. ………………………...
Signature Date
ii
Dedication
This thesis is dedicated to my late Aunt Nakabugo Sylvia, my mother Judith, Granny
Margret, my wife Evelyn Kyarisiima, my son Semanda Julius Lennon and my daughters
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Acknowledgements
Professor Raphael Mutuku and Professor Wambua James Kaluli for their valuable
Secondly, I thank all my parents and my wife for bearing with my absence from home
during the period of study and taking good care of our children. As for my course mates
and friends, your love and advice played a bigger role in the accomplishment of this
My deepest and sincere appreciation go to my sponsors the African Union for giving me
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Declaration ............................................................................................................................... ii
Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................. iv
1.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................. 1
v
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................................... 11
2.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 11
2.3.1 Lime mortar as a component in lime and cement finishing material ..................... 14
vi
CHAPTER 3: MATERIALS AND METHODS ................................................................... 32
4.1 The effect of cement, plastics and egg shells on compressive strength of cubes .......... 48
4.2.1 The effect of cement, plastics and egg shell contents on water absorption
vii
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ......................................... 65
5.1 Conclusions................................................................................................................ 65
REFERENCES ....................................................................................................................... 68
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List of figures
Figure 4.3: Effect of average egg shells on the average compressive strength….....50
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List of plates
Plate 3.2: Egg shells during drying and after being processed………..…………..34
Plate 3.4: Motor and pestle for pounding the egg shells………………………….35
Plate 3.5: Milling machine in BEED used to crush the egg shell to powder……...35
Plate 3.7: Porker Vibrator, trowel, trough and spades used during casting of
cube…………………………………………………………….……….38
x
Plate 4.2: Shuttered tile without plastics……………………...…………………..61
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List of tables
Table 1.1: Composition of solid wastes generated in East African urban centers….5
Table 4.6: Unit cost for plastics, egg shells, cement and one m2 of tiles…….……63
xii
Acronyms
Engineering
xiii
Abstract
Human activities often generate solid wastes such as plastics and egg shell wastes.
Disposal of these wastes is usually a problem. The aim of this study was to investigate
the feasibility of using plastic and egg shell wastes together with white cement in the
production of floor tiles. The waste was collected from kitchens and waste disposal
facilities within Juja constituency, Kenya. The materials were cleaned and dried; and
plastics were shredded while egg shells were crushed. Waste materials were then mixed
with white cement in different proportions. Compressive strength tests were carried out
to determine the suitability of using such solid wastes in making floor tiles. Crushed egg
shells passing through the 1.2 mm sieve and shredded plastics with an average diameter
of to 1 to 2 mm were used. Cubes were cast and cured for 28 days. The compressive
strength of the cubes was tested using a universal testing machine. The study found that
addition of up to 50% cement resulted in more than 10 fold increase in the compressive
strength of the cast cubes. Addition of plastics decreased the compressive strength of
the cubes while addition of egg shells had insignificant effect on compressive strength.
Increasing the quantity of plastics and egg shells resulted in elevated water absorption,
while larger quantities of cement resulted in reduced water absorption. Increasing the
quantity of egg shells and plastics resulted in reduced density. With the presence of
plastics, abrasion resistance increased and the tiles became less brittle. It is concluded
that egg shells can be used as filler material in the manufacture of floor tiles. Because of
the tendency of plastics to reduce the compressive strength of tiles, they should be used
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cautiously. The study has established that use of plastic and egg shell wastes in the
manufacture of floor tiles is a viable waste reduction option. However, further studies
are necessary to establish the chemical interactions involved in floor tile production
systems where household and industrial wastes such as plastics and egg shells are used.
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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND
1.1 Introduction
(Safiuddin et al., 2010). Globally, the estimated quantity of solid wastes generation was
12 billion tons in the year 2002 (Pappu et al., 2007). Many authorities and investigators
are lately working to have the privilege of reusing the wastes in environmentally and
economically sustainable ways (Aubert et al., 2006). The utilization of solid wastes in
construction materials is one of such innovative efforts. Freire and Holanda, (2006)
previous study indicated that the egg shell waste samples were rich in CaCO3 (50.7%)
and may be used as an alternative raw material in the production of wall tile materials.
Use of floor tiles in construction is for decorative, protection and aesthetic purposes
(Kornmann and CTTB, 2007). The core material mostly used to produce floor tiles is
clay which may be glazed to improve the tile properties. Fiori and Brusa, (1983),
fabricated ceramic tiles in India using blast furnace slag with 0.1–2.5% water
absorption.
Tiles have to have a degree of impact resistance. Impact resistance of ceramic tiles is
important for their life in service. Floor tiles are expected to sustain many types of
loads, some of which may be static but impact loads also occur. Impact loads provide
the most usual way for breakages on walls (Harrison and Ralph, 1988).
1
Effect of water absorption on frost resistance of clay roofing tiles was studied and it was
stated that the relationship between the water absorption and frost resistance of brick
products cannot be precisely defined. Water absorption capacity identifies the nature of
the ceramic body in regard to internal structure, which is related to mechanical strength
(measured by modulus of rupture and breaking strength) and also other characteristics
that affect ceramic tile durability (particularly in unglazed tiles), such as resistance to
For glazed tiles intended for flooring, European standard EN 14411 makes it
compulsory to state the abrasion resistance class of the glazed surface as a whole
(glazes and decorations), after performance of the standard test according to ISO 10545-
7 (1999). In an effort to eradicate solid waste this study focuses on using solid waste in
form of egg shells and plastic as construction raw materials to develop floor building
tiles.
1.2 Background
Kampala city has been hit most by the effects of plastic wastes (see Plate 1.1 and Table
1.1). This has led to a lot of unpleasant sceneries in the city. This study aims at
way to reduce on plastic wastes in Kampala city especially in Kawempe and Rubaga
divisions so that to improve on the hygiene in the area. These areas have got a lot of
dumping areas and this has resulted into poor hygiene in the area, rampant flooding
2
especially when it rains in places like Bwaise and Kaleerwe. This has been greatly
caused by the blocking of water channels by plastics and Egg shell wastes, which are
Despite the attempts that the government has made to ban the use of these bags which
constitute a large percentage of the plastics, there has been continued use of this
material in Uganda today. Under the Solid Waste Management Ordinance, 2000, it is
illegal and punishable to dump garbage in places where it may be or become a public
use of this material in applications that would reduce on the amounts disposed in the
environment.
Waste management in urban centers of East Africa has for a long time been centralized
(Liyala 2011), where use is made of the imported refuse trucks (see Plate 1.2) (Rotich et
3
al., 2006; Okot-Okumu & Nyenje 2011) to collect wastes from sources to designated
waste dumps. Municipal solid waste management (MSWM) system in East Africa has
changed from the colonial days when it was efficient because of the lower population
and adequate resources (Okot-Okumu & Nyenje 2011) as compared to the current status
that displays inefficiencies. The current waste management system has evolved from
sector.
Plate 1.2: Waste transportation and disposal (source: Solid Waste Management
Ordinance, 2000)
impossible for the institutions to provide any reliable estimates. The storage, collection,
major problem in urban centers (ADB 2002; Kaseva & Mbuligwe 2005; Okot-Okumu
& Nyenje 2011; Rotich et al., 2006). Wastes generated by the East African urban
centers are mainly composed of decomposable organic materials (see Table 1.1),
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(Oberlin, 2011; Okot-Okumu & Nyenje 2011; Scheinberg, 2011; Simon, 2008; Rotich
et al., 2006). Efficient collection system to avoid health, aesthetics and environmental
Table 1.1: Composition of solid wastes generated in East African urban centers
Waste
Composition Kampala
(%) Dar es salaam Moshi* #+ Jinja Lira Nairobi*
Biowaste 71 65 77.2 78.6 68.7 65
Polythene Paper 9 9 8.3 8 5.5 6
Plastic 9 9 9.5 7.9 6.8 12
Glass 4 3 1.3 0.7 1.9 2
Metal 3 2 0.3 0.5 2.2 1
Others 4 12 3.4 4.3 14.9 14
kg/cap/day 0.4 0.9 0.59 0.55 0.5 0.6
Percent
40 61 60 55 43 65
collection
183,52 91,15 107,8 4,000,00
3,070,060 1,700,850
Population 0 3 09 0
Population
paying for
collection (%of ND 35 ND ND ND ND
total
population)
5
As plastics form a significant part of the wastes in the city, an engineering intervention
to make use of this material in applications that would reduce on the amounts disposed
Egg shells are waste materials from hatcheries, homes and fast food industries (Phil and
Zhihong, 2009; Amu et al., 2005) and can be readily collected in plenty. Egg shell
disposal of Egg shells include cost, availability of disposal sites, odour, flies and
abrasiveness (Phil and Zhihong, 2009). However, they can be processed into saleable
products like fertilizer, used in artwork, human and animal nutrition and building
materials and to produce collagen from the membranes (Phil and Zhihong, 2009; Amu
et al., 2005). The composition of the Egg shell is approximately 98.2%, 0.9%, 0.9%,
al., 1949).Egg shells and shell membranes are non-edible by-products that have little
saleable value but may also contain biologically active compounds (Nakano et al.,
2003).
The chemical composition of the avian Egg shell waste sample shows that calcium
oxide (CaO) is the most abundant component (Table 1.2). The high amount of calcium
oxide is associated with the presence of calcium carbonate, which is the main
component of avian Egg shell. The sample also contained only small amounts of P 2O5,
Na2O, SrO, SiO2, MgO, Cl, Al2O3, Fe2O3, and NiO reporting less than 1.5% of the total
composition. Thus, the Egg shell waste sample can be considered from a chemical
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is very similar to the calcitic calcareous. In addition, it was also observed that the loss
on ignition for waste sample was found to be 47.8%. This high value of Loi is caused
mainly by decomposition of the calcite with formation of CaO and carbon dioxide
(CO2).
Table 1.2: Composition of egg shell (Source: Freire and Holanda, 2006)
CaO 50.7
SiO2 0.09
Al2O3 0.03
MgO 0.01
Fe2O3 0.02
Na2O 0.19
P2O5 0.24
SrO 0.13
NiO 0.001
SO3 0.57
Cl 0.08
Loi 47.8
Loi = loss on ignition
The results from the study done by Freire and Holanda (2006) indicated that the Egg
shell waste sample rich in CaCO3 can be used as an alternative raw material in the
production of wall tile materials. The avian Egg shell waste sample studied in this work
is chemically constituted basically by calcium oxide (CaO), and is more pure than
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1.3 Problem statement
Solid wastes including Egg shells & plastics, once used and dumped, can accumulate
channels, reduction of soil fertility by preventing moisture penetration into the soils and
wide spread of diseases like malaria and cholera as a result of creation of bleeding
grounds.. On the other hand, these materials may be useful for the construction industry.
The aim of this study was to investigate the feasibility of conserving the environment by
The main objective of this study was to assess the effect of plastic and eggshell waste
2. To determine the effect of proportions of Egg shell and plastic waste materials
8
1.5 Justification
The wide spread of wastes around Kampala city, the occurrence of flooding especially
when it has rained due to the blocking of water movement channels and the wide
outbreak of diseases like malaria and cholera due to creation of bleeding grounds for
houseflies and stagnant water for mosquitoes, have justified this research to be carried
1.6 Significance
The research will help in the reduction of the amount of plastics and Egg shells
dumping in cities and towns, so that unpleasant sceneries, flooding due to blockage of
water movement channels, outbreak of diseases like cholera and malaria together with
Manufacturers of plastics as well as poultry farmers will have an alternative market and
source of money for their products due to the demand of their out puts in the
construction industry. As for the clients of the construction industry, alternative and
cheap finishing materials will be readily available once the project comes into force.
achieved with the manufacturing of floor tiles from plastic and eggshell wastes.
1.7 Scope
Contextually, the study focused on the process of making floor tiles from waste
materials like plastics and egg shells, which were collected from dumping sites.
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1.7.2 Geographic scope
Geographically, the study was conducted in Nairobi and in the Administrative divisions
of Rubaga and Kawempe where plastic and egg shells wastes were collected.
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CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
Daily generation and dumping of solid waste on authorized dumpsites like landfills and
unauthorized site like roadsides, side drains as well as undeveloped plots of land in
residential places bring about accumulation of solid waste in the environment which
results into unsightly surroundings, obstruction to pedestrians and traffic flow, air
pollution and groundwater pollution due to the leaching effect. Treatments as well as
disposal of solid waste to free the society and environment of the menace of
accumulated solid waste have been issues of serious concern to individual countries and
the entire world. Various researchers have attempted to convert solid waste to beneficial
accumulation.
Several studies have been conducted on the use of plastic waste in concrete. These
include:
The works of Rebeiz showed that the resins based on recycled PET can be used to
produce a good quality of precast concrete (Rebeiz, 2007). Many studies have been
conducted on the use of scrap tire/rubber in mortar and concrete, and a research work
has been published by Siddique a review paper (2008) on the use of recycled plastic in
concrete (Siddique, Khatib & Kaur 2008). In the other study, Choi et al. (2005)
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concrete. The results obtained in this study showed that these wastes could reduce the
weight by 2–6% of normal weight concrete and the compressive strength was reduced
up to 33% compared to that of normal concrete. Sikalidis et al. (2002) investigated the
utilization of municipal solid wastes (MSW) for the production of mortar. Batayneh et
al. (2007) have shown, in their work that the decrease of compressive strength was in
function of increase in the content plastic content. For a 20% substitution of sand by the
waste, the compressive strength was reduced up to 70% compared to that of normal
concrete. Also, researchers (Remadnia et al., 2009, Yazoghli-marzouk et al. 2007) have
also studied the use of consumed plastic bottle waste as sand-substitution aggregate
within composite materials for building applications. These authors showed that the
density and compressive strength were decreased when the PET aggregates exceeded
50% by volume of sand. Also, It was found that the addition of plastic waste (fractions
< 10%) in volume inside of cementitious matrix does not imply a significant variation
Ghaly and Gill, (2004) did a study on compression and deformation performance of
plastics failed at lower compressive loads as compared with those made of conventional
concrete. The decrease in strength may be attributed to the weak bond between plastics
and cement or the weak strength of the plastic. The effect of reducing the compressive
strength of concrete by the plastic aggregates is due to the fact that plastic particles
aggregates do not have the compression qualities of the conventional coarse aggregates.
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deformation and did not experience brittle failure. At failure, most of the specimens
were reduced to two pyramids in the vertical direction with the top one being upside
down.
Al-Jabir et.al (2009) investigated the properties of hollow sandcrete blocks made with
cement kiln dust (CKD) as an additive and as a replacement for ordinary Portland
cement. They observed that when CKD was used as a replacement for cement, the
compressive strength and density of blocks generally decreased with higher replacement
levels of cement by CKD. However, when CKD was used as an additive, within the
observed.
ASTM C 270 focuses on the importance of lime and cement in defining the quality of
mortar in relation to water retention, air content, and compressive strength. These
parameters by themselves define the properties of good mortar using in masonry work,
making of concrete and interlocking tiles. Brown and Robinson (1986) wrote “The most
rigorous mortar requirements are to provide adequate and uniform bond strength and to
prevent wall leakage.” Other parameters, such as workability of the mortar and
durability are also important. Two types of properties should be considered. Plastic
mortar properties pertain to the mortar from the time of mixing until it chemically
hardens in the wall. Hardened mortar properties develop as the mortar cures after the
initial chemical set. Both types of properties are important in determining the quality of
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For glazed tiles intended for flooring, European standard EN 14411 makes it
compulsory to state the abrasion resistance class of the glazed surface as a whole
(glazes and decorations), after performance of the standard test according to ISO 10545-
7 (1999).
According to Cheng and Wei-Ting, 2014, the combination of silica fume and polyolefin
resistance than only use of polyolefin fiber due to the pozzolanic and filler effect.
Cengiz et al., 2009, found that replacement of fly ash with cement reduced abrasion
resistance of concrete and inclusion of the steel fiber improved the abrasion resistance
of concrete. However, Using polypropylene fiber did not improve abrasion resistance of
Lime mortar mixes, whether for building, re-pointing, rendering or plastering, are
essentially made from the same material. Building lime is produced by burning a
naturally occurring form of calcium carbonate (such as limestone, chalk or sea shells) to
form quicklime by driving off carbon dioxide. The quicklime is mixed with water (this
can produce a vigorous reaction which generates heat) to form lime putty in a process
poorly executed repairs in Portland cement known as slaking. Lime putty is most
commonly used for internal plastering, and the dry powder (more commonly known as
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Hydraulic lime is produced from a limestone which contains clay-based minerals.
Hydraulic lime is available as a dry powder. It is commonly used for external work as it
Ordinary Portland cement is made by heating limestone with clay or sand in a kiln in a
controlled manner to produce “clinker”. Varying amounts of the mineral gypsum are
added to this to give the desired setting properties. The material is supplied in bag form.
The addition of water causes a reaction and the cement to set. The combination of
cement, aggregate and water in different proportions forms concrete, cement plaster and
cement mortar. Putting additives into cement can increase the workability of the mix,
for example to allow its use as a render for external surfaces. Like lime mortars,
pozzolans can also be added to affect the setting characteristics. Color additives can also
be incorporated.
These are materials which are heated to high temperatures so as to obtain the
into types or more categories in terms of composition (oxide, carbide and so on). The
characteristics of some of the more common are given below. Alumina (aluminum
oxide, Al2 O3) is by far the most commonly used engineering ceramic. Alumina has a
high hardness, is electrically insulating and can be produced in a wide variety of shapes
and purities (typically from 80 to 99% where the remainder is composed of a mixture of
15
inter granular glasses). Found predominantly as a substrate in the electronics industry,
The core material mostly used to produce interlocking tiles is granite particles,
otherwise known as stone dust (pulverized granite). The word granite comes from the
Latin granum, which means a grain, in reference to the coarse-grained structure of such
a crystalline rock. Granite is a common and widely occurring type of intrusive, felsic,
igneous rock (Ohijeagbon et al., 2012. The aggregated materials of interlocking tiles are
usually bound together with cement. Cement is basically a binder which sets and
hardens independently, and can bind other materials together when hydrated. In India,
Fiori and Brusa, (1983), fabricated ceramic tiles the water absorption of which varied
between with 0.1% to 2.5%. Their tiles were made using blast furnace slag.
Investigation by Ramesh et al., (2013) found that using steel fiber content of 1.5% and
cement up to 30% by fly ash in concrete enhanced impact resistance. Steel fibers varied
from 0%, 0.5%, 1% and 1.5% by weight of cement and replacement of fly ash varied
embedded into a cement base, then ground flat and coated with a topical sealer (see
Plate 2.1). Although modern terrazzo can be made from a wider range of materials and
polished without coatings, the craft of installing it pretty much remains the same.
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Today’s terrazzo is made with either Portland cement or epoxy as its base, then
combined with some type of aggregate to provide it's unique speckled look. Although
marble is still the aggregate of choice for most applications, terrazzo can also be made
from recycled glass and metals, as well as natural aggregates such as mother of pearl.
Terrazzo can also be set into precision cut forms to create logos, medallions, text, or any
Advancements in technology have provided methods for finishing terrazzo without the
without using any chemicals. For this reason, terrazzo is also environmentally friendly
Terrazzo has been rediscovered by contemporary architects and designers because of its
timeless beauty and versatility. Not only does terrazzo make an impressionable floor,
but can also be used in the fabrication of counters, bars, table-tops and vanities.
Terrazzo is a craft that can be molded and created into anything imaginable.
materials, and a binding material. The latter usually consists of finished concrete or a
synthetic such as epoxy resin. When resins are used, the finished product is known as
thin-set terrazzo. The more expensive types of terrazzo are normally composed of
finished concrete with fine marble chips or other stone. Most anything can be placed in
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Plate 2.1: Terrazzo tile
b) Marble chips
limestone. However, in recent decades, marble has been redefined to include all
calcareous rocks capable of taking a polish (such as onyx, travertine, and attractive
material, crushed and sized to yield marble chips for terrazzo. Excellent domestic and
imported marble chips are available for use in terrazzo in a wide range of colors and can
stretch and bend physical and chemical properties. They affect how the material
functions and the durability of the material. They are given as below;
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2.4.1 Mechanical properties of building finishing materials
indented. Hard materials are often also very brittle - this means they have a low
resistance to impact. Well known hard materials include diamond and hardened
any extension first. Good examples are Cast iron, concrete, high carbon steels,
hammer blows) well is tough - this is the opposite of brittleness. [Units for
e) Plasticity: The materials which deform permanently when small forces are
f) Elasticity: The ability of a material to return to its original form after a load has
been applied and removed. Good examples include rubber, mild steel and some
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i) Tensile strength: This is the ability of a material to withstand pulling or
j) Durability: This is the ability of a material to withstand wear and tear through
a) Conductivity: This is how well a material conducts heat. Majority of the metals
b) Electrical conductivity: This means how well the material conducts electricity.
Metals and graphite are good conductors. Insulators are materials that do not
all insulators.
c) Magnetic: Some metals can be magnetized (most steels). Ferrous metals are
generally magnetic, that is, able to be attracted by a magnet. There are some
which would quickly cause normal PVC to become brittle. A range of coatings
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and surface finishes are used to improve materials appearance and corrosion
resistance.
Ceramic tiles possess a wide range of properties, and certain tiles are better suited for
some installations than others. Few tiles are suited for all types of installations;
achieve the desired and anticipated value of the tile (Michael, 2008). These include:
a) Water absorption
The ability of a tile’s bisque to absorb water or moisture. ASTM test method C373
measures the rate of absorption as a percent of the volume of the body of the tile, with
Water absorption capacity identifies the nature of the ceramic body in regard to internal
breaking strength) and also other characteristics that affect ceramic tile durability
(particularly in unglazed tiles), such as resistance to deep abrasion, stain resistance, and
A measure of the resistance of tile surfaces to visible surface abrasion. The ASTM
C1027 test applies to glazed floor, quarry, mosaic, or porcelain tiles only.
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c) Aesthetic class
This is a classification that has long been needed by the tile industry especially tile
show rooms to help educate tile consumers regarding color, blending, and shade
variations. On one hand (the most uniform), determination of class involves precise
testing (ASTM C609); but at the other extreme, the designation “Substantial Variation”
manufacturers and showrooms now have a positive standard and a simple classification
Chemical resistance
The chemicals comprising this class include the most popular cleaning solutions and
d) Stain resistance
ASTM C1378 measures a tile’s resistance to the most common household stains.
ASTM C1243 measures the resistance to wear of an unglazed tile intended for floor
f) Freeze/thaw resistance
ASTM C1026 measures a tile’s resistance to damage induced by cycles of freezing and
thawing, and rates 10 samples according to damage done at 5, 10, and 15 testing cycles.
g) Coefficient of friction
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ASTM C1028 is a test to determine the coefficient of friction for manufactured tiles or
for installed tiles under both wet and dry conditions. A minimum ASTM C1028 test
h) Bond Strength
A measure of the ability of a tile to be bonded with Portland cement paste, with test
values (ASTM C482) expressed in inch/pounds. The minimum value for this test is 50
psi. An especially important value for glass tiles, especially those with a smooth or
coated back.
i) Breaking strength
A measure of the breaking strength of tile with test values (ASTM C648) expressed in
pounds-force. Minimum value for glazed or unglazed mosaic, quarry, or paver tile is
250-pounds. Minimum value for glazed wall tile is 90-pounds. Samples of non-ceramic
tiles, made of stone, glass, metal, concrete, or other materials can be submitted for
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j) Crazing resistance
A one cycle pass-or-fail test (ASTM C424) to determine resistance to crazing. The test
uses staining dyes and steam to induce and identify thermal shock damage. Any tile
claiming craze or crackle resistance should be able to pass the ASTM C424. There is no
ASTM C484 measures glazed ceramic tiles resistance to thermal shock created by rapid
or severe temperature changes, as might be found near a fireplace or stove surround, for
example. The test uses staining dyes and approximate 300°F temperatures to induce and
identify cracks or other damage. There is no test value: The sample either passes or
fails.
l) Moisture expansion
A negative property, rarely found in ceramic tile, where prolonged moisture absorption
causes a tile to permanently grow in volume. ASTM C370 is the test used to reveal this
property. It is included here only to highlight that the moisture expansion phenomenon
exists.
m) Facial dimensions
A measure of the uniformity of size of a particular tile, determined by ASTM test C499
with values found, under “Nominal Size”, “Caliber Range”, and “Thickness”, in ANSI
A137.
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n) Warpage
The curving of a flat tile surface, as measured by ASTM C485, with values found,
o) Wedging
A change in edge dimension, from one tile to another, in a given lot, as measured by
p) Thermal Expansion
q) Thickness
The uniformity of thickness for a given lot of tile is determined by ASTM C499, with
According to Kiran Kumar and Prakash (2006) a material that contains one or more
organic polymers of large molecular weight, solid in its finished state and at some state
while manufacturing or processing into finished articles, can be shaped by its flow, is
termed as plastics. Prabir Das (2004) suggested that plastics could be used in
construction industry at various places. Proper selection of material / grade and suitable
design considerations can help to replace many more applications. Lighter weight,
design flexibility, part integration, low system cost, very high productivity and
improved product appearance are the main features for use of engineering plastics.
Lakshmi and Nagan (2011) suggested the use of E- Plastic particles along with fly ash
to improve the properties of concrete. Vasudevan (2004), in his report gave the most
25
useful ways of disposing waste plastics and laying roads in a research carried out by the
waste plastics may be used in block making, modified light roofing, mastic flooring and
polymer reinforced concrete. The blocks could take 350 tonnes of load and prevent
water penetration.
Construction represents the second largest market for plastics, consuming some 25% of
all plastics consumed in the UK. The earliest commercially available plastics material
was first developed in the UK and exhibited in 1862. Plastics have been used in
construction applications since the 1930’s. Plastics are a family of some twenty
different materials each with a different range of properties. Examples of plastics used
c) Hotel and catering: packaging items, mineral water bottles, plastic plates, and
glass
26
2.6.2 Fundamental benefits of plastics in construction
Polymers have a number of vital properties, which when exploited alone or together,
accidents
e) Plastics offer design freedom: A limitless array of shapes possible, products can
f) Plastics are strong: Durable, knock and scratch resistant with excellent weather
products can be recycled with low energy inputs and when this is not feasible
27
j) Plastics are low maintenance: Plastics building products can be repaired, they do
Using Plastics in construction has a number of advantages including but not limited to:
d) The process makes use of plastic bags in shredded form. The disposal of used
Low density polyethylene is an extruded material that offers good corrosion resistance
and low moisture permeability. It can be used where corrosion resistance is important
and not stiffness, high temperatures, and structural strength. LDPE, a highly flexible
product, is used widely in orthopedics products or where mobility without stress fatigue
HDPE Represents the largest portion of the polyethylene applications and offers
excellent impact resistance, light weight, low moisture absorption, and high tensile
strength. It is also non-toxic and non-staining and meets FDA and USDA certification
28
c) Ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene
This category has light weight (1/8 the weight of mild steel), high in tensile strength,
and is as simple to machine as wood. UHMW PE is the ideal material for many wear
UHMW PE meets FDA and USDA acceptance for food and pharmaceutical equipment
and is a good performer in applications up to 180 °F (82 °C). Melting Point 115oC to
135oC
many parts of the world. Egg shells are part of agricultural wastes that litter the
environment. In the ever increasing endeavors to convert waste to wealth, the efficacy
of converting Egg shells to beneficial use becomes an idea worth investigating. The
composition of the Egg shells lends the effects of its ash on the cement to be articulated.
calcium. Winton (2003), presented egg shell as being composed off 93.7% calcium
carbonate, 4.20% organic matter, 1.30% magnesium carbonate, and 0.8% calcium
phosphate.
29
a) Appearance: A fine powder ranging in color from off-white to white
i) Particle size: Up to 50% of the fresh dry material may be respirable (below 10
microns)
Contact with cement mixed with water or body fluids (for example sweat or eye fluid)
burns. If such contact occurs, the affected area should be washed without delay with
plenty of clean water. In case of eye contact rinse immediately with clean water and
This research was carried out with the concern of reducing wastes in the environment by
using them to make construction building floor tiles. This study looked at floor building
tiles with these waste materials and the compressive strength, density, water absorption,
30
abrasion and impact resistance tests were conducted on the tiles to investigate their
31
CHAPTER 3: MATERIALS AND METHODS
This involved collecting the wastes, cleaning, drying, crushing and grinding them,
determining the density of the ingredients and determining the volumes of the
Plastics were collected especially from hospitals and other dumping sites, were washed
Plastic is a strong material and it is resistant to both chemical and physical attacks
why it is considered one of the major threats to the fertility of our soils. This has made it
resistance of the material. Plastics also increase the bonding in the composite material.
Plastics were mainly used as fill materials to increase the bulk and reduce on the use of
32
Plate 3.1: Sorted and crushed plastics
The egg shells were obtained from poultry farmers, hotels, JKUAT cafeteria; they were
subjected to thorough cleaning involving soaking in water for 24 hours allowing easy
removal of dirt and membranes during cleaning. The major component of egg shells
being calcium carbonate makes them a very important material. The egg shells are
resistant to water penetration making its combination with plastics suitable for their use.
33
(c) Crushed eggshells (d) Pounded eggshells
Plate 3.2: Egg shells during drying and after being processed
Egg shells were first put in boiling water for 5-10 minutes to remove the membrane and
then sun dried for 3-4 days and then some were pounded using a motor and pestle( see
plate 3.3) and others crushed using a milling machine (Plate 3.4). The pounded egg
shells were sieved through a 1.2mm sieve (Plate 3.5). The egg shells were used to
Plate 3.3: Motor and pestle for pounding the egg shells
34
Plate 3.4: Milling machine in BEED used to crush the egg shell to powder
35
c. White cement as a binder
This is a third component that binds the plastics and egg shells to make a material which
is resistant to water penetration. In this case, white cement was used to bring out the
colors of plastics and egg shell respectively. White hydraulic cement is good ingredient
because it is resistant to water infiltration and will increase the strength of the material.
White cement (Plate 3.6) was basically used for aesthetics properties. However, the
common ordinary Portland cement (OPC) can be used. Clean drinking water was used
36
3.1.2 Mixing the materials after proportioning
The densities of plastics, white cement and egg shells were 400 kg/m3, 1,440kg/m3, and
1,290kg/m3, respectively. For the production of building tiles, crushed plastics, crushed
and pounded egg shells and white cement were mixed in different quantities (Table
3.1). Commercial production of these tiles should aim at minimizing the cost of
production.
In order to manufacture the tiles, a ratio that gave the maximum compressive strength
was used. Nine (9) cubes were cast for each ratio; they were cured for 28 days under
water. Three cubes for each ratio were tested for compressive strength at 7, 14 and 28
days respectively.
Cement: plastics: egg shells Cement (kg) Plastics (kg) Eggshells (kg)
(1:1:0) 0.94 0.26 0.00
(1:1:1) 0.62 0.17 0.56
(1:1:2) 0.47 0.13 0.84
(2:1:1) 0.94 0.13 0.42
(1:2:1) 0.47 0.26 0.42
(1:2:2) 0.37 0.21 0.67
(2:1:2) 0.75 0.10 0.67
(2:2:1) 0.75 0.19 0.30
(1:0:1) 0.84 0.00 0.84
(2:0:1) 1.25 0.00 0.56
37
The porker vibrator, trough, spades, a trowel, steel float were some of the tools that (see
c) Trough d) Spades
The ingredients from table 3.1 (cement, plastics, crushed and pounded egg shells and
water) were weighed using the measuring scale and then mixed in a trough (Plate 3.8)
and then cast in already prepared moulds (Plate 3.9) and vibrated using a vibrator and
then left in the mould for 24 hours after which they are demoulded and cured (see Plate
3.10) for 28 days. The cubes were subjected to testing in a compressive strength testing
machine (Plate 3.11) and the results were obtained and recorded (Figure 4.4).
38
Plate 3.8: Ingredients in the trough before and after mixing
39
Plate 3.11: Universal testing machine
After obtaining the ratio (2:1:1) that gave the maximum strength, the making of the tiles
180x180x10mm), were used to make these tiles (Table 3.12). The mixture of white
cement, plastics and crushed Egg shells was hand compacted into the moulds and the
surface finished smooth using a steel float and then the tiles are left to set and dry in the
moulds for 24-48 hours before they were removed and let to dry at room temperature.
The mixture was made fairly plastic to enable proper compaction manually. Three
40
Plate 3.12: Moulds used to make tiles
41
Plate 3.14: Appearance of tiles Plate
The capacity of a ceramic material to absorb water is related to its porosity. Fully-
vitrified stoneware, a compact material with low porosity, has water absorption values
below 0.5%.
The strength of any building material will be drastically reduced if allowed to absorb
excessive moisture. This is the major reason for restricting the application of the
material without a protective measure such as DPC and DPM covering which are more
The water absorption value will have a direct bearing on other performance
changes and frost resistance. It also gives us an idea of the degree of internal cohesion
42
and compaction of the fired product. The open porosity of a wall or floor tile firstly
depends on the composition of the ceramic body. This may vary considerably from one
product to another (porcelain floor tiles have low porosity; wall tiles are very porous).
(which in turn depends on such other factors as grain size, distribution of the spray-
dried powder, moisture etc.) and, finally, the firing process. Water absorption is also
used as a criterion for classifying ceramic wall and floor tiles in ISO 13006: 1998.
Obviously, the glazed layer has zero water absorption since it is fully vitrified.
b. The cubes were dried in an oven for 24 hours at 60oCto ensure that all the water
was removed.
Where: = the mass of the dry tile, = the mass of the wet tile.
The average absorption of water of the sample was determined by the arithmetic
average of the individual results, and results must be rounded off to a single decimal
place.
43
b) Density of the cubes
This is the mass of the material per unit of its volume. It is an important factor
shaped material such as a cube of mortar involved a simple procedure of weighing the
sample accurately and then measuring its dimensions well to compute its volume.
With the above formula, the density test of the material was calculated using the simple
procedure below.
minimal surface, and is generally negative for ceramic products. Heavy or pointed
objects falling on tiles may damage or shatter the surface, depending on the type of
object.
44
A spherical steel bearing weighing approximately 438g was dropped from a height of
one meter above the surface of the tile samples and the degree of shuttering or indention
was recorded.
A spherical steel ball weighing approximately 438g (see Plate 4.1) was dropped on to
the sample tiles at a height of one meter (see Plate 4.2) by using a steel reinforcement of
1 meter height and the degrees of damage to the sample tiles were recorded.
45
Plate 3.16: Spherical steel bearing dropped through one meter
Porcelanosa, (2005) believes that the degree of a ceramic tiles’ resistance to abrasion on
its glazed surface is the factor that is going to essentially determine its durability.
Therefore an in-house method has been developed to give a clearer idea of how tile
The test reproduces and even exaggerates the real abrasion conditions that any floor
tiles are subject to. Used as an abrasive agent is a quantity of sand with a high silica
This abrasion of the tile surface is maintained during 10 minutes, after which the extent
46
For this study, a weight of 8.4kg was used alongside abrasive sand to test for the
abrasion of the tiles. The sample tiles were weighed before undergoing the abrasion test
and after the test. The two weights before and after abrasion were recorded. The
abrasion effect was assessed on the basis of effective percentage weight loss.
PRESENTATION OF RESULTS
Results were presented using photos and mostly Microsoft excel inform of graphs,
47
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.1 The effect of cement, plastics and egg shells on compressive strength
of cubes
The compressive strength of cubes increased with increased quantities of cement. The
60% beyond which the compressive strength starts decreasing because, cement reaches
cement is required. Compared to plastics and egg shells, cement contributes most
20
Compressive strength (MPa) of cubes
18
16
R² = 0.5803
14
12
at 28 days
10
8
6
4
2
-
- 20 40 60 80 100
Amount of cement (%)
Dots represent the cement % age in the different ratios keeping
othe materials constant
Figure 4.1: Effect of variation of cement content on the cube compressive strength
48
The compressive strength of the cubes was negatively affected by the addition of
plastics (Figure 4.2). This is consistent with the findings of Ghaly and Gill, (2004). The
decrease in strength may be attributed to the weak bond between plastics and cement or
the weak strength of the plastic. The effect of reducing the compressive strength of
concrete by the plastic aggregates is due to the fact that plastic particles aggregates do
20
Compressive strength (MPa) of
15
cubes at 28 days
10
5 R² = 0.4605
-
- 5 10 15 20 25
Amount of plastics (%)
Dots represent the plastics % age in the different ratios
The effect of egg shells on the compressive strength of the cubes was insignificant
required. Egg shells are a neutral filler material composed of CaCO 3 when pulverized
(King’ori, 2011). They are used to increase the bulk of the mixture and reduce on the
49
20
(MPa) of cubes at 28 days
Compressive strength
15 R² = 0.0288
10
-
- 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Amount of egg shells (%)
Dots represent the eggshells % age in the different ratios keeping …
Figure 4.3: Effect of variation of egg shells content on the cube compressive strength
The highest strength (21 N/mm2) was realized for a cement: plastic: egg shell ratio of
2:0:1 (Figure 4.4). A compressive strength of 17.9 N/mm2 after 28 days' curing was
realized for ratios of 2:1:1 and 1:0:1. Ratio of 1:2:2 with the largest quantity of plastics
resulted in cubes with the lowest (about 1 N/mm2) compressive strength (Figure 4.4).
The compressive strength of the cubes made with a mixture of ratios 2:0:1 and 2:1:1
had the same strength as class 15 to class 20 concrete (Hirschi et al., 2005) (Figure 4.5).
Cubes with the highest compressive strength were those with high cement content or
without plastics.
50
Table 4.1: Shows average cube compressive strength (MPa)
25.00
cubes at 28 days (N/mm2)
21.22
Compressive strength of
15.00
10.94 10.11
9.20 8.20
10.00 7.92
5.78
5.00
0.99
-
1:1:0 1:1:1 1:1:2 2:1:1 1:2:1 1:2:2 2:1:2 2:2:1 1:0:1 2:0:1
Cement: plastics : eggshell ratio
In conclusion, the highest compressive strength (21.22 N/mm2) was obtained without
plastics. Since the major objective was to get rid of waste materials by making use of
them in making construction floor tiles, the mix ratio containing cement, plastics and
egg shells that gave a compressive strength of 17.9 N/mm2 was considered the most
51
appropriate. Tiles with both compressive strengths were manufactured to obtain impact
45 40
Compressive strength of concrete
40
At 7 days
35 30
30 at 28 days 27
25
25
(N/mm2)
20 20
20 17
15 13.5
15 10
10
5
0
1:4:8 1:3:6 1:2:4 1:1.5:3 1:1:1
Cement: fine aggregate: coarse aggregagate ratio
Cubes with high quantities of cement had low water absorption rates while those with
more plastics and egg shells had high water absorption rates (Figure 4.6). Cubes made
from cement: plastics: egg shells ratio 1:2:2 had the highest water absorption rate
(33.4%). This might have been due to more quantities of plastics and egg shells. Cubes
made from cement: plastics: egg shell ratio of 2:1:1 had the lowest water absorption rate
(11.4%).
52
Table 4.2: Shows the cube water absorption (%)
40
33.4
Average water absorption %
35 32.7
30
25 21.4 21.6
19.9
20 16.9 16.4
15.5
14.0
15 11.4
10
5
0
1:1:0 1:1:1 1:1:2 2:1:1 1:2:1 1:2:2 2:1:2 2:2:1 1:0:1 2:0:1
Cement: plastics: egg shells ratio
According to Kenya bureau of standards, floor tiles with water absorption rate in the
Therefore, since these tiles have 11.4% water absorption rate, they can convincingly be
53
4.2.1 The effect of cement, plastics and egg shell contents on the water
Cubes water absorption decreased with increased cement content while increased water
absorption was obtained with reduced cement content. However, the relationship
between the cement content (%) and water absorption was not a strong one (Figure 6).
In comparison with the plastics and egg shells, it can be concluded that cement was the
40.0
Water absorption of cubes (%)
35.0
30.0
25.0
20.0
R² = 0.4005
15.0
10.0
5.0
-
- 20 40 60 80 100
Cement (%)
The contribution of plastics to water absorption is too minimal as shown by the weak
relationship between them and the water absorption. Therefore, Plastics have a very
54
40.0
Water absorption of cubes (%) 35.0
30.0
R² = 0.1955
25.0
20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0
-
- 5 10 15 20 25
Plastics (%)
Eggshells had a very insignificant effect on the water absorption of the cubes (Figure
4.9). This is shown by the very weak relationship between percentage egg shells and the
40.0
Water absorption of cubes (%)
35.0
30.0
R² = 0.0575
25.0
20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0
-
- 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Egg shells (%)
55
In conclusion, water absorption was mainly influenced by the amount of cement. The
contribution of plastics and egg shells to water absorption was too insignificant.
Cubes with more cement content had high density values while those with high
quantities of plastics had low density values (Figure 4.10). Cubes made from cement:
plastics: egg shells ratio 1:2:2 had the density (1,305 kg/m3) while those made from
cement: plastics: egg shells ratio 1:0:1 had the highest density (2,086 kg/m3). The high
density could be as a result of proper compatibility of cement and egg shells mixture.
The density results show that the densities of the different mix ratios ranged from 1,305
kg/m3 to 2,086 kg/m3which compare well with the densities of the different classes of
1:1:0 1,595
1:1:1 1,782
1:1:2 1,796
2:1:1 1,901
1:2:1 1,617
1:2:2 1,305
2:1:2 1,834
2:2:1 1,705
1:0:1 2,086
2:0:1 1,960
56
2,500
2,086
1,960
1,901
1,834
1,796
1,782
1,705
1,617
2,000
1,595
1,305
Density (kg/m3)
1,500
1,000
500
-
1:1:0 1:1:1 1:1:2 2:1:1 1:2:1 1:2:2 2:1:2 2:2:1 1:0:1 2:0:1
Cement: plastics: egg shells ratio
approximately 60% when density started to decrease (Figure 4.11). Cement has 58%
57
2500
R² = 0.5201
Density (kg/m3) 2000
1500
1000
500
0
- 20 40 60 80 100
Cement %
The density of cubes decreased with an increased plastic quantity. When the quantity of
plastics was zero, the density of the cubes was maximum at 2,086 kg/m3 (Figure 4.12).
2,500
R² = 0.6678
2,000
Density (Kg/m3)
1,500
1,000
500
0
- 5 10 15 20 25
Plastics %
58
The effect of egg shells on the density of the cubes was very insignificant (Figure 4.13).
However, with increase in egg shell quantity, the density of the cubes slightly increased
2,500
R² = 0.0815
2,000
Density (Kg/m3)
1,500
1,000
500
0
- 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Eggshells %
Experimental results showed that the presence of plastics in the tiles increased abrasion
resistance.
Surface abrasion results show that tiles with cement, plastics and egg shells (2:1:1) wear
at a rate lower than those made with cement and egg shells only (2:0:1) (Figure 4.14).
The absence of plastics makes the tiles weak and easily eroded by any rubbing object
while presence of plastics makes the tiles more resistant to surface abrasion.
59
2.5
Abrasion (% Weight
2
1.5
loss)
1
0.5
0
With Plastic Without plastics
Tile Material
The spherical steel ball when dropped on the tiles made during this study only caused
dents without shattering (see Plate 4.3). The inclusion of plastics in the mixes used to
produce the tiles reduced the brittleness of these tiles. When the spherical steel ball was
dropped onto tiles without plastics, the tiles shattered (see Plate 4.4), implying that they
were brittle. When the test was conducted on the commercial ceramic industrial tiles,
they shattered completely (see Plate 4.5). This implied that the industrial ceramic tiles
60
Plate 4.1: Indented tiles made with cement, plastics and egg shells
Plate 4.2: Shattered tile made with cement and egg shells without plastics
61
Plate 4.3: Shattered commercial ceramic tile
In a nut shell, the presence of plastics in the tiles under study reduced their brittleness
The bending strength could not be measured because of the brittleness of the tiles. The
weight of the apparatus caused failure of the tiles before any bending strength results
provided the highest impact and abrasion resistances, from which it was inferred that
plastics were important in increasing impact and abrasion resistances of the tiles.
Table 4.1 shows the sizes of tiles made during this study and their relevant information.
Table 4.2 shows the cost of commercially available ceramic tiles of the same size as the
62
tiles made during this study. The cost of production of the tiles used in this study is
Table 4.6: Unit cost for plastics, egg shells, cement and tiles
INGREDIENT: PLASTICS
Crushing cost 10 1 10
Total 15
Crushing cost 10 1 10
63
Total 20
INGREDIENT: CEMENT
Buying 35 1 35
Total 35
From the economic analysis, it can be concluded that the cost of the tiles made in this
study using cement, plastics and eggshell mixture (Kshs. 535) is lower than the cost of
ceramic tiles (Kshs. 900 t0 1500) available commercially and hence they are affordable
64
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Conclusions
[1] Compressive strength of tiles increases with increasing cement content. Compared
to plastics and egg shells, cement contributes most significantly to the compressive
egg shells does not significantly affect the compressive strength of tiles. Plastics
have a tendency to reduce the compressive strength of tiles. Hence, they should be
used cautiously.
[2] The presence of plastics seemed to enhance abrasion resistance. The presence of
plastics in tiles under study enhanced impact resistance as they resisted impact due
to a falling steel ball weighing 438g. Water absorption decreased with increased
amounts of cement. However, plastics and egg shells had no significant effect on
water absorption of the tiles. The most appropriate mix in the study was that which
well as tiles that are resistant to impact and abrasion. The density of tiles increased
with increase in the quantity of cement. Cement was the major contributing
material to density of cubes. The density of cubes decreased with increased plastic
quantity. The effect of egg shells and plastics on the density of the cubes was very
insignificant.
65
[3] Economically, the tiles made using cement, plastics and egg shells mixture are
affordable (Kshs 535 per m2) compared to (Kshs. 900 to 1500) for Ceramic tiles
available commercially and the production process is cheap since it does not
involve more expensive industrial equipment. Wastes (plastics and egg shells) are
66
5.2 Recommendations
This research can be very important in conserving the environment most especially in
those areas with poor waste disposal facilities by making good use of these wastes in
In this study, the following physical and mechanical properties were not performed on
to the tiles, that is: chemical resistance, freeze/thaw resistance, stain resistance, deep
Therefore, further research should be carried out on the tiles concerning these properties
67
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