5

BIOLOGY NOTES 3. All living organisms are classified into a scheme:

I. General Biology Kingdom
A. Scientific Method Subkingdom
1. Observation - the action or process of examining Phylum
Subphylum
something ex. phenomena/problem
Class
2. Hypothesis - a possible explanation of a specific Subclass
phenomenon; scientific guess. Order
 Prediction – a claim about what you can expect to Family
see in nature if a theory or hypothesis is correct. Genus
 Theory – a testable explanation of a broad range of Species
phenomena
3. Experiment/Data Gathering - an attempt to An Overview of the Six Kingdom Classification
produce actual observations that match predicted or Kingdom Characteristics Examples
expected observations. Archaeabacteria prokaryotic unicellular halophiles,
4. Conclusion - a statement about whether a theory or microorganisms that are thermophiles and
commonly viewed as methanogens
hypothesis should be accepted, rejected, or modified
extremophiles
based on tests of the prediction derived from it. Eubacteria (true bacteria) Prokaryotic, Streptococcus sp.
5. Publication unicellular microorganisms Lactobacilli sp.
B. Properties of Life typically having rigid cell Escherichia coli
1. All organisms share the ff. common characteristics: walls and flagella for
 made up of the basic unit of life-cell, which come movement
from pre-existing cells via cell division (Cell Theory) Fungi Eukaryotic, spore-bearing molds
 acquires energy from the environment and uses organisms with absorptive mushrooms
energy to survive by relying on metabolic and nutrition (saprophytic) Aspergillus sp.
that reproduce sexually Rhizophus sp.
homeostatic processes and asexually Saccharomyces sp.
 have the ability to respond to environmental changes Protista Eukaryotic unicellular or Trypanosoma sp.
and have the capacity for growth, development and unicellular-colonial Plasmodium sp.
reproduction based on instruction contained in their organisms which form no Dinoflagellates
DNA tissues
Plantae Eukaryotic, autotrophic, Moss
Characteristics
Viruses Organism photosynthetic multicellular ferns
of life organisms gymnosperms
Consist of cell No Yes Animalia Eukaryotic, heterotrophic, Insects, jellyfish
Metabolize No Yes multicellular organisms sponges, humans
Respond to stimuli No Yes C. Cellular Basis of Life
Yes (always Yes (usually 1. Major Compounds in Living Things
Multiply
inside a cell) independently)
Evolve Yes Yes Categories Subcategories Functions
Monosaccharides Energy Source
2. All living organisms can be viewed at different levels of
Carbohydrates Oligosaccharides Sugar Transport
organization: Polysaccharides Structural role
 Biosphere - includes the whole Earth and all its living Glycerides
organisms Energy storage
Phospholipids
 Ecosystem - a community and its physical environment Cell membrane component
Lipids Water retention by plants
 Community - the population of all species occupying Waxes
Component of animal cell
the same area membrane
 Population - a group of individuals belonging to the Steroids
same species occupying a given area at the same time Structural role
 Multicellular Organism - an individual composed of Increase in rate of reaction,
Fibrous proteins
Proteins oxygen transport, control of
specialized, interdependent cells arrayed in tissues, organs Globular proteins
glucose metabolism and tissue
and often organ systems defense
 Organ System - two or more organs interacting Adenosine
chemically, physically, or both Energy carrier
triphosphate(ATP)
Proton (H+) and electron
 Organ – a structural unit in which tissues are combined Nucleotide
Nucleic Acid transport storage
in specific amounts and patterns that allow them to coenzyme (NAD+
Transmission, translation of
perform a common task & NADP+)
genetic information
 Tissues - a group of cells with the same specialized DNA, RNA
function 2. Cell Structure and Function
 Cell -smallest living unit, may be unicellular/multicellular
 Organelle - sacs or other compartments that separates Cell Component Function Organism
activities inside the cell Cell Wall -Protection
Plasma -Structural support,
 Biomolecule - three or more chains of the same Present in all
control of
molecules(proteins, carbohydrates, fats & nucleic acids) organisms.
substances in &
 Molecule - two or more atoms of the same or different out of the cell
elements bonded together Nucleus -controls activities Nucleus is generally
 Atom - the smallest non-living unit of the cell present in eukaryotes
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Nucleolus -assembly of but absent in  cofactors - substances that help catalyze reaction,
ribosomes prokaryotes. carry electrons, hydrogen or functional groups stripped
DNA -encoding of DNA is found in all from substrates
hereditary info living organisms.  energy carries - mainly ATP which donate energy to
Ribosome -protein synthesis Varies in the subunits
other molecules
for prokarya and
Endoplasmic Reticulum -CHO, lipids, eukarya  end products - substances produced at the end of
protein synthesis Present only in metabolic pathway
eukarya 4. Metabolic Pathways
Golgi bodies -final modification a. Energy Acquiring Pathways
of proteins, Photosynthesis is the main biosynthetic pathway by
sorting, synthesis which carbon and energy enter the web of life. It
These organelles are
& transport & consists of 2 sets of reactions:
present in all eukarya
packaging
and absent in prokarya.  Light – dependent reactions = take place at the
Lysosomes -intracellular
digestion thylakoid membrane of chloroplasts; the
Mitochondrion -ATP formation reactions produce ATP and NDPH
Photosynthetic light energy Pigments are present  Light – independent reactions = take place in the
pigment conversion in some groups of stroma around the membrane system, producing
prokarya and eukarya sugar phosphates that are used in building
Chloroplast Photosynthesis e.g. plants, sucrose, starch and other end products of
starch storage cyanobacteria photosynthesis
Central Vacuole increase cell Chloroplast and
surface area, Central Vacuole
storage mostly present in
plants
-cell shape, cell -present in most
Cytoskeleton
motion, internal eukaryotic cells and
organization absent in prokarya
Complex flagellum,
-movement -found in groups of
cilium
eukarya and prokarya
D. Cellular and Molecular Transport b. Energy Releasing Pathways
1. Passive Transport
Diffusion Nearly all metabolic reactions run on energy delivered by
 net movement of molecules or ions from an area ATP which can be produced by aerobic respiration,
of higher concentration to an area of lower fermentation and other pathways
concentration that release chemical energy
 has two types: Simple Diffusion and Facilitated from glucose and other organic
Diffusion (with the use of protein channels) compounds. All 3 kinds of
Osmosis pathways begin with the same
 net movement of solvent molecules through a reaction, called glycolysis which
semipermeable, membrane from a region of occurs only in the cytoplasm.
higher water concentration to a region of lower
water concentration
2. Active Transport 1. During glycolysis, a glucose
 net movement of ions/molecules from an area of molecule is partially broken down
lower concentration to an area of higher and 2 pyruvate, 2 NADH and 4
concentration ATP are produced but the net
 requires the use of ATP (energy) energy yield is only 2 ATP
 example: Sodium-Potassium Pump molecules because the other 2
E. Concepts on Metabolism ATP was used at the beginning of the process.
1. Cells acquire energy to build, store, break down and rid
themselves of substances. These activities are collectively
called metabolism. 2. The second stage takes place in
2. A metabolic pathway is a stepwise sequence of actions the mitochondria; pyruvate is
in cells. converted into a molecule that can
a. biosynthetic pathway - large molecules are enter the Kreb’s cycle; by the time
assembled and energy is stored the cyclic reactions are over,
b. degradative pathway = large molecules are broken glucose has been broken down
down into simple ones and energy is released completely to CO2 and H2O, this
3. The following substances take part in metabolic second stage produces 10
pathways: coenzyme molecules (8 NADH and
 substrates/ reactants - substances that enter a 2 FADH2) and 2 ATP.
specific reaction
 enzymes - proteins that serve as catalyst (speed up 3. The third stage (Electron Transport Chain) also
the rate of reaction) takes place in the mitochondria; coenzymes deliver
electron to a transport system; operation of the system
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sets up H+ concentration and electric gradients, across the 2. Summary of Events in Mitosis
membrane; H+ flows down the gradients, through channel Stage Main Event(s)
proteins, energy associate with the flow drives the G1: growth, metabolic activity, organelles begin to
formation of ATP from ADP and unbound phosphate; double
oxygen withdraws electrons and combines with H+ to form Interphase S: replication of DNA; duplication of chromosomes
G2: growth (Certain mature cells do not proceed to
water.
the next step but are arrested in Go)
Chromosomes coil and condense.
Centrioles divide and spindle apparatus appears.
Chromosomes have no apparent orientation in the
Prophase
cell.
Nucleolus disappears and nuclear envelope
fragments.
Spindle fibers from centriole attach to the
centromere.
Metaphase
Chromosomes gradually migrate to the midline of
the cell oriented between the two centrioles.
II. CELL BIOLOGY
Begins with the separation of the centromere.
A. Types of Cell Spindle fibers will pull centromeres toward
Anaphase centrioles.
Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cells Homologous chromosomes move to opposite poles.
Lack nuclear membrane Nuclear membrane present Poles of the cells also move apart.
Usually circular, ring- The two sets of chromosomes reach the opposite
shaped chromosome Multiple, not ring-shaped poles where they begin to uncoil.
consists only of DNA, chromosomes consist of DNA Telophase ends with cytokinesis (cellular division)
Telophase
and the formation of two daughter cells. Nucleolus
without associated with associated proteins and
appears in each daughter cells.
proteins, and lacks have centromeres Nucleus will contain diploid number of cells.
centromere 3. Summary of Events in Meiosis
Membrane-bounded Stage Main Event(s)
Membrane-bounded organelles
organelles (e.g. Interphase The same as in mitosis.
present
mitochondria) absent Synapsis: homologous chromosomes come side
Diameter typically 20 microns by side to form a tetrad.
Seldom exceed 2 microns
and more Prophase I Crossing-over: homologous chromosomes
Lack capacity to exchange segments at intersections called
Great capacity to differentiate chiasmata. What is the significance of this?
differentiate into
in structure and function with
specialized tissues in
multicellular bodies Chromosomes are now arranged in metaphase
multicellular organisms Metaphase I
Occur only as bacteria and Make up bodies of protists, plate, still in homologous pairs.
cyanobacteria (blue-green fungi, plants, and animals
Homologous chromosomes migrate to opposite
algae)
Anaphase I poles.
Sister chromatids still intact.
B. Cell Division The spindle apparatus continues to separate the
1. Comparison between Mitosis and Meiosis Telophase I homologous chromosomes until they reach the
MITOSIS MEIOSIS and Cytokinesis poles. Each pole now has a haploid chromosome
Chromosomes # 2n n set.
Synapsis ✖ ✓ Spindle apparatus forms and the chromosomes
Crossing-over ✖ ✓ Prophase II
progress toward the metaphase II plate.
Tetrads align Metaphase II Chromosomes align at the center
(metaphase I); Sister The centromeres of sister chromatids separate.
chromatids, now Anaphase II Each sister chromatid now becomes individual
Metaphase Chromosomes align
considered chromosomes.
chromosomes, align
Nuclei begin to form at opposite poles.
(metaphase II) Telophase II
There are now four daughter cells. Each with a
occurs during and Cytokinesis
DNA replication one haploid number of chromosomes.
interphase I only
Number of two (reductional and
one III. GENETICS
division equational)
Two, each diploid Four, each haploid (n); A. Terms Used in Genetics
Number of  Gene = functional unit chemically composed of
(2n) and genetically genetically non-identical
daughter cells
identical to the to the mother cell and DNA.
and composition
mother cell to each other  Genosome = sum total of all the genes present in
Development of an individual.
Production of gametes;
multicellular adult  Allele = any member of a given pair of genes; if
reduces chromosome
Importance to the from zygote;
number by half; the alleles are identical then the condition is
animal body production of cells
introduces genetic said to be homozygous and the individual is a
for growth and
variability homozygote; if the alleles are non-identical,
tissue repair
Cell type Somatic cells Gametes then the condition is said to be heterozygous
and the individual is a heterozygote.
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 Genotype = genetic composition of an individual 3. Sex Chromosomal Disorders

 Phenotype = external appearance of an individual GENOTYPE SYNDROME PHENOTYPE
 Monohybrid Cross = involves a single pair of XO Turner female
contrasting genes Metafemale/
 Dihybrid Cross = involves 2 pairs of contrasting XXX female
Superfemale
genes XXY Klinefelter male
 Polyhybrid Cross = involves three or more pairs XYY “Criminal” normal male
of contrasting genes. YYY not viable
 Parental Generation (P) = parents of a cross Deviations from Mendelian Ratios:
 Filial Generation (F) = offsprings of a cross; - Incomplete dominance -Co-dominance
F1 = first filial generation (children); - Dominant lethal -Recessive lethal
F2 = second filial generation (grandchildren) - Overdominance - Maternal inheritance

B. Mendelian Laws/ Principles: IV.BIOCHEMISTRY

1. Law of Segregation
factors for a trait segregate during gametic formation BIOCHEMICAL BASES OF LIFE
during gamete formation, members of any given pair A. CARBOHYDRATE(L.“carbos”charcoal, “hydros” water)
of genes separate so that any sex cell transmits  Most abundant organic molecule in nature
only one member of the pair, this parallels  Monomer is monosaccharide, polymer is polysaccharide
separation of homologous chromosomes during  Common ratio is Cn(H2O)n “hydrate of carbon”
meiosis.  Functions include energy sources and structural
2. Law of Independent Assortment = during formation of elements
gametes members of any given pair of genes are  Macromolecules are linked together by a process called
distributed independently of one another. dehydration synthesis/ condensation (removal of
water) and are broken down to their component
C. Common Patterns of Inheritance monosaccharides through hydrolysis.
 Codominance - the effects of contrasting genes are  They are classified as monosaccharides,
both expressed; ex. Blood type “AB” disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and
 Incomplete dominance - the offspring is a blending polysaccharides according to the number of simple
between the 2 parents as when a red bull is sugars they contain.
mated to a white cow so that the offsprings are - monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, galactose,
rean (mixture of red and white hairs) mannose)
 Epistasis - a phenomenon in which one gene alters - disaccharides (lactose, maltose, sucrose)
the expression of another gene. - oligosaccharides (3-10 monosaccharide units, found
 Polygenic inheritance - an additive effect of two or in ER, GB)
more gene loci on a single phenotypic character - polysaccharides (starch, glycogen, cellulose, chitin,
as in skin color. pectin, gum, peptidoglycan)

D. Human Genetics B. PROTEINS

1. Sex-Linked Recessive Disorders/X-linked Traits:
 traits or disorders associated with the sex  Monomer is amino acid, polymer is polypeptide
chromosomes e.g. red-green color blindness;  There are currently 20 naturally-occurring amino acids
hemophilia  Amino acids are linked together by peptide bonds
 for females, sex-linked recessive disorders are  To denature a protein, it means breaking of peptide
expressed phenotypically only in the bonds
homozygous condition; in the heterozygous  There are four levels of protein structure: Primary ,
condition, the female merely becomes a carrier Secondary, Tertiary, Quaternary)
and does not phenotypically express the traits.  Proteins have the following functions:
 in males, the trait is expressed even in the
hemizygous condition since there is only one Function Examples
locus (one X chromosomes) Enzymes (amylase, cellulose, papase/
1. Catalysis
 Patterns for Transmission of Sex-Linked Recessive papain)
Traits/Disorders: A father with the trait will Collagen (connective tissue matrix)
transmit the mutant allele to all daughters but to Fibroin (silk), spider web
2. Structure
no sons. If the mother has the trait, she will Keratin (hair, horns, feathers,
transmit the mutant allele to both sons and hooves)
daughters. Actin and tubulin (involved in cell
3. Movement movements in Amoeba and sperm
2. Autosomal Disorders
cells; found in flagella and cilia)
 Aneuploidy - failure of members of homologous
Skin keratin (first line of protection)
pairs of chromosomes to separate during Fibrinogen and thrombin (blood clot)
meiosis II. 4. Defense Antibodies (secreted by lymphocytes
 Polyploidy - presence of an entire extra set of in response to infection)
chromosomes; triploidy = 3n; tetraploidy = 4n Spines of sea urchin
Hormones (insulin & glucagon,
5. Regulation
growth hormone)
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Hemoglobin (oxygen and waste Predation + - Eagles and rats

material transport) Epiphytes and
Commensalism + 0
6. Transport Myoglobin (transport of oxygen to trees
muscles) Plants in a pot;
Glucose transporters Competition +/ - +/ - fish in the
Zein (corn), gliadin (wheat), plastids, aquarium
7. Storage
ovalbumin (egg white), casein (milk)
B. Distribution Patterns
C. LIPIDS (L. “lipos” fat) Individuals occupying a particular area often compete for
 Unlike other biological polymers, lipids are not defined resources. As such they exhibit unique distribution
by specific, repeating monomeric units. Rather, they are patterns to maximize available resources.
defined by their water-repelling property. Type Pattern Processes
 They contain 3 fatty acids and 1 glycerol. An individual has an
Neutral interactions
 They also contain non-polar hydrocarbon groups equal probability of
Random between individuals and
(-CH3, -CH2) occurring anywhere in
local environment
the area
 Functions include transport, storage, and insulation.
Individuals are Antagonistic interactions
 3 types: oils (saturated and unsaturated), waxes,
uniformly spaced between individuals or
phospholipids Regular
throughout the local depletion of
 Oil is liquid at room temperature, while wax is solid. environment resources
 Phospholipids usually assume two forms in an Individuals live in areas
Attraction between
aqueous environment: micelle and phospholipids of high local
individuals or attraction of
bilayer. Clumped abundance, which are
individuals to a common
 Oil is usually plant-derived, while fat is animal- separated by areas of
resource
derived. low abundance

D. NUCLEIC ACIDS C. Biomes
 Watson- Crick Model : Ecological relationships are best understood in the context
o Nucleotides (monomer) are connected to each of Biomes. Biomes are large-scale ecosystem primarily
other by phosphodiester bonds. distinguished by their dominant vegetation and are usually
o Nucleotide is made up of three components: associated with a particular climate.
nitrogenous base, sugar (ribose, deoxyribose) 1. Terrestrial Biomes
and phosphate group. Name Location Climate Soil Biodiversity
o The nitrogenous bases are adenine, guanine,
100 North Fair
cytosine, thymine, uracil. and amounts of
Low in
o Base Pairs are connected by Hydrogen Bonds Tropical organic Most diverse
South of rain
o # Adenine (A) = # thymine (T) rainforests matter ecosystem
the throughout
content
o # Guanine (G) = # cytosine (C) Equator the year
 It is involved in heredity, protein synthesis, and as
energy carriers. Fair
Animals and
 There are two types: DNA and RNA. amount
Tropical 10 to 25
0 0
Seasonal plants diverse
of
dry forests latitude climate in wettest
organic
DNA RNA areas
matter
Sugar Deoxyribose Ribose
Seasonal Animals often
Bases A, G, C, T A, G, C, U Tropical
drought, Rocky associated
Strand Double-stranded Single-stranded Savanna Africa
intense soil with plant
Helix Helical Non-helical aka Safari
lightning cover
mRNA, tRNA, rRNA, Plant cover
Examples B-DNA, A-DNA, Z-DNA
hnRNA, snRNA the absent in
V. ECOLOGY 300 N and many places;
A. Ecological Relationships Deserts S Hot Lithosol animals in
An organism is usually associated with another organism. latitudes association
Rarely do we find organisms not interacting with another with rocks and
one. Biotic ecological relationships shape the community boulders
to which they belong and promote energy flow through Mediter- Dominated by
Evergreen Thin in
ranean, Cool evergreen
the food chain/web. forest nutrients
California trees
An Overview of Ecological Relationships A lot of
Organism Organism Wetter than grasses and
Relationship Example
1 2 deserts but herbaceous
Mycchorizae, North Thin in
Prairies with plants;
termite and America nutrients
Mutualism occasional animals are
+ + cellulose- droughts drought-
(Symbiosis)
degrading tolerant
microorganism Deciduous
Endoparasitism Japan, Receive
Red-wood Usually trees
(intestinal worms), China, winter
Parasitism + - forests fertile dominate’
ectoparasitism Siberia precipitation
coniferous
(lice, ticks)
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trees are  Population Density – no. of individuals in a given area.

common; It is affected by Birth Rate and Death Rate that in turn are
faunal affected by two factors:
diversity is low -Density Dependent Factors – age, gender
Dominated by
Winter -Density Independent Factors – natural calamities
Alaska, timber trees;
Taiga longer than Fertile The r/K Selection Theory
Canada animals are
6 months An “r-selected species” predominates in fluctuating and
usually large
Soil unstable environments while a “K-selected species”
covered predominate in stable ones
North Lowest biotic
Tundra Cold and dry by r-selected K-selected
Pole diversity
permafr Reproduce quickly
ost Longer generation
Traits with short
times
generation times
2. Aquatic Biomes Smaller organisms Longer organisms
Physical Chemical
Biome
Factors Factors
Biology Threats High level of parental
Low level of
Salinity is investment  parents
80% of light Plankton at parental investment
34g / kg of take care of their
The absorbed in the base of  offspring are
water; young and tend to
deep the first the food Muroami dispersed over a
oxygen keep them close until
sea 10m; water
highest in
chain; bio- wide area
movement luminescent maturity
the surface High mortality Low mortality before
Sufficient Population
before maturity maturity
light; warm Fairly stable A variety of Cyanide
Coral waters; salinity; corals, coral fishing;
Tend to favour large Tend to favour fever
reefs water well- fishes and pollution number of offspring offspring who can
movements oxygenated algae siltation to ensure survival compete successfully
delivers O2 until the next for limited resources
Variable change in in a stable
Oxygen thin; Breeding
Man- temp. Tidal de- environment environment
salinity grounds,
grove movements forestati bacteria, weeds, humans, elephants,
highly high primary Examples
Forests move on
fluctuating production insects, rodents whales
organisms
Light limited
Low salinity; Support E. Energy Flow
by
oxygen 2000 fish Pollution Energy Flows in the Ecosystem:
particulate
Rivers inversely species and ;
solids; temp Application of the Laws of Thermodynamics
correlated benthic siltation
tracks air
with temp. invertebrate
- Energy can neither be created nor destroyed but
temp. can be transformed from one form to another.
Light - Energy transfer is 100% efficient
Variable
absorption Surfacta
salinity;
depends on nt
oxygen Very
Lakes chemistry; depositio
dependent productive
temp n-
on biological
depends on siltation
activity
the season;

D. POPULATION ECOLOGY
- a branch that deals with the dynamics of species
populations and how they interact with their environment.
Central to this is how species maximize their reproductive
strategies to survive their changing environments.

 Biotic Potential: refers to the maximum rate of increase

per individual under ideal conditions. VI. Botany
 Carrying Capacity: refers to the maximum number of A. Plant Cells
individuals in a population that can be sustained 1. Comparison between Plant Cell & Animal Cell
indefinitely by a given environment.
 Biological Magnification: refers to the increasing
concentration of a non-degradable or slowly degradable
substance in body tissues as it is passed along the food
chain.
 Survivorship: survival of a given group of species from
the time of the birth until the time the last one dies.

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2. Plant Cell Structures o account for secondary growth(horizontal growth),

- bound by a cell wall consist mainly of cellulose i.e. girth, diameter, width
- a pectic middle lamella lies between the primary cell o vascular cambium (cambium)
walls of adjacent plant cells - Responsible for the production of cells and
- the outer boundary of the protoplasm (cytoplasm and tissues that increase the thickness, girth, of the
nucleus) is a sandwich-like, flexible plasma membrane. plant that runs the length of the roots and
- special organelles in plants: stems of most perennial plants and many
a. Chloroplasts herbaceous annuals.
o Specialized subunit that conduct photosynthesis o cork cambium
where the chlorophyll is found - Thin cylinder that runs the length of roots and
o Inside a chloroplast is a matrix called the stems that are only found in woody plants
stroma. Enzymes are found in the stroma as iii. Intercalary Meristem
well as grana—stacks of coin-shaped discs,  Derived from apical meristem
called thylakoids.  May be intercalated between tissues that are
 where photosynthesis takes place. more or less mature
 contain their own DNA.
 rely on proteins from the nucleus, and are b. Permanent Tissue Systems:
considered semi-autonomous organelles.  Dermal Tissue System- an external layer of tightly
b. Vacuoles packed cells for protection; includes the epidermis
o 90% of the volume of the cell may be taken up (formed during primary growth) and periderm (formed
by single large vacuole or several vacuoles. during secondary growth).
o Bound by a membrane, tonoplast
o Contains cell sap – composed of dissolved  Epidermis - outermost layer of cells on all plant
substances and may include pigments. organs (roots, stems, leaves)
B. Plant Characteristics  Periderm - made of semi-rectangular and
Mode of nourishment Autotrophic boxlike cork cells; dead at maturity and secretes
Extent of growth Indeterminate suberin, a fatty substance that make cork cells
Cell wall Cellulose; rigid; inert waterproof thus aid in protecting tissues beneath
Nervous system Absent the bark.
Mobility Mostly immobile
Primary food reserve Starch; unsaturated oils  Ground Tissue System- fundamental tissue that
Waste products Photosynthesis; CO2 from metabolism functions for organic synthesis, storage and support;
includes parenchyma, collenchymas, sclerenchyma and
C. Plant Basic Anatomy endodermis.
 Vascular Tissue System- conducting tissue of
1. Types of Plant Cells plants; includes xylem and phloem.
 Parenchyma- least specialized; serves for general  Xylem – carries water and dissolved substances
metabolic synthetic and storage functions; retain  Phloem – carries dissolved food substances
the ability to divide and differentiate into other cell throughout the plant.
types under certain conditions. D. Plant Physiology
 Collenchyma- occur in strands or cylinders; pectin 1. Plant Metabolism
alternates with cellulose; for strength.
 Sclerenchyma- which signifies secondary walls; a. Photosynthesis
unable to elongate at maturity; consist of fibers - process by which light energy is captured, converted and
and sclereid types; for support and protection. stored in simple sugar molecule.
Equation:
2. Plant Tissues 6𝐶𝑂2 + 12𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 → 𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6 + 6𝑂2 + 6𝐻2 𝑂
Plant tissues are characterized and classified - occurs in two successive processes: the light reactions
according to their structure and function. The organs and the carbon-fixing reactions.
that they form will be organized into patterns within
a plant which will aid in further classifying the plant.  The Light Reactions
- Involve light striking the chlorophyll
a. Meristematic Tissues - primarily concerned with
molecules embedded in the thylakoids
protoplasmic synthesis and cell division. of chloroplasts
i. Apical Meristem - Results in conversion of light energy to
o located at or near the tips of roots and shoots chemical energy
o responsible for vertical growth(primary growth) - Water molecules split into H+ and e- and
o produce three types of primary meristems: O2 is released and ATP are created
protoderm, ground meristems, and  The Carbon-Fixing Reactions (Dark
procambium which will produce the cells that Reactions)
will form the primary tissues. - Light does not play a direct role
ii. Lateral Meristem - Take place outside the grana in the
o occupies a lateral position, parallel to roots and stroma of the chloroplast
stems - Most common type in plants is the
Calvin Cycle.
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- The ATP and NADPH molecules from the 2. Sexual Reproduction Overview
light reactions provide the energy and
resources for the reactions
-
Mechanisms of Converting CO2 to Sugar
a. The Calvin Cycle (3-Carbon Pathway)
 With the assistance of the enzyme
rubisco (RuBP carboxylase),
 The sugars produced can either add to
an increase in the sugar content
(carbohydrate content) of the plant or
they can be used in pathways that lead
to the production of lipids and amino
acids.

b. 4-Carbon Pathway (C4 Plants)

 This process is enzyme mediated and
occurs in the mesophyll cells of the leaf
 The C4 cycle furnishes carbon dioxide to
the Calvin cycle in a more roundabout
way than the C3 pathway
 greatly reduces photorespiration in C4
plants

c. CAM-Photosynthesis (Crassulecean Acid

Metabolism)
 accumulate malic acid in their
chlorenchyma tissues at night, which is
converted back to carbon dioxide during
the day
 generally close their stomata during the
day in order to reduce water loss

b. Respiration:
Equation: C6H12O6 + 6O2 6H2O + 6CO2
Photosynthesis Respiration
1. Takes in CO2 Release CO2
2. Releases O2 Binds O2
3. Synthesizes sugar & other Degrades sugar & other organic
organic compounds compounds
4. Results in increase in dry weightResults in decrease in dry weight
5. Occurs only in the presence of
Occurs in all living cells
chlorophyll
7. Stores energy Releases energy
8. Occurs in the presence of light Occurs throughout life

c. Nitrogen Fixation
 The roots of legumes have nodular swelling that house
nitrogen fixing bacteria, which have co evolved with
the plants in mutualistic symbiotic relationship.
- Equation:
N+8e +8H+ +16ATP nitrogenase 2NH +H +16ADP+16P
Comparison of Photosynthesis and Respiration

LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB – NMAT REVIEW

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3. Plant Hormones
Where
Hormones Produced or Functions
Found in Plant
Stimulate stem
elongation, root
embryo or seed,
growth, dev. Of
Auxin (IAA) apical meristems,
fruit, apical
young leaves
dominance &
differentiation
Synthesized in Cell div. &
roots & growth root &
Cytokinin (Zeatin)
transported to diff. germination
other organs flowering
Promote seed &
Apical bud bud germination,
Gibberellins meristem, young stem elongation,
leaves, embryo flowering fruit
development
Inhibits growth,
closes stomata,
Leaves, stems &
Abscissic acid counteracts
green fruit
breaking of
dormancy
Tissues of
Promotes fruit
ripening fruits,
ripening, opposes
Ethylene nodes of stem,
some auxin
senescent leaves
effects
and flowers

4. Plant Movements

Plants move in response to several environmental stimuli

such as: light, gravity and mechanical disturbances. These
movements fall into two groups: tropisms and nastic
movements.

a. Tropism
- plant movement that is determined by the direction of
an environmental stimulus. Movement toward an
environmental stimulus is called a positive tropism, and
movement away from a stimulus is called a negative
tropism.
-e.g. Phototropism (light), Thigmotropism(touch),
Gravitropism (gravity) & Chemotropism(chemicals)

b. Nastic Movement
- plant movement in response to environmental stimuli
that are independent of the direction of the stimuli.
-e.g. Thigmonastic and Nyctinastic

LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB – NMAT REVIEW