R N S INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, BANGALORE – 560098

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

VII SEMESTER
POWER SYSTEM SIMULATION LABORATORY
(15EEL76)

NAME :

BATCH :

USN :
 R N S INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, BANGALORE – 560098
VISION

Building RNSIT into a World-Class Institution

MISSION

To Impart High Quality Education in Engineering Technology and

Management with a difference, enabling students to excel in their career.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

VISION
Pursuit of excellence in the field of Electrical & Electronics Engineering
MISSION
 To prepare students to achieve core competence and academic
excellence.
 To provide necessary skills to design, develop and solve complex
problem in the field of Electrical & Electronics Engineering and
contribute to technological growth

 To make them ethical professionals/entrepreneur capable of adapting

to changes in technologies, and contribute to society.

 To support students to develop leadership qualities, self learning

abilities, communication skills and teamwork skills.
 R N S INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, BANGALORE – 560098
PROGRAM OUTCOMES
Engineering Graduates will be able to:

1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering fundamentals, and an
engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering problems.

2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex engineering
problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and
engineering sciences.

3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and design system
components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate consideration for the public health and
safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental considerations.

4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and research methods
including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of the information to provide
valid conclusions.

5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern engineering
and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering activities with an understanding of the
limitations.

6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess societal, health,
safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering
practice.

7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering solutions in
societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.

8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and norms of the
engineering practice.

9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader in diverse
teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.

10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the engineering
community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write effective reports and design
documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.

11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the engineering and
management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and leader in a team, to manage
projects and in multidisciplinary environments.

12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage in independent
and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES

• PSO 1: Ability to design, analyse, and model Electrical systems by
applying the knowledge of Circuit Theory, Control Systems, Power
Systems and Power Electronics.
• PSO 2: Ability to understand and apply latest technologies of
Electrical Engineering to develop products useful for society and
industry.
• PSO 3: Ability to provide eco friendly project solutions for
Electrical Systems.

PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES

EEE Graduate shall
• PEO 1 : have strong knowledge of core Electrical Engineering and
Basic sciences to excel in their career
• PEO 2: be able to pursue career in multi disciplinary areas involving
core engineering subjects.
• PEO 3 : have ability for lifelong learning, use modern tools, and
contribute to Research and development in niche areas.
• PEO 4 : have positive attitude, good communication skills and
professional ethics
 Rules and Guidelines to be followed in the lab

 Attend all the lab sessions without fail.

 Conduct yourself in a responsible manner at all times in the laboratory. Don’t
talk aloud or crack jokes in lab.
 Always wear uniform and ID cards in the labs.
 Observe good housekeeping practices. Replace the materials in proper place
after lab work to keep the lab area tidy.
 Do not wander around the room, distract other students, startle other students
or interfere with the lab experiments of others.
 Do not eat food or chew gum in the lab.
 Before starting lab work, follow all written and verbal instructions.
 Set up and use the equipments as directed by teacher / technician.
 Students are not allowed to work in lab alone or without the presence of the
teacher / technician..
 Do not take out any equipment from the lab. Severe punishment will be
enforced if any student is found to do so.
 Follow the guidelines to write the record and submit the record in time.
 Students are requested to strictly adhere to the prescribed rules and guidelines.
 Severe action will be taken against defaulters.
 Irregularity and misbehavior will lead to the detention of the student in the lab.
POWER SYSTEM SIMULATION LABORATORY
( 15EEL76)

Guidelines to be followed to write the record

Left side Right side

Program: Expt No: Date:

Title of the experiment

Aim :
Theoretical verification:
Theory :

Algorithm/Procedure:

Expected output waveform

(if any): Result:
 Page
No Description
no

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS USING MATLAB

FORMATION FOR SYMMETRIC Π /T CONFIGURATION OF A

1. TRANSMISSION LINE ,FOR VERIFICATION OF 𝐴𝐷 − 𝐵𝐶 = 1, 1
DETERMINATION OF EFFICIENCY AND REGULATION.

DETERMINATION OF POWER ANGLE DIAGRAMS,

RELUCTANCE POWER, EXCITATION, EMF AND REGULATION
2. 14
FOR SALIENT AND NON-SALIENT POLE SYNCHRONOUS
MACHINES.

TO OBTAIN SWING CURVE AND TO DETERMINE CRITICAL

CLEARING TIME, REGULATION, INERTIA CONSTANT/LINE
PARAMETERS /FAULT LOCATION/CLEARING TIME/PRE-
3. FAULT ELECTRICAL OUTPUT FOR A SINGLE MACHINE 20
CONNECTED TO INFINITE BUS THROUGH A PAIR OF
IDENTICAL TRANSMISSION LINES UNDER 3-PHASE FAULT
ON ONE OF THE TWO LINES.

Y BUS FORMATION FOR POWER SYSTEMS WITH AND

4. WITHOUT MUTUAL COUPLING, BY SINGULAR 23
TRANSFORMATION AND INSPECTION METHOD.

FORMATION OF Z BUS (WITHOUT MUTUAL COUPLING)

5. 33
USING Z-BUS BUILDING ALGORITHM.

DETERMINATION OF BUS CURRENTS, BUS POWER AND LINE

6. 38
FLOW FOR A SPECIFIED SYSTEM VOLTAGE (BUS) PROFILE.
 Page
No Description
no

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS USING MIPOWER SIMULATION PACKAGE

FORMATION OF JACOBIAN FOR A SYSTEM NOT EXCEEDING 4

7. BUSES (NO PV BUSES) IN POLAR COORDINATES. 43

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS USING GAUSS SIEDEL METHOD, NR

8. METHOD AND FAST DECOUPLED METHOD FOR BOTH PQ AND 51
PV BUSES.

TO DETERMINE FAULT CURRENTS AND VOLTAGES IN A SINGLE

TRANSMISSION LINE SYSTEM WITH STAR-DELTA
9. TRANSFORMERS AT A SPECIFIED LOCATION FOR LG AND LLG
60
FAULTS BY SIMULATION.

OPTIMAL GENERATION SCHEDULING FOR THERMAL

10 71
POWER PLANTS BY SIMULATION

BEYOND SYLLABUS EXERCISE

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS BY GAUSS SEIDEL METHOD

76
(ONLY P-Q BUSES) MATLAB PROGRAM
 EXPERIMENT NO. 1

FORMATION FOR SYMMETRIC Π /T CONFIGURATION OF A TRANSMISSION LINE ,FOR

VERIFICATION OF 𝐴𝐷 − 𝐵𝐶 = 1, DETERMINATION OF EFFICIENCY AND REGULATION.

AIM:- a) Determination of ABCD parameters of a medium transmission line.

b) Verification of AD-BC=1.

c) Determination of voltage regulation and transmission efficiency.

THEORY:- Three phase transmission line can be represented as a circuit with two input
terminals and two output terminals designated as sending end and receiving end respectively as
shown in fig 1.1.

Is Ir
+ +
Vs Vr
ABCD

- -

Fig 1.1 Two port network representation of a line

The following relationships may be shown to exist

Vs  AVr  BI r ................(1)
I s  CVr  DI r ................(2)

Transmission lines over 100Km length are classified as medium transmission lines, in such lines
capacitance of the system is appreciable and it is distributed over the entire length of the line but
it is assumed that it is lumped in the form of capacitors shunted across the line at one or more
points.
For any transmission line the relation shown in equation (1) and (2) holds good. The constants
A,B,C & D are evaluated in terms of resistance (R) ,reactance (X) and susceptance (Y) for a
medium line

Two common methods known as localized capacitance methods are used to analyze the
parameters which are (1) Nominal-T-method (2) Nominal π method

Nominal T method:- In this method capacitance of each conductor is represented by an equal

capacitance shunted between the conductor and neutral midway along the line, arrangement
being diagrammatically represented as shown in fig 1.2

Is R/2 X/2 R/2 X/2 Ir

1 2 1 2

Ic

Vs V Y Vr 1

Fig 1.2 Symmetric T configuration

Referring to the circuit in fig 1.2 and denoting Z=R+jX

Z   Z 
V  Vr  I r  ; I c  YV  Y Vr  I r   
2   2 
YZ  YZ 
so that I s  I r  I c  I r  YV r  I r  I r 1    YVt ..........(3)
2  2 
Z  Z    YZ  Z
also Vs  V  I s  Vr  I r     I r 1    YVt 
2 2   2  2
GROUPING WITH THE COMMON TERMS
 YZ   Z Z YZ 2   YZ    YZ 
V s  Vr  1    I r      Vr 1    I r  Z 1   ..........(4)
 2  2 2 4   2    4 
 YZ  YZ  YZ
A  1 ; B  Z 1  ; C  Y ; D  1 
2  4  2
2
 YZ   YZ 
and AD  BC  1    YZ 1   1
 2   4 

Nominal π method:- In π model, it is assumed that one half the total capacitance of each
conductor is shunted at each end between the conductor and neutral at each end of the line, the
arrangement being diagrammatically represented as shown in fig 1.3

Is R X Ir
1 2

Ic1 Ic2

Vs Vr 1

Fig 1.3 Symmetric π configuration

Referring to the fig 1.3 and denoting Z=R+jX
Y Y
I c2  Vr ; I  I r  I c 2  I r  Vr
2 2
 Y   YZ 
so that Vs  Vr  IZ  Vr  Z  I r  Vr   Vr 1    I r Z ..........(5)
 2   2 
YZ
comparing with the general expression A  1  ;B  Z
2
Y    YZ   Y 
I c1  Vs      V r 1    Ir Z 
 2  and
2   2   
 Y    YZ   Y 
I s  I  I c1   I r  Vr   
 V r 1    Ir Z 
 2 
 2    2   
grouping with the common ter ms, we get
Y Y 
Y 2Z  YZ    YZ    YZ 
I s  Vr 
2   
  I r 1  2   V r 
 Y 1  4    I r 1  2 ........(6)
 2 
4       
 YZ  YZ
comparing with general expression , C  Y1  ; D  1 
 4  2
2
 YZ   YZ 
now AD - BC  1    YZ 1   1
 2   4 

VOLTAGE REGULATION:- It is defined as the percentage increase in voltage at the

receiving end when full load is thrown off, the sending end voltage being kept unchanged.
Percentage regulation is given by

Vs ( NL )  Vr
%regulation   100 …………(7)
Vr

EFFICIENCY:- transmission efficiency is the ratio of receiving end power to the sending end
Pr
power. %   100 ……………..(8)
Ps
ALGORITHM:-

1) Read the line data i.e,resistance,reactance,shunt admittance, length etc.,

2) Read system data i.e, receiving end power in MVA, receiving end voltage in KV and
power factor.
3) Compute receiving end current from the system data available.
4) Formulate the expressions of A,B,C,D parameters for given configuration of a line (T)
from equations (3) and (4), (π) from equations (5) and (6) and verify AD-BC=1.
5) Represent the ABCD parametrs in matrix form.
6) Determine sending end voltage and current by multiplying ABCD matrix with a column
vector containing receiving end voltage and current values.
7) To formulate sending end voltage at no load divide sending voltage obatined in step 6 by
magnitude of A
8) Determine voltage regulation using the equation (7)
9) Determine power at sending end and receiving end using relevant expression and
calculate transmission efficiency using equation (8).

PROGRAM (SYMMETRIC π CONFIGURATION)

function[a,b,c,d]=med_pi_abcd(); % FUNCTION DEFINITION

[r x y len]=medinput(); % FUNCTION CALL CONTAINING LINE DATA
[ir vr pf]=medpow(); % FUNCTION CALL CONTAINING SYSTEM DATA
z=len*complex(r,x)
y=len*complex(0,y)
a=(1+(z*y)/2);
b=z;
c1=(1+(z*y)/4);
c=y*c1;
d=a;
x=a*d-b*c
ABCD=[a b;c d]
vsis=ABCD*[vr;ir]
vsl_l=sqrt(3)*abs(vsis(1))
is=1000*abs(vsis(2))
vrl_l=vr*sqrt(3)
reg=(((vsl_l/abs(a))-vrl_l)/vrl_l)*100

function[r,x,y,len]=medinput();
r=0.036; % LINE RESISTANCE IN OHMS/KM
x=0.3; % LINE REACTANCE IN OHMS/KM
y=4.22e-6; %SHUNT ADMITTANCE IN SIEMENS/KM
len=130; %LINE LENGTH IN KMS

function [ir,vr,pf]=medpow();
sr=270; % APPARENT POWER IN MVA
vr=325; % RECEIVING END VOLATGE IN KV
pf=0.8; % POWER FACTOR
theta=acos(pf);
pr=cos(theta);
qr=sin(theta);
SR=sr*complex(pr,-qr);
vr=complex(vr/sqrt(3),0);
ir=(SR/3)/conj(vr);

RESULTS:
Verification AD-BC=1 , x = 1.0000 + 0.0000
[ABCD] = [ 0.9893 + 0.0013i 4.6800 +39.0000i
-0.0000 + 0.0005i 0.9893 + 0.0013i]
Sending end line to line voltage; vsl_l = 344.9100 KV
Sending end current; is = 421.1843 A
Voltage Regulation; reg = 7.2736 %
PROGRAM (SYMMETRIC T CONFIGURATION)

function[a,b,c,d]=med_tee_abcd(); %FUNCTION DEFINITION

[r x y len]=medinput(); %FUNCTION CALL CONTAINING LINE DATA
[ir vr pf]=medpow() % FUNCTION CALL CONTAINING SYSTEM DATA
z=len*complex(r,x)
y=len*complex(0,y)
a=(1+(z*y)/2);
b1=(1+(z*y)/4);
b=z*b1;
c=y;
d=a;
x=a*d-b*c
ABCD=[a b;c d]
vsis=ABCD*[vr;ir]
vsl_l=sqrt(3)*abs(vsis(1))
is=1000*abs(vsis(2))
vrl_l=vr*sqrt(3)
reg=(((vsl_l/abs(a))-vrl_l)/vrl_l)*100

function[r,x,y,len]=medinput();
r=0.036; %LINE RESISTANCE IN OHMS/KM
x=0.3; %LINE REACTANCE IN OHMS/KM
y=4.22e-6; %SHUNT ADMITTANCE IN SIEMENS/KM
len=130; %LINE LENGTH IN KMS

function [ir,vr,pf]=medpow();
sr=270; %APPARENT POWER IN MVA
vr=325; %RECEIVING END VOLATGE IN KV
pf=0.8; %POWER FACTOR
theta=acos(pf);
pr=cos(theta);
qr=sin(theta);
SR=sr*complex(pr,-qr);
vr=complex(vr/sqrt(3),0);
ir=(SR/3)/conj(vr);

RESULTS:
Verification AD-BC=1 , x = 1.0000 + 0.0000
[ABCD] = [ 0.9893 + 0.0013i 4.6800 +39.0000i
-0.0000 + 0.0005i 0.9893 + 0.0013i]
Sending end line to line voltage; vsl_l = 344.9100 KV
Sending end current; is = 421.1843 A
Voltage Regulation; reg = 7.2736 %

EXAMPLES

1) A 3 phase,50 Hz, 250Km length transmission line has resistance of 0.11Ω/Km,

inductance of 1.24mH/Km and shunt capacitance of 0.0094µF/Km. If the line delivers
25MVA at 0.8 lagging p.f to a balanced load at 132KV, find the sending end voltage,
current, voltage regulation and transmission efficiency of a line for both symmetric T
and π configurations.

2) A three phase transmission line has the following data-

a) Resistance - 20Ω
b) Inductive reactance- 40Ω
c) Capacitive susceptance-0.004 mho
d) Load at receiving end- 12,500 KVA at 0.8 p.f lagging
e) Voltage at receiving end-66KV
Find sending end voltage and current, voltage regulation and transmission efficiency
using (i) nominal T & (ii) nominal π method.
 ABCD PARAMETERS OF LONG TRANSMISSION LINE

AIM:- a) Determination of ABCD parameters of a long transmission line.

b) Verification of AD-BC=1.

c) Determination of voltage regulation and transmission efficiency.

THEORY:- Lines of distance above 250 KM are classified as long transmission lines. The
parameters of a line are not lumped but distributed uniformly throughout its length. The fig 1.4
shows one phase and neutral return of a transmission line.

Is Ix+dIx Zdx Ix Ir

Ydx
Vs Vx+dVx Vx Vr

dx X
l

Fig 1.4 Representation of a long line

Let dx be an elemental section of the line at a distance x from the receiving end having seires
impedance zdx and a shunt admittance ydx. The rise in voltage to neutral over the elemental
section in the direction of increasing x is dVx.

Across the elemental section we can write

 dVx
dVx  I x  zdx   zI x .............(1)
dx
dI
dI x  Vx  ydx  x  yVx ............(2)
dx
Differentiating equation ( 1 ) w.r.t 'x'
d 2Vx dI x dI
2
 z, substituting the value of x from equation ( 2 ) we get
dx dx dx
2
d Vx
 yzV x .....................................(3)
dx 2
the general solution of the linear differential eq uation ( 3 ) is given by
Vx  C1e x  C 2 e x ...........................(4)
where   yz known as PROPAGATION CONSTANT
C1 & C2 are arbitrary cons tan ts, differentiating equation ( 4 ) w.r.t x
dVx
dx
   
 C1 γe γx  C 2 γe γx  zI x

C
Zc
  C
 
 I x  1 γe γx  2 γe γx ..............( 5 )
Zc
z
where Z c  ...............................( 6 ) called a s CHARACTERISTIC IMP EDANCE
y
the cons tan ts C1 and C2 may be evaluated by u sin g the end conditions, i.e. when x  0 ,Vx  Vr and I x  I r
substituting these values in e quation ( 4 ) and ( 5 ) , we get
Vx  C1  C2

Ix 
1
C1  C2 
Zc

solving the above terms, we get C1 

1
Vr  Z c I r  and C2  1 Vr  Z c I r 
2 2
substituting the values of C1 and C 2 in equations ( 4 ) and ( 5 ), we get
 V  Z c I r  x  Vr  Z c I r  x  e x  e x   ex  e x 
Vx   r e   e  Vx   Vr    I r Z c ...........(7)
 2   2   2   2 
 Vr   Vr 
  Ir    Ir  x x
e x  I   e  e  Vr  ex  e x 
Ix   c e x   Z c
Z
 Z    I r .....................(8)
 2   2  x
 2  c  2 
   
   
equation ( 7 ) and ( 8 ) can be rewritten as
Vx  V r cosh x   I r Z c sinh γx ................( 9 )

I x  I r cosh x   sinh γx ...................( 10 )

Vr
Zc
 when x  l, V x  Vs , I x  I s
cosh l  Z c sinh l 
Vs    Vr 
 I    1 sinh l  cosh l   I 
 s  Z
 c   r 

sinh (γl) and AD-BC= cosh l   sinh l   1

1 2 2
Thus, A=D=cosh (γl); B=Zc sinh (γl); C=
Zc

ALGORITHM:-

1) Read the line data i.e ,resistance, reactance, shunt admittance, length etc.,
2) Read system data i.e, receiving end power in MVA, receiving end voltage in KV and
power factor.
3) Compute receiving end current from the system data available.
4) Formulate the expressions of A,B,C,D parameters of a line obtained using rigorous
solution method and verify AD-BC=1.
5) Represent the ABCD parameters in matrix form.
6) Determine sending end voltage and current by multiplying ABCD matrix with a column
vector containing receiving end voltage and current values.
7) To formulate sending end voltage at no load divide sending voltage obtained in step 6 by
magnitude of A.
8) Determine voltage regulation using the equation.
9) Determine power at sending end and receiving end using relevant expression and
calculate transmission efficiency using equation.

PROGRAM (LONG TRANSMISSION LINE)

function[a,b,c,d]=long_abcd(); %FUNCTION DEFINITION

[z y len]=long_input(); %FUNCTION CALL CONTAINING LINE DATA
[ir vr pf]=longpow(); %FUNCTION CALL CONTAINING SYSTEM DATA
gamma=sqrt(z*y);
zc=sqrt(z/y);
a=cosh(gamma*len)
b=zc*sinh(gamma*len)
c=(1/zc)*sinh(gamma*len)
d=a
x=a*d-b*c
ABCD=[a b;c d]
vsis=ABCD*[vr;ir]
vsl_l=sqrt(3)*abs(vsis(1))
is=1000*abs(vsis(2))
vrl_l=sqrt(3)*vr
reg=(((vsl_l/abs(a))-vrl_l)/vrl_l)*100
function[z,y,len]=long_input();
z=0.045+j*0.4; %LINE IMPEDANCE IN OHMS/KM
y=j*4e-6; %SHUNT ADMITTANCE IN SIEMENS/KM
len=250; %LENGTH IN KM
function[ir,vr,pf]=longpow();
sr=270; %RECEIVING END POWER IN MVA
vr=325; %RECEIVING END VOLTAGE IN KV
pf=0.8; %POWER FACTOR
theta=acos(pf);
pr=cos(theta);
qr=sin(theta);
SR=sr*complex(pr,-qr)
vr=complex(vr/sqrt(3),0)
ir=(SR/3)/conj(vr);
RESULTS:
Verification AD-BC=1 , x = 1.0000 + 0.0000
[ABCD]= [ 0.9504 + 0.0055i 10.8778 +98.3624i
-0.0000 + 0.0010i 0.9504 + 0.0055i ]
Sending end voltage ,vsl_l = 370.3270 KV
Sending end current , is = 376.1001 KA
Voltage regulation, reg = 19.8902%
EXAMPLES

1) A three phase 50Hz transmission line is 400Km long. The voltage at the receiving end is
242 KV line to line. The line parameters are r=0.125Ω/Km, x=0.4 Ω/Km and y=2.8x10 -6
mho/Km. write a program to determine sending end voltage, current, voltage regulation
and transmission efficiency.

2) A 50 Hz transmission line 280 Km long has total series impedance of 0.125+j 0.5 Ω/Km
and a shunt admittance of 4.034x10 -6 mho/Km. power at receiving end is 44.4
MVA,receiving end voltage is 220KV and power factor of 0.9 lagging.
Determine A,B,C,D parameters, verify AD-BC=1,determine sending end voltage,current
,voltage regulation and transmission efficiency .
 EXPERIMENT NO. 2

DETERMINATION OF POWER ANGLE DIAGRAMS, RELUCTANCE POWER,

EXCITATION, EMF AND REGULATION FOR SALIENT AND NON-SALIENT POLE
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES.

AIM:- To obtain power angle characteristics of a non salient pole and salient

Pole synchronous machine using MATLAB.

THEORY:- The synchronous machine is the most important element of a power system. It
converts mechanical power into electrical form and feeds into the power network or, in case of a
motor it draws electrical power from the network and converts into the mechanical form.
Synchronous machines always run at constant speed known as synchronous speed given by
120 f
Ns  R.P.M .
p

Non salient pole type or smooth cylindrical type synchronous machine rotors are used in very
high speed alternators driven by steam turbines. They are of smaller diameter and longer axial
length, synchronous speed ranges from 1500 R.P.M to 3000 R.P.M. in the simplified circuit
model of non salient pole synchronous machine armature resistance Ra is invariably neglected
and Xs=Xa+Xl is called as synchronous reactance of the machine. Expression for induced emf is

given by E g  Vt  I a X s fig 4.2 shows the corresponding Phasor diagram of the machine

working as generator, the field induced emf Eg leads the terminal voltage Vt by the load (torque)
angle ∂, this is the condition of active power to flow out of the generator. The magnitude of
power delivered depends upon sin∂.

Fig 2.1 Phasor diagram of non salient pole synchronous machine

power delivered by a generator to power network is

P  Vt I a cos  ……..(1)

Ef Ia X s Ef
 I a cos   sin ....(2)
sin 90 0   
or
sin  Xs
E f Vt
P sin ...(3)
Xs

The plot of P versus ∂ is as shown in fig 3.3 known as power angle curve. The maximum power
can be delivered at ∂=900.

A salient pole synchronous machine is distinguished fro a cylindrical pole rotor machine by
constructional features of field poles which project with a large interpolar air gap. This type of
construction is commonly employed in machines coupled to hydroelectric turbines which are
slow speed ones. Salient pole machine analysis is made through the two reaction theory.In a
salient pole machine air gap is non uniform along the rotor periphery. It is least along the axis of
main poles called direct axis and is largest along the axis of the interpolar region called
quadrature axis. Salient pole machine offers different reactances to the flow of direct axis
component of armature current (Id) known as direct axis reactance (Xd) and quadrature axis
component of armature current (Iq) known as quadrature axis reactance (Xq) its circuit model
cannot be drawn. The Phasor diagram of salient pole generator is as shown below in fig 2.2.

Fig 2.2 Phasor diagram of salient pole synchronous machine

The power output of a salient pole generator is given by

Vt E g Vt
2
X  Xq 
P sin   sin 2 ……..(4)
d

Xd 2* Xd * Xq

The first term is the same as for non salient pole machine with Xs=Xd and constitutes major part
of the power transfer. The second term is quite small about 10 -20% compared to the first term
and is known as reluctance power.

The plot of P versus ∂ is as shown in fig 3.4 it is noticed that maximum power output occurs at
∂<900.

ALGORITHM:-

NON SALIENT POLE MACHINE

1) Read the values of terminal voltage, power input to the machine, armature resistance,
synchronous reactance (all in per unit) and power factor.

PowerInput
2) Evaluate the armature current using the relation I a 
Terminal voltage * pf

3) Determine the complex impedance Z.

4) Determine the emf induced using the relation E g  Vt  I a Z

E g Vt
5) Determine Pm  of equation (3).
Xs

6) Define load angle ∂ and also define its range using suitable mat lab syntax. Convert each
of the angle values from radians to degrees.

7) Multiply the expression given in step 5 with sin∂ to obtain power delivered by the
machine at different load angles.

8) Using plot command obtain the power angle characteristics.

 SALIENT POLE MACHINE

1) Read the values of terminal voltage, induced emf, power input to the machine, armature
resistance, synchronous reactance (Xd and Xq) (all in per unit) and power factor.

Vt E g Vt
2
X  Xq
2) Determine the terms Pm1  and Pm 2 
d
of equation 4.
Xd 2* Xd * Xq

3) Define load angle ∂ and also define its range using suitable mat lab syntax. Convert
each of the angle values from radians to degrees.

4) Multiply the term Pm1 with sin∂ and Pm2 with sin(2∂).

5) Using plot and hold commands obtain the characteristics of (Pm1 v/s ∂),

(Pm2 v/s ∂) and the combined characteristics.

PROGRAM (NON SALIENT POLE MACHINE)

vt=1.0; %TERMINAL VOLATGE IN PER UNIT

pow=0.5; %INPUT POWER IN PER UNIT
ra=0; %ARMATURE RESISTANCE
pf=0.8; %POWER FACTOR
x=0.3; %SYNCHRONOUS REACTANCE IN PER UNIT
ia=pow/(vt*pf)
theta=acos(pf)
Ia=complex(ia*cos(theta),-ia*sin(theta));
z=complex(ra,x);
eg=vt+(z*Ia);
pm=abs(eg)*abs(vt)/x;
del=linspace(0.0,pi,100);
y=pm*sin(del);
del=del.*180/pi;
plot(del,y,'r')

Figure 2.3 Power Angle characteristics of non salient pole machine

PROGRAM (SALIENT POLE MACHINE)

vt=1.0; %TERMINAL VOLTAGE IN PER UNIT

eg=1.1; %INDUCED EMF IN PER UNIT
ra=0; %ARMATURE RESISTANCE
xq=0.6; %QUADRATURE AXIS REACTANCE IN PER UNIT
xd=1; %DIRECT AXIS REACTANCE IN PER UNIT
Pm1=abs(eg)*abs(vt)/xd;
Pm2=(abs(vt)^2)*(xd-xq)/(2*xd*xq)
del=linspace(0.0,pi,100);
y1=Pm1*sin(del);
y2=Pm2*sin(2*del);
del=del.*180/pi;
plot(del,y1,'r')
hold on
plot(del,y2,'b')
hold on
y=y1+y2
plot(del,y,'m')

Figure 2.4 Power angle characteristics of a salient pole machine

 EXPERIMENT NO. 3

TO OBTAIN SWING CURVE AND TO DETERMINE CRITICAL CLEARING TIME,

REGULATION, INERTIA CONSTANT/LINE PARAMETERS /FAULT
LOCATION/CLEARING TIME/PRE-FAULT ELECTRICAL OUTPUT FOR A SINGLE
MACHINE CONNECTED TO INFINITE BUS THROUGH A PAIR OF IDENTICAL
TRANSMISSION LINES UNDER 3-PHASE FAULT ON ONE OF THE TWO LINES.

AIM: To write a program to obtain swing curve of a single machine connected to infinite bus,
under 3 phase fault on one of two lines and to determine

a) Critical clearing time

b) Regulation
c) Inertiaconstant
d) Critical clearing time
e) Pre fault electrical output

THEORY:

PROGRAM

function[del,t]=swing_prog();

[H, xpre, xdur, xpost, E, MVA, MW, tmax, tclear ]=SWING_IN();

w(1)=0.0;

V=1.0;

M=H/(pi*50);

pmaxbf=E*V/xpre;

pmaxdf=E*V/xdur;

pmaxaf=E*V/xpost;

pm=MW/MVA;

del(1)=asin(pm/pmaxbf)
del_t=0.05;

t=0.0;

i=1;

x(i)=t;

while(t<tmax)

if(t<=tclear)

pmax=pmaxdf

end

if(t>tclear)

pmax=pmaxaf

end

D1(i+1)= w(i)

D2(i+1)=(pm-pmax*sin(del(i)))/M

delp(i+1)=del(i)+D1(i+1)*del_t

wp(i+1)=w(i)+D2(i+1)*del_t;

D1P(i+1)=wp(i+1)

D2P(i+1)=(pm-pmax*sin(delp(i+1)))/M

del(i+1)=del(i)+(D1(i+1)+D1P(i+1))*del_t/2

w(i+1)=w(i)+ (D2(i+1)+D2P(i+1))*del_t/2

t=t+del_t;

i=i+1;

x(i)=t

end

del=del.*180/pi

plot(x,del)
function[H,xpre,xdur,xpost,E,MVA,MW,tmax,tclear]=SWING_IN();

H=5.2;

xpre=0.7;

xdur=1.9;

xpost=0.9;

E=1.2;

MVA=100;

MW=80;

tclear=0.125;

tmax=0.5;

RESULT:

Fig 3.1 Swing curve of a synchronous machine

 EXPERIMENT NO 4

Y BUS FORMATION FOR POWER SYSTEMS WITH AND WITHOUT MUTUAL

COUPLING, BY SINGULAR TRANSFORMATION AND INSPECTION METHOD.

AIM:- a) Program to form Y bus of a power system by inspection method.

b) Program to form Y bus of a given power system by singular transformation (with and
without mutual coupling)

THEORY:- A power system comprises several buses which are interconnected by means of
transmission lines. Power is injected into a bus from generators, while the loads are tapped from
it. The network model of a power system can be obtained by representing a short line by a series
impedance and long line by nominal π model.

Node voltage method is most suitable method for many power system analyses and since nodal
solution is based upon Kirchhoff’s current law, line impedances are converted to admittance
values. Thus for a n-bus system, the node voltage equation in matrix form is given by

 I 1  Y11 Y12 .... .Y1i ......Yin  V1 

 I  Y Y22 .....Y2i ......Y2 n  V 
 2   21  2
.  . . . .  . 
     
.  = . . . .  .  …………………(1)
 I i  Yi1 Yi 2 Yii Yin  V i 
     
.  . . . .  . 
 I  Y Yni Ynn  V 
 n   n1 Y2 n  n

Or Ibus=Ybus*Vbus………………………………..(2)

Where Ibus is the vector of the injected bus currents i.e., external current sources. The current is
positive when flowing towards the bus, and it is negative if flowing away from the bus. Vbus is
the vector of bus voltages measured from the reference node. Ybus is known as the bus
admittance matrix.
The diagonal element of each node is the sum of admittances connected to it. This element is
known as self admittance or driving point admittance, given by

n
Yii   y i j , j  i ………(1)
j 0

The off diagonal element is equal to the negative of the admittance between the nodes. It is also
known as mutual admittance or transfer admittance, given by

Yij  Y ji   yij ……..(2)

Inspection of the bus admittance matrix reveals that the matrix is symmetric along the
leading diagonal. In a power system each bus is connected to only a few nearby buses,
therefore many off diagonal elements are zero such matrix is called sparse and efficient
numerical techniques can be applied to compute its inverse.

ALGORITHM:-

1) Read the power system data i.e, line impedance, half line charging admittance, off
nominal turns ratio etc.,

2) Evaluate the number of nodes (buses-n) and number of branches (nbr) of a system from
the input data available suitably.

3) Initialize the bus admittance matrix of order (nxn) to zero.

4) Form a column matrix containing line impedance values between the two nodes i&j and
invert each element of that matrix to get admittance value (yij).

5) Select a branch connected between two nodes named as starting bus & ending bus

6) Evaluate diagonal element of YBUS which is the sum of admittances connected to it. This
element is known as self admittance or driving point admittance, given by
n
Yii   y i j , j  i
j 0
 7) Evaluate the off diagonal element which is equal to the negative of the admittance
between the nodes. It is also known as mutual admittance or transfer admittance, given

by Yij  Y ji   yij

PROGRAM (INSPECTION METHOD)

function[ybus]=formybus(); %FUNCTION DEFINITION

[zldata]=new_data5(); %FUNCTION CALL TO READ SYSTEM DATA
n=max(max(zldata(:,1)),max(zldata(:,2)))
r=[zldata(:,3)];
x=[zldata(:,4)];
z=complex(r,x);
y=1./z;
b=complex(0,zldata(:,5));
a=[zldata(:,6)];
nbr=length(r);
ybus=zeros(n,n) %INITIALIZING BUS ADMITTANCE MATRIX
for i=1:nbr
sb=zldata(i,1);
eb=zldata(i,2);
ybus(sb,eb)=ybus(sb,eb)-y(i)/a(i)
ybus(eb,sb)=ybus(sb,eb);
ybus(sb,sb)=ybus(sb,sb)+(y(i)/a(i)*a(i))+b(i)
ybus(eb,eb)=ybus(eb,eb)+y(i)+b(i);
end
ybus
%INPUT FUNCTION:
function [zldata] = new_data5();
% sb eb r x b a
zldata=[1 2 0.02 0.06 0.3 1;
1 3 0.08 0.24 0.025 1;
2 3 0.06 0.18 0.02 1;
2 4 0.06 0.18 0.02 1;
2 5 0.04 0.12 0.015 1;
3 4 0.01 0.03 0.01 1;
4 5 0.08 0.24 0.025 1;];
RESULT
YBUS =

6.250 -18.425i -5.000 +15.000i -1.250 + 3.750i 0 0

-5+15i 10.833 -32.145i -1.667 + 5.000i -1.667 + 5.000i -2.500 + 7.500i

-1.250 + 3.750i -1.667 + 5.000i 12.917 -38.695i -10.000 +30.000i 0

-1.667 + 5.000i -10.000 +30.000i 12.9167 -38.695i -1.250 + 3.750i

0
0 -2.500 + 7.500i 0 -1.250 + 3.750i 3.750 -11.210i

ALGORITHM (WITHOUT MUTUAL COUPLING) :-

1) Read the power system data i.e, line impedance, half line charging admittance, off
nominal turns ratio etc.,

2) Evaluate the number of nodes (buses-n) and number of branches (nl) of a system from the
input data available suitably.

3) Form primitive impedance matrix of the order (nlxnl) from the line data available in the
input file and arrange the values as diagonal elements of the matrix using suitable
command
4) Initialize the bus incidence matrix (A) of the order (nlxn)

5) Evaluate the elements of the bus incidence matrix aij as per the following rules:

aij= 1 if the ith element is incident to and oriented away from the jth node.

=-1 if the ith element is incident to and oriented towards the jth node.

= 0 if the ith element is not incident to the jth node.

6) Invert the primitive impedance matrix to obtain primitive admittance matrix (yprim).

7) Formulate the YBUS expression i.e, YBUS=AT*yprim*A

PROGRAM (WITHOUT MUTUAL COUPLING)

function[ybus]=transformation(); %FUNCTION DEFINITION
[data]=ybus_input() %FUNCTION CALL TO READ POWER SYSTEM DATA
nl=length(data)
n=max(max(data(:,2)),max(data(:,3)))
zprim=zeros(nl,nl) %INITIALIZING PRIMITIVE IMPEDANCE MATRIX
z=complex(data(:,4),data(:,5))
zprim=diag(z)
a=zeros(nl,n) %INITIALIZING BUS INCIDENCE MATRIX
for i=1:nl %FORMATION OF BUS INCIDENCE MATRIX
sb=data(i,2)
eb=data(i,3)
a(i,sb)=-1
a(i,eb)=1
end
A=a(:,1:n-1)
yprim=inv(zprim)
ybus=A'*yprim*A
zbus=inv(ybus)
%INPUT FUNCTION:
function[data] = ybus_input();
 %y/2 is given as impedance
% element No sb eb r x
[data]=[ 1 1 2 0.02 0.06;
2 1 3 0.08 0.24;
3 2 3 0.06 0.18;
4 2 4 0.06 0.18;
5 2 5 0.04 0.12;
6 3 4 0.01 0.03;
7 4 5 0.08 0.24;
8 1 6 0.00 -3.0769;
9 2 6 0.00 -18.018;
10 3 6 0.00 -18.018;
11 4 6 0.00 -18.018;
12 5 6 0.00 -25.000;];

RESULT
YBUS =

6.250 -18.425i -5.000 +15.000i -1.250 + 3.750i 0 0

-5+15i 10.833 -32.145i -1.667 + 5.000i -1.667 + 5.000i -2.500 + 7.500i

-1.250 + 3.750i -1.667 + 5.000i 12.917 -38.695i -10.000 +30.000i 0

-1.667 + 5.000i -10.000 +30.000i 12.9167 -38.695i -1.250 + 3.750i

0

0 -2.500 + 7.500i 0 -1.250 + 3.750i 3.750 -11.210i

 ALGORITHM (WITH MUTUAL COUPLING) :-

1) Define a function to formulate bus admittance matrix i.e,Y BUS

2) Call a function to read the power system data i.e, line impedance, half line charging
admittance, off nominal turns ratio etc.,

3) Evaluate the number of nodes (buses-n) and number of branches (nl) of a system from the
input data available suitably.

4) Form primitive impedance matrix of the order (nlxnl) from the line data available in the
input file and arrange the values as diagonal elements of the matrix using suitable
command.

5) Identify the mutually coupled branches and reflect the mutual impedance values suitably
in the primitive impedance matrix.

6) Initialize the bus incidence matrix (A) of the order (nlxn)

7) Evaluate the elements of the bus incidence matrix aij as per the following rules:

aij= 1 if the ith element is incident to and oriented away from the jth node.

=-1 if the ith element is incident to and oriented towards the jth node.

= 0 if the ith element is not incident to the jth node.

8) Invert the primitive impedance matrix to obtain primitive admittance matrix (yprim).

9) Formulate the YBUS expression i.e, YBUS=AT*yprim*A

PROGRAM (WITH MUTUAL COUPLING)

function[ybus]=ybus_mut(); %FUNCTION DEFINITION

[data,mut_data]=ybus_input() %CALLING FUNCTION TO READ POWER SYSTEM DATA
nl=length(data);
n=max(max(data(:,2)),max(data(:,3)));
zprim=zeros(nl,nl); %INITIALIZING PRIMITIVE IMPEDANCE MATRIX
z=complex(data(:,4),data(:,5));
zprim=diag(z);
x=length(mut_data(:,1));
for i=1:x
m1=mut_data(i,1);
m2=mut_data(i,2);
zprim(m1,m2)=complex(0,mut_data(i,3));
zprim(m2,m1)=complex(0,mut_data(i,3));
end
a=zeros(nl,n) %INITIALIZING BUS INCIDENCE MATRIX
for i=1:nl %FORMATION OF BUS INCIDENCE MATRIX
sb=data(i,2)
eb=data(i,3)
a(i,sb)=-1
a(i,eb)=1
end
A=a(:,1:n-1)
yprim=inv(zprim)
ybus=A'*yprim*A
zbus=inv(ybus)
%INPUT FUNCTION:
function[data,mut_data]=ybus_input();
%y/2 is given as impedance
% element No sb eb r x
[data]=[ 1 4 2 0.00 0.6;
2 4 3 0.00 0.5;
3 3 1 0.00 0.5;
4 4 2 0.00 0.4;
5 2 1 0.00 0.2;];
% m1 m2 x

[mut_data]=[ 1 4 0.2;
2 1 0.1;];
RESULT
Ybus =

0 - 7.0000i 0 + 5.0000i 0 + 2.0000i

0 + 0.2083i
0 + 5.0000i 0 - 8.0208i

0 + 2.0000i 0 + 0.2083i 0 - 4.0833i

EXAMPLES
1) The table 4.1 shown below describes a power system. Consider bus 6 as reference and the
linear graph of the system is shown in figure 4.1. Write a suitable program to determine
the branch to node incidence matrix and Y bus by singular transformation. Line resistance
and half line charging admittance are neglected.
Table 4.1
Bus (from-to) Line reactance (p.u)
1-2 j 0.4
1-3 j 0.5
1-6 j 1.0
2-3 j 0.25
2-5 j 0.2
3-4 j 0.125
4-5 j 0.5
5-6 j1.25

2) If mutual coupling exists between branches connected between the buses 1and 3 & 2 and
3 with mutual impedance j0.15 p.u, modify the program to form Y bus considering the
mutual coupling between the branches.
3) The figure 4.1 shown below is a one line diagram of a simple four bus system and the
table 4.2 gives the line impedances identified by the buses on which these terminate. The
shunt admittance at all the buses is assumed negligible.

a) Write a program to form bus admittance matrix by inspection method.

b) Verify the results by forming bus admittance matrix by singular transformation.

1 2

3 4

Figure 4.1 4 bus system

Line (bus to bus) R (p.u) X (p.u)

1-2 0.05 0.15

1-3 0.1 0.3

2-3 0.15 0.45

2-4 0.1 0.3

3-4 0.05 0.15

Table 4.2
 EXPERIMENT NO. 5

FORMATION OF Z BUS (WITHOUT MUTUAL COUPLING) USING Z-BUS

BUILDING ALGORITHM.

AIM:- Program to form Z bus of a given power system by building algorithm.

THEORY:- The bus impedance matrix by the building algorithm is formulated and is employed
for the systematic computation of bus voltages and line currents during the fault. The bus
impedance matrix can be built up starting with a single element and the process is continued until
all the nodes and elements are included. Assume that ZBUS exists for a partial network having m
buses and a reference bus 0 as shown in Fig 5.1

1
2

p
PARTIAL
NETWORK q

m
Z bus
m

0 reference

Fig 5.1 Partial Network

For an n bus system, m buses are included in the network and ZBUS is of order mXm. Only one
element is added at a time from the remaining portion of the network until all elements are
added. The added element may be a branch or a link.

If a new branch is added between a new node q and the reference node 0 having impedance of zq0
to the existing matrix of order (mXm), modified matrix will be of the order (m+1)X(m+1), the
elements of which are as shown in the matrix below.

 Z 11 ........Z 1m 0 
 
Z new
bus   0..........Z mm 0 
 0.......... 0 Z q 0 
 
If a new branch is added between a new node q and the existing node p having impedance Zpq to
the existing matrix of order (mXm), modified matrix will be of order (m+1)X(m+1), the elements
of which are as shown in the matrix below.

 Z11........Z1 p ......Z1m Z 1 p 
 
 Z p1 .......Z pp ......Z pm Z pp 
new
Z bus 
 Z m1 .......Z mp ......Z mm Z mp 
 
 Z p1 .......Z pp ......Z pm Z pp  z pq 
 
 

When a link with impedance Zpq is added between two existing nodes p and q, order of the
matrix is not changed, but existing matrix is augmented with a new row and new column as
shown

 Z 11 ................Z 1 p ....................................... Z 1m Z1q  Z 1 p 

 
 Z p1 .................Z pp ...................................... Z pm Z pq -Z pp 
 Z ..................Z ............................... ...... Z Z qq -Z qp 
 
new q1 qp qm
Z bus
 Z m1 .................Z mp .....................................Z mm Z mq -Z mp 
 
 Z q1  Z p1 ......Z qp  Z pp ...........................Z qm  Z pm Z l l 
 
 

Where Z ll  z pq  Z pp  Z qq  2 Z pq

Similarly when a link is added between existing bus p and reference bus 0, again order of the
matrix is not changed, but existing matrix is augmented with a new row and column as shown

 Z 11 ................Z 1 p ....................................... Z 1m  Z1 p 
 
 Z p1 .................Z pp ...................................... Z pm -Z pp 
 Z ..................Z ............................... ...... Z -Z qp 
  where Z ll  z pq  Z pp
new q1 qp qm
Z bus
 Z m1 .................Z mp .....................................Z mm -Z mp 
 
 Z p1 ............  Z pp .................................  Z pm Zl l 
 
 
The new row and column is eliminated using the relation

 Z 1q  Z 1 p 
 
 
ZZ T  Z pq  Z pp 
new
Z bus  Z bus
old
 where Z    when a link is added between two
Z ll  Z qq  Z qp 
 
 
 Z mq  Z mp 
 
 Z 1 p 
 
 
 Z pp 
existing buses and Z    when a link is added between existing bus and reference.
 Z qp 
 
 
 Z mp 
 

ALGORITHM

1. Read the system data by calling its function

2. Determine the number of buses.

3. Initialize the ZBUS of order 1x1 with zero as its element.

4. Check for addition of a new branch, if the added element is a new branch, then formulate
the values of new row and new column elements and also the value of diagonal element
using suitable formulae.

5. Append the existing ZBUS with the evaluated values of new row, new column and
diagonal element.

6. Check for addition of a new link between two buses, if the added element is a link, then
formulate the values of new row and new column elements and also the value of diagonal
element using suitable formulae.
 ZZ T
new
7. Formulate the expression Z bus  Z bus
old
 to obtain modified bus impedance
Z ll
matrix.

8. Obtain Ybus by inverting the obtained bus impedance matrix.

PROGRAM

function [zbus]=zbuild();
[data]=input_data();
n=max(max(data(:,1)),max(data(:,2)))
nbr=length(data(:,1));
zbus=zeros(1,1)
for i=1:1:nbr
if (data(i,4)==1)
sb=data(i,1)
eb=data(i,2)
if (sb>eb)
temp=sb
sb=eb
eb=temp
end
zncol=zbus(:,sb)
znrow=zbus(sb,:)
zn_dia=zbus(sb,sb)+data(i,3)
zbus=[zbus zncol;znrow zn_dia]
end
if (data(i,4)==2)
sb=data(i,1)
eb=data(i,2)
if (sb>eb)
temp=sb
 sb=eb
eb=temp
end
z ncol=zbus(:,sb)-zbus(:,eb)
znrow=zbus(sb,:)-zbus(eb,:)
zn_dia=zbus(sb,sb)+zbus(eb,eb)-2*zbus(sb,eb)+data(i,3)
zbus=[zbus]-[(zncol*znrow)/zn_dia]
end
end
zbus=zbus(2:n,2:n)
ybus=inv(zbus)
%INPUT FUNCTION:
function [data] = input_data();
[data]= [ 1 2 0.2 1;
3 1 0.4 1;
2 4 0.4 1;
2 3 0.8 2;
4 3 0.4 2;];
RESULTS:

ZBUS=

0.1600 0.0800 0.1200

0.0800 0.2400 0.1600

0.1200 0.1600 0.3400

 EXPERIMENT NO.6

DETERMINATION OF BUS CURRENTS, BUS POWER AND LINE FLOW FOR A

SPECIFIED SYSTEM VOLTAGE (BUS) PROFILE.

AIM:-.Write a program to determine line losses, line flows, bus currents for a

given power system voltage profile.

THEORY:- Computation of line flows is the last step in the load flow analysis, after calculating
the voltages at different buses by iterative technique the power flows on the various lines of the
network are determined. Consider the line connecting buses i&j as shown in figure 6.1

i Iij Iij1 Iji1 Iji j

Sij Iij0 yij Iji0 Sji

yij0 yji0

Figure 6.1 π representation of a line and transformers connected between two buses

The line and transformers at each end can be represented by a circuit with series admittance y ij
and two shunt admittances yij0 and yji0. The current fed by the bus I into the line can be expressed
as

I ij  I ij1  I ij 0  Vi  V j y ij  Vi y ij 0 ……………………(1)

Similarly the current fed by the bus J into the line is given by

I ji  I ji1  I ji0  V j  Vi y ij  V j y ji0 …………………..(2)


The power fed into the line from bus i is S ij  Vi I ij  Vi Vi  V j yij  ViVi yij 0
* * *
 * * *

…………………(3)
Similarly, the power fed into the line from bus j is

 
S ji  V j I *ji  V j V j*  Vi* yij*  V jV j* y *ji0 ……………(4)

The power loss in the (i-j)th line which is the sum of the power flows determined from the above
equations and total transmission loss can be evaluated by summing all the line flows for all
values of i,j. The slack bus power can also be found by summing the flows on the lines
terminating at the slack bus.

ALGORITHM:-

8) Read the transmission line data and bus voltage profile.

9) Form the bus admittance matrix either by inspection method or singular transformation.

10) Form the vector of bus voltages of a power system.

11) Determine the bus currents given by I bus  Ybus * V .

12) Determine the power available at each bus using S  V * I bus .

*

13) Determine the current injected in transmission line connected between two nodes i&j as
given by equation (1).

14) Similarly determine the current injected in transmission line connected between two
nodes j&i as given by equation (2).

15) Determine the power flow in the line connected between nodes i & j by multiplying
voltage at bus i with conjugate of current determined in step 6.

16) Similarly evaluate the power flow in the line from node j to i given by product of voltage
at bus j and conjugate of current determined in step 7.

17) Determine the power loss in the (i-j)th line which is the sum of the power flows
determined in steps 8 and 9.

18) Compute total transmission loss by summing all the line flows i.e, Sij+Sji for all i,j.
PROGRAM FOR LINE FLOWS AND LINE LOSSES

function[ybus,line flows]=line_losses(); %FUNCTION DEFINITION

bmva=100;
[z_data,vol_data]=pcal_input(); %FUNCTION CALL
n=max(max(z_data(:,1)),max(z_data(:,2)))
r=[z_data(:,3)];
x=[z_data(:,4)];
z=complex(r,x);
y=1./z;
b=complex(0,z_data(:,5));
a=[z_data(:,6)];
nbr=length(r);
ybus=zeros(n,n);
for i=1:nbr
sb=z_data(i,1);
eb=z_data(i,2);
ybus(sb,eb)=ybus(sb,eb)-y(i)/a(i);
ybus(eb,sb)=ybus(sb,eb);
ybus(sb,sb)=ybus(sb,sb)+(y(i)/(a(i)*a(i)))+b(i);
ybus(eb,eb)=ybus(eb,eb)+y(i)+b(i);
end
ybus
[vr,vi]=pol2cart(vol_data(:,3),vol_data(:,2));
v=complex(vr,vi)
i=ybus*v ;
s=v.*conj(i);
for k=1: nbr
i=z_data(k,1);
j=z_data(k,2);
 Iij=(v(i)-v(j))*(-ybus(i,j))+v(i)*b(k);
Sij=(v(i)*conj(Iij))*bmva
Iji=(v(j)-v(i))*(-ybus(j,i))+v(j)*b(k);
Sji=(v(j)*conj(Iji))*bmva
loss(k)=Sij+Sji
end
Pl=sum(loss)
P2=abs(Pl)

% INPUT FUNCTION:
function [z_data,vol_data] = pcal_input();
% Sb eb r x b a
z_data=[ 1 2 0.02 0.08 0.01 1;
2 3 0.02 0.08 0.01 1;
3 1 0.02 0.08 0.01 1;];

% Bus.No V mag V angle in radians

vol_data = [ 1 1.04 0;
2 1.081 -0.024;
3 1.04 -0.0655;];
RESULTS:
ybus = [ 5.8824 -23.5094i -2.9412 +11.7647i -2.9412 +11.7647i
- 2.9412 +11.7647i 5.8824 -23.5094i -2.9412 +11.7647i
-2.9412 +11.7647i -2.9412 +11.7647i 5.8824 -23.5094i ]

Total power flow from ith to jth bus; Sij = -82.6051 +22.4688i MVA
Total power flow from jth to ith bus; Sji = 83.9694 -19.1748i MVA
Power loss in each line = [ 0.6849 + 0.4893i 1.0638 + 2.0051i 1.3643 + 3.2941i] MVA
Total power loss in MVA; Pl = 3.1130 + 5.7884i MVA
Total power loss in MW; P2= 6.5724 MW
EXAMPLES

1) Figure 6.2 shows one line diagram of a simple three bus system with generation at bus 1.
Line impedances are marked in per unit on a 100MVA base. Line resistances and line
charging susceptances are neglected. Voltage at bus 1 is V1=1∟00 p.u and after using
iterative technique voltages at bus 2 and 3 are found to be V2=0.9-j0.1 p.u and V3=0.95-
j0.05 p.u. write a program to determine line flows and line losses in each of the
transmission line and total loss of the power system.
j0.033
V1=1∟00 400MW
1 2 320MVAR

j0.0125 j 0.05
3
300MW 270 MVAR

Fig 6.2 one line diagram of four bus system

2) The details of a three bus system are given in the table below. Line impedances are
marked in per unit on a 100MVA base and line charging susceptances are neglected.
Line (Bus to Bus) Line impedance in p.u.
1-2 0.02+j0.04
2-3 0.0125+j0.025
1-3 0.01+j0.03
Voltage profile at the nodes are as given below
Bus Voltage in p.u
V1=1.05∟00
V2=0.9818∟-3.5030
V3=1.0012∟-2.8620
Write a program to evaluate the line flows and line losses.
 EXPERIMENTS USING MIPOWER SIMUALTION PACKAGE

EXPERIMENT NO.7

FORMATION OF JACOBIAN FOR A SYSTEM NOT EXCEEDING 4 BUSES (NO PV BUSES)

IN POLAR COORDINATES.

AIM: To form a Jacobian matrix for a given power system in polar coordinates using MI-power package

THEORY: Load flow also known as power flow is necessary for planning, economic scheduling
and control of an existing power system as well as for its future expansion. Load flow problem
consists of determining the magnitudes and phase angles of voltages at each bus and active and
reactive power flow in each line. In solving a power flow problem, the system is assumed to be
operating under balanced conditions and a single phase model is used. Practical considerations
allow a power system analyst to fix a priori of two variables at each bus. Depending upon which
two variables are specified a priori, the buses are classified into three categories

SLACK BUS:- Also known as swing bus is taken as reference bus where the magnitude of
voltage |V| and phase angle ∂ of the voltage are specified. This bus makes up the difference
between the scheduled loads and generated power that are caused by the losses in the network,
because real and reactive powers cannot be fixed at all the buses as the net complex power flow
into the network is not known in advance, the system power loss being unknown till the load
flow study is complete. It is therefore necessary to have one bus so that it supplies the difference
in the total system load plus losses and sum of the complex powers specified at the remaining
buses.

P-Q BUS/LOAD BUS:- At these buses the active (P) and reactive (Q) powers are specified. The
magnitude and the phase angle of the bus voltages are unknown.

REGULATED BUSES/P-V BUS:- These are also known as generator buses and voltage
controlled buses. At these buses, the real power and voltage magnitude are specified i.e, P and
|V|. The phase angles of the voltages and reactive power are to be determined. The limits on the
value of the reactive power are also specified.

The complex power injected by the source into the ith bus of a power system is
 S i  Pi  jQi  Vi I i* ; i  1,2,.., n ……..(1)

The mathematical formulation of the above equation results in a system of algebraic non linear
equations involving product form and sine, cosine terms and therefore explicit solution is not
possible. Solution can only be obtained by iterative techniques.

With the line and shunt admittance data stored YBUS is assembled. Iterative computation of bus
voltages is carried out by making initial assumption, it is normal practice to use flat voltage start
i.e, all bus voltages except slack bus are set equal to 1∟00 p.u. Now for the (r+1)th iteration, the
voltage equation is given by

 
 n
Vi r 1   i   Yij V jr  ...i  2,3,..., n …………………(2)
1 P jQ i

Yii Vi

  r  *
j 1
i



The iterative process is continued till the change in magnitude of bus voltage Vi r 1 between

two consecutive iterations is less than a certain tolerance for all bus voltages i.e. Vi r 1 =

Vi r 1  Vi ( r )  ; i  2,3,.., n …………………(3)

convergence can be speeded up by defining acceleration factor(α). For the ith bus, the accelerated
value of voltage at the (r+1)th iteration is given by

 
Vi r 1 (accelera ted)  Vi(r)  α Vi r 1  Vi r  ……………………(4)

PROBLEM STATEMENT:

A single line diagram of a power system is as shown in fig 7.1.The magnitude of the voltage at slack
bus , scheduled real and reactive power demand for PQ buses and line impedances in p.u are indicated
in the diagram on a 100MVA base. Line charging susceptances are ignored. Determine the jacobian
matrix for the power system.
 0.02+j0.04 256.6MW
1 2 110.2 MVAR

V1=1.05∟00 p.u

0.01+j0.03 0.0125+j0.025

138.6 MW 45.2MVAR

Fig.7.1. sample power system with only PQ buses.

PROCEDURE:

1) Open the tool box in MIPOWER package and select load flow program option as shown below
2) Create a new file, save in MIPOWER folder and enter power system details as shown

3) Enter the bus details as shown and save

4) Enter the ratings of a generator in generator library for slack bus as shown and save
5) For the given power system, there are no transformers between the nodes, hence it will be
reflected as blank space in transformer library as shown
6) Enter the details of a transmission line and save in library as shown
7) Enter the real and reactive power details at PQ buses and save as shown

8) Shunt element library shows blank entries as there are no half line charging susceptances
9) To obtain results select study info library and choose newton raphson method and furnish the
details of slack bus,real and reactive power tolerance and number of iterations as shown and
select save execute option.

10) Click on REPORT option to view results.

 EXPERIMENT NO.8

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS USING GAUSS SIEDEL METHOD, NR METHOD AND FAST
DECOUPLED METHOD FOR BOTH PQ AND PV BUSES.

AIM: To obtain bus voltages at load bus (PQ buses), reactive power and bus voltage angle (PV buses) by
load flow analysis using

i) Gauss Siedel method

ii) Newton Raphson method

iii) Fast decoupled method

THEORY:

Load flow also known as power flow is necessary for planning, economic scheduling and control
of an existing power system as well as for its future expansion. Load flow problem consists of
determining the magnitudes and phase angles of voltages at each bus and active and reactive
power flow in each line. In solving a power flow problem, the system is assumed to be operating
under balanced conditions and a single phase model is used. Practical considerations allow a
power system analyst to fix a priori of two variables at each bus. Depending upon which two
variables are specified a priori, the buses are classified into three categories

SLACK BUS:- Also known as swing bus is taken as reference bus where the magnitude of
voltage |V| and phase angle ∂ of the voltage are specified. This bus makes up the difference
between the scheduled loads and generated power that are caused by the losses in the network,
because real and reactive powers cannot be fixed at all the buses as the net complex power flow
into the network is not known in advance, the system power loss being unknown till the load
flow study is complete. It is therefore necessary to have one bus so that it supplies the difference
in the total system load plus losses and sum of the complex powers specified at the remaining
buses.

P-Q BUS/LOAD BUS:- At these buses the active (P) and reactive (Q) powers are specified. The
magnitude and the phase angle of the bus voltages are unknown.
REGULATED BUSES/P-V BUS:- These are also known as generator buses and voltage
controlled buses. At these buses, the real power and voltage magnitude are specified i.e, P and
|V|. The phase angles of the voltages and reactive power are to be determined. The limits on the
value of the reactive power are also specified.

PROBLEM STATEMENT :

One line diagram of a sample three bus system is as shown below in fig 8.1.The voltage magnitude at
bus1 1.05 p.u and at bus 3 PV bus is 1.04 p.u. the real power at PV bus is 200MW , real and reactive
power at PQ bus is 400MW and 250 MVAR. The line impedances in p.u on a 100MVA base is indicated
in the line diagram and line charging susceptances is neglected. Obtain the power flow solution by (i)
Gauss Siedel method (ii) Newton raphson method (iii) fast decoupled load flow method.

1 2 400 MW

V1=1.05∟00 p.u 250 MVAR

3 V3=1.04 p.u

200 MW

Fig 8.1. Sample three bus system

PROCEDURE:

1) Open the tool box in MIPOWER package and select load flow program option as shown below
2) Create a new file, save in MIPOWER folder and enter power system details as shown

3) Enter the bus details as shown and save

 4) Enter the ratings of a generator in generator library for slack bus as shown and save

5) Bus no 3 is a PV bus, the details of power generation is to be entered as generator 2 in

generator library as shown
6) For the given power system, there are no transformers between the nodes, hence it will be
reflected as blank space in transformer library as shown

7) Enter the details of a transmission lines and save in library as shown

8) Enter the real and reactive power details at PQ bus and save as shown

9) Shunt element library shows blank entries as there are no half line charging susceptances
10) To obtain results select study info library and choose Gauss seidel/Newton Raphson/FDLF
method and furnish the details of slack bus,real and reactive power tolerance and number of
iterations as shown and select save execute option.

11) Click on REPORT option to view results

 .

RESULTS:

BUS VOLTAGES AND POWERS

NODE BUS VOLTAGE VOLTAGE MW MVAR MW MVAR

NO NUMBER MAGNITUDE ANGLE GENERATION GENERATION LOAD LOAD

(P.U) (DEGREE)

1 BUS 1 1.0500 0 218.629 141.22 0 0

2 BUS 2 0.9715 -2.69 0 0 450 250

3 BUS 3 1.0400 -0.5 200 145.79 0 0

 LINE FLOWS AND LINE LOSSES

FROM FORWARD FORWARD LOSSES LOSSES

SL NO TO NODE
NODE MW MVAR MW MVAR

1 BUS 1 BUS2 179.227 119.213 8.4053 16.8106

2 BUS 2 BUS 3 -228. 478 -148.957 9.8521 19.70

3 BUS 1 BUS 3 39.402 22.007 0.1847 0.5542

 EXPERIMENT NO.9

TO DETERMINE FAULT CURRENTS AND VOLTAGES IN A SINGLE TRANSMISSION LINE

SYSTEM WITH STAR-DELTA TRANSFORMERS AT A SPECIFIED LOCATION FOR LG
AND LLG FAULTS BY SIMULATION.

AIM: To evaluate fault currents and voltages for a given power system for

(i) Single line to ground fault

(ii) Double line to ground fault

THEORY: Transmission Line faults:

(1) Single line to ground fault

Let the fault occur in line a. Assume the system is initially on no load. Let ZF be the fault
impedance. For the given fault we have
Va = ZF Ia
Ib = 0
Ic = 0

The symmetrical components of the fault current Ia are given by

𝐼𝑎0 1 1 1 𝐼𝑎
1
⌊𝐼𝑎1 ⌋ =
3
⌈1 𝑎 𝑎2 ⌉ ⌊0⌋
𝐼𝑎2 1 𝑎2 𝑎 0

Thus we obtain
𝐼𝑎
𝐼𝑎0 = 𝐼𝑎1 = 𝐼𝑎2 =
3

Also 𝑉𝑎0 + 𝑉𝑎1 + 𝑉𝑎2 = (−𝐼𝑎0 𝑍0 ) + (𝐸𝑎 − 𝐼𝑎1 𝑍1 ) + (−𝐼𝑎2 𝑍2 )

And 𝑉𝑎0 + 𝑉𝑎1 + 𝑉𝑎2 = 𝑉𝑎 =𝑍𝐹 𝐼𝑎 = 3 𝐼𝑎1 𝑍𝐹

Combining the two equations

3 𝐼𝑎1 𝑍𝐹 = 𝐸𝑎 − 𝐼𝑎1 (𝑍𝑜 + 𝑍1 + 𝑍2 )

𝐸𝑎
Therefore 𝐼𝑎1 = 𝑍𝑜 + 𝑍1 + 𝑍2 + 3𝑍𝐹

Thus in an SLG fault, all the three sequence currents of phase a are equal and the sum of the
sequence voltages is equal to 3 𝐼𝑎1 𝑍𝐹 . connecting the sequenc networks in series through impedance 3Z F
satisfies the above equations

(2) Line to line fault:

 Let the fault occur between phases b and c. Assume the system is initially on no load. Let Z F be
the fault impedance.
For the given fault we have
𝐼𝑎 = 0
𝐼𝑏 = −𝐼𝑐
𝑉𝑏 − 𝑉𝑐 = 𝐼𝑏 𝑍𝐹

The symmetrical components of the fault current Ia are given by

𝐼𝑎0 1 1 1 0
1
⌊𝐼𝑎1 ⌋ =
3
⌈1 𝑎 𝑎2 ⌉ ⌊ 𝐼𝑏 ⌋
𝐼𝑎2 1 𝑎2 𝑎 −𝐼𝑏

Therefore we get 𝐼𝑎1 = − 𝐼𝑎2

(3) Double line to ground fault

The current and voltage relationships are given by

𝐼𝑎 = 0

𝑉𝑏 = 𝑉𝑐

𝑉𝑏 = 𝑍𝐹 (𝐼𝑏 + 𝐼𝑐 ) = 3 𝑍𝐹 𝐼𝑎0

The symmetrical components of voltages are given by

𝑉𝑎0 1 1 1 𝑉𝑎
1
⌊𝑉𝑎1 ⌋ =
3
⌈1 𝑎 𝑎2 ⌉ ⌊𝑉𝑏 ⌋
𝑉𝑎2 1 𝑎2 𝑎 𝑉𝑐
1
And 𝑉𝑎1 = 𝑉𝑎2 = ⌊𝑉𝑎 + (𝑎 + 𝑎2 ) 𝑉𝑏 ⌋
3

1
𝑉𝑎0 = ⌊𝑉𝑎 + 2 𝑉𝑏 ⌋ = 3 𝑍𝐹 𝐼𝑎0 + 𝑉𝑎1 = -𝐼𝑎0 𝑍0
3

𝐸𝑎
𝐼𝑎1 = 𝑍1 + (𝑍2 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑍0 +3 𝑍𝐹 )

𝑉𝑎1 = 𝐸𝑎 − 𝐼𝑎1 𝑍1
𝑉𝑎2
𝐼𝑎2 = −
𝑍2

𝐼𝑎0 = −(𝐼𝑎1 + 𝐼𝑎2 )

Gives all the sequence voltages and currents.

PROBLEM STATEMENT:

Fig 9.1 shows a,3 phase generator supplying two motors over a transmission line with transformer at both
ends. The following are the details of the power system components
GENERATOR: 25MVA, 11KV, 20% sub transient reactance, zero sequence reactance of 0.06 p.u

with neutral grounded star connection having current limiting reactance of 2.5Ω

TRANSFORMERS: 30MVA,10.8KV/121KV with ∆/Y connection, leakage reactance 10 each.

MOTOR 1: 15MVA, 10KV with 15% sub transient reactance, zero sequence reactance of 0.06 p.u

With ungrounded star connection.

MOTOR 2: 7.5 MVA, 10KV with 15% sub transient reactance, zero sequence reactance of 0.06 p.u

with neutral grounded star connection having current limiting reactance of 2.5Ω.

TRANSMISSION LINE: Line reactance of 100Ω, zero sequence reactance of 300Ω.

Draw the positive sequence, negative sequence and zero sequence networks of the system and simulate
the system to obtain fault currents and voltages at bus no .3 for an LG and LLG fault.

SOLUTION:

121
1) Transmission line voltage base = 11   123.2 KV
10.8

10.8
2) Motor voltage base = 123.2   11 KV
121
2
Base MVA  Base KV(old) 
 Z in p.u   
(new)
we know that Z in p.u (new) (old)
Base MVA  Base KV 
(old)  (new) 

2
25  10.8 
3) Transformer reactance = 0.1     0.0805 p.u
30  11 

2
25  10 
4) Motor 1 reactance = 0.25      0.345 p.u
15  11 
2
25  10 
5) Motor 2 reactance = 0.25      0.69 p.u
7.5  11 
2
25  11 
6) Generator reactance = 0.2      0.2 p.u
25  11 
2
25  11 
7) Generator zero sequence reactance= 0.06      0.06 p.u
25  11 
 2
25  10.8 
8) Transformer zero sequence reactances= 0.1     0.0805 p.u
30  11 
2
25  10 
9) Motor 1 zero sequence reactance = 0.06      0.082 p.u
15  11 
2
25  10 
10) Motor 2 zero sequence reactance = 0.06      0.164 p.u
7.5  11 

Base MVA 25
11) Line reactance in p.u= Re actance in   2
 100   0.164 p.u
(Base KV) (123.2) 2

12) Reactance of current limiting reactor in p.u

Base MVA 25
= Re actance in   2
 2.5   0.516p.u
(Base KV) (11) 2

13) Reactance of current limiting reactor in zero sequence network in p.u

= 3  0.516  1.548p.u

25
14) Zero sequence reactance of line = 300   0.494 p.u
(123.2) 2

PROCEDURE

1) Create a new file to simulate short circuit condition by selecting short circuit study in tool bar
and enter the power system details as shown
2) SEnter the details of the buses of a given power system and save as shown
3) Enter the details of generator and loads. In this tool box motor details have to be entered in
generator library only, hence for the given example generator is modeled as generator 1, motor 1
and motor 2 is considered as generator 2 and 3 respectively.
4) In transformer library, enter the relevant details along with primary and secondary connections as
shown

5) Enter the transmission line details in respective library as shown

6) Go to study info tool and select the type of fault to be simulated and also the fault location
7) Save and execute the file, click on REPORT to view the results in notepad. Choose NO option for
breaker capacity settings.

RESULTS:

1) LG FAULT

SL NO SEQUENCE CURRENTS (A) FAULT CURRENTS (A)

Positive
1. 125∟-89.30 Ia 374∟-89.30
sequence

Negative
2. 125∟-89.30 Ib 0
sequence

3. Zero sequence 125∟-89.30 Ic 0

BUS NO POST FAULT BUS VOLTAGES (in P.U.)

PHASE A PHASE B PHASE C

1. 0.825 ∟ -0.07 0.959∟ -115.48 0.960 ∟115.46

2. 0.669 ∟0.45 0.980 ∟-118.19 0.984 ∟118.07

3. 0.000∟90.00 1.262 ∟-136.57 1.260 ∟136.69

4. 0.712 ∟ -0.23 0.935∟ -112.38 0.938 ∟112.31

2) LLG FAULT

SL NO SEQUENCE CURRENTS (A) FAULT CURRENTS (A)

Positive
1. 364∟-89.38 Ia 0∟-90.00
sequence

Negative
2. 276∟90.69 Ib 570∟167.26
sequence

3. Zero sequence 88∟90.40 Ic 571∟14.01

BUS NO POST FAULT BUS VOLTAGES (in P.U.)

PHASE A PHASE B PHASE C

1. 0.938 ∟-0.02 0.671 ∟-134.78 0.666 ∟134.33

2. 0.974 ∟-0.09 0.508 ∟-140.68 0.510 ∟141.56

3. 1.294 ∟0.04 0.000 ∟-59.67 0.000 ∟90.00

4. 0.898 ∟-0.06 0.509 ∟-153.89 0.495∟152.95

 EXPERIMENT NO .10

OPTIMAL GENERATION SCHEDULING FOR THERMAL POWER

PLANTS BY SIMULATION

AIM: To determine economic schedule of power generation for the given fuel cost of generating
units including generation limits and transmission line losses.

THEORY: The power balance equation is given by

𝑔 𝑛
∑𝑛=1 𝑃𝐺𝑖 = 𝑃𝐷 + 𝑃𝐿 -----------------(1)

Where PL is the total loss

The solution for loss PL is given by

𝑃𝐿 = 
m n
𝑃𝐺𝑚 𝐵𝑚𝑛 𝑃𝐺𝑛 + n
𝑃𝐺𝑛 𝐵𝑛𝑜 + 𝐵𝑜𝑜 -------------(2)

Where Bmn, Bno, Boo called loss coefficients, depend on the load composition. The assumption here is that
the load varies linearly between maximum and minimum values.

A simpler expression is

𝑃𝐿 = m n
𝑃𝐺𝑚 𝐵𝑚𝑛 𝑃𝐺𝑛 -----------------(3)

The expression assumes that all load currents vary together as a constant complex fraction f the total load
current.

Average set of loss coefficients (or B coefficients) may be used over the complete daily cycle in the
coordination of incremental production costs and incremental transmission losses.

In general Bmn = Bnm. And equation (3) can be expanded for a two plant system as
2 2
𝑃𝐿 = 𝐵11 𝑃𝐺1 + 2 𝐵12 𝑃𝐺1 𝑃𝐺2 + 𝐵22 𝑃𝐺2
PROBLEM STATEMENT:

The fuel cost in Rs/Hr of a three thermal plants of a power system are given below

C1  0.008P12  7.0 P1  200 10MW  P1  85MW

C 2  0.009 P22  6.3P2  180 10 MW  P2  80MW
C 3  0.007 P32  6.8 P3  140 10MW  P3  70MW

Obtain the total generation cost and optimal dispatch of generation on base MVA of
100, given ƛ=7.767785 Rs/MWh and total demand of 150 MW. The loss coefficient
in pu-1 is given below

0.0218 0.0093 0.00283 


B= 0.0093 0.0228 0.0017 

0.00283 0.0017 0.0179

PROCEDURE:

1) From tool bar menu select economic dispatch by B –coefficient as shown

2) Create a new file and save it in MIPOWER folder

3) Enter the cost function details of each generating unit by selecting fuel cost
option, if incremental fuel cost data is given in problem select incremental fuel
cost option.
4) Enter B coefficient values in respective drop down box and save after each entry,
also select PU option and enter the initial value of ƛ. Save the entire tool box,
select execute and view the results
RESULTS:

Iteration count 41 Lambda 7.752955 Rs/MWh

Total generation 152.342529 MW

Total loss 2.342602 MW

Total load 150 MW, Delta power -0.000072

Final Cost of generation at bus 1 = 438.213231 Rs for 32.800865 MW

Final Cost of generation at bus 2 = 624.534511 Rs for 64.599472 MW

Final Cost of generation at bus 3 = 534.737371 Rs for 54.942184 MW

Final Total generation cost Rs 1597.485107

 LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS BY GAUSS SEIDEL METHOD (ONLY P-Q BUSES)

AIM:- Write a program to perform to load flow analysis of a power system consisting only P-Q
buses by gauss-seidel method.

THEORY:- Load flow also known as power flow is necessary for planning, economic
scheduling and control of an existing power system as well as for its future expansion. Load flow
problem consists of determining the magnitudes and phase angles of voltages at each bus and
active and reactive power flow in each line. In solving a power flow problem, the system is
assumed to be operating under balanced conditions and a single phase model is used. Practical
considerations allow a power system analyst to fix a priori of two variables at each bus.
Depending upon which two variables are specified a priori, the buses are classified into three
categories

SLACK BUS:- Also known as swing bus is taken as reference bus where the magnitude of
voltage |V| and phase angle ∂ of the voltage are specified. This bus makes up the difference
between the scheduled loads and generated power that are caused by the losses in the network,
because real and reactive powers cannot be fixed at all the buses as the net complex power flow
into the network is not known in advance, the system power loss being unknown till the load
flow study is complete. It is therefore necessary to have one bus so that it supplies the difference
in the total system load plus losses and sum of the complex powers specified at the remaining
buses.

P-Q BUS/LOAD BUS:- At these buses the active (P) and reactive (Q) powers are specified. The
magnitude and the phase angle of the bus voltages are unknown.

REGULATED BUSES/P-V BUS:- These are also known as generator buses and voltage
controlled buses. At these buses, the real power and voltage magnitude are specified i.e, P and
|V|. The phase angles of the voltages and reactive power are to be determined. The limits on the
value of the reactive power are also specified.

The complex power injected by the source into the ith bus of a power system is

S i  Pi  jQi  Vi I i* ; i  1,2,.., n ……..(1)

The mathematical formulation of the above equation results in a system of algebraic non linear
equations involving product form and sine, cosine terms and therefore explicit solution is not
possible. Solution can only be obtained by iterative techniques.

With the line and shunt admittance data stored YBUS is assembled. Iterative computation of bus
voltages is carried out by making initial assumption, it is normal practice to use flat voltage start
i.e, all bus voltages except slack bus are set equal to 1∟00 p.u. Now for the (r+1)th iteration, the
voltage equation is given by

 
1  Pi  jQi n r  
Vi  r 1
   Yij V j ...i  2,3,..., n …………………(2)
 
Yii  Vi r  *

j 1
i



The iterative process is continued till the change in magnitude of bus voltage Vi r 1 between

two consecutive iterations is less than a certain tolerance for all bus voltages i.e. Vi r 1 =

Vi r 1  Vi ( r )  ; i  2,3,.., n …………………(3)

convergence can be speeded up by defining acceleration factor(α). For the ith bus, the accelerated
value of voltage at the (r+1)th iteration is given by

 
Vi r 1 (accelera ted)  Vi(r)  α Vi r 1  Vi r  ……………………(4)

ALGORITHM:-

1) Read the power system network data and bus data

2) Form the bus admittance matrix either by inspection or by singular transformation

method.

3) Set the number of iterations and base MVA value.

4) Evaluate the difference between generated real power and real power demand, also
the difference in reactive power generation and demand at each bus.
 5) Find the complex power at each bus.

6) Read the initial values of bus voltages and express as complex number.

7) Start the first iteration to obtain the voltage at each p-q bus with initial assumption of
flat start voltage at all p-q buses except slack bus.

8) Assign the voltage value at the end of rth iteration to a variable ‘x’.

9) Check for the condition j=1 to n and j not equal to i and formulate the term
n

Y
j 1
ij V jr  .
i

Pi  jQi n
and subtract it with  Yij V jr  .
V   
10) Evaluate the term r *
i j 1
i

11) Divide the resultant expression with Yii to get the new value of voltage at a particular
bus.

12) Repeat the steps 9,10 and 11 for all other p-q buses.

13) To check for the convergence assign the evaluated voltage after (r+1)th iteration to a
variable ‘y’ and obtain the difference between absolute values of voltages at the end
of (r+1)th and rth iteration.

14) If that difference is less than the predefined constant say 0.00001 stop the iteration
and print the values of the voltages at all the buses, otherwise continue with the
iterations until convergence is reached.

PROGRAM

function[v]=GUASS_SEIDEL_LFA();
[zldata,busdata]=load_data();
[ybus]=formybus1(zldata);
bmva=100;
max_iter=10;
n=length(busdata(:,1))
for i=1:n
p(i)=((busdata(i,5)-busdata(i,7))/bmva);
q(i)=((busdata(i,6)-busdata(i,8))/bmva);
s(i)=complex(p(i),-q(i));
v(i)=complex(busdata(i,3),busdata(i,4));
end
it=0;
conver=1;
while (it<max_iter&conver)
x=v;
for i=2:n
sum(i)=0;
for j=1:n
if(i~=j)
sum(i)=sum(i)+(ybus(i,j)*v(j));
end
end
v(i)=((s(i)/conj(v(i)))-sum(i));
v(i)=(v(i)/ybus(i,i));
end
it=it+1
Y=v;
z=abs( Y-x);
z=max(z);
if(z<0.0001)
conver=0
end
v
end
end
%formation of the ybus
function[ybus]=formybus1(zldata);
n=max(max(zldata(:,1)),max(zldata(:,2)));
r=[zldata(:,3)];
x=[zldata(:,4)];
z=complex(r,x);
y=1./z;
b=complex(0,zldata(:,5));
a=[zldata(:,6)];
nbr=length(r);
ybus=zeros(n,n);
for i=1:nbr
sb=zldata(i,1);
eb=zldata(i,2);
ybus(sb,eb)=ybus(sb,eb)-y(i)/a(i);
ybus(eb,sb)=ybus(sb,eb);
ybus(sb,sb)=ybus(sb,sb)+(y(i)/a(i)*a(i))+b(i);
ybus(eb,eb)=ybus(eb,eb)+y(i)+b(i);
end
ybus
end
%INPUT DATA
function [zldata,busdata]=load_data();
% sb eb r x b/2 a
[zldata]= [ 1 2 0.02 0.04 0 1;
2 3 0.0125 0.025 0 1;
1 3 0.01 0.03 0 1;];

% sl. bus vr vi pg qg pd qd
% type
[busdata]=[ 1 1 1.05 0 0 0 0 0;
 2 3 1.00 0 0 0 256.6 110.2;
3 3 1.00 0 0 0 138.6 45.2;];
end
%bus type : 1--> SLACK BUS, 2--> PV BUS, 3--> PQ BUS

RESULTS:.
ybus = [ 20.0000 -50.0000i -10.0000 +20.0000i -10.0000 +30.0000i
-10.0000 +20.0000i 26.0000 -52.0000i -16.0000 +32.0000i
-10.0000 +30.0000i -16.0000 +32.0000i 26.0000 -62.0000i]

At the end of 7th iteration i.e. it = 7

conver = 0
Voltages at the three nodes are
v =[ 1.0500 0.9800 - 0.0600i 1.0000 - 0.0500i] p.u