PSYCHOLOGY

The word psychology derives from Greek roots meaning study of the psyche, or soul (ψυχή psukhē, "breath, spirit,
soul" and -λογία -logia, "study of" or "research").

Psychology is the study of mind and behavior. it is an academic discipline and an applied science which seeks to
understand individuals and groups by establishing general principles and researching specific cases.

The simplest definition of psychology is that it is the study of the mind and behavior. Research in
psychology seeks to understand and explain thought, emotion and behavior. Applications of psychology
include mental health treatment, performance enhancement, self-help, ergonomics, and many other
areas affecting health and daily life. It's difficult to capture everything that psychology encompasses in just
a brief definition, but topics such as development, personality, thoughts, feelings, emotions, motivations,
and social behaviors represent just a portion of what psychology seeks to understand and explain.

Psychology is both an applied and academic field that studies the human mind and behavior.Research in
psychology seeks to understand and explain how we think, act and feel. As most people already realize,
a large part of psychology is devoted to the diagnosis and treatment of mental health issues, but that's
just the tip of the iceberg when it comes to applications for psychology. In addition to mental health,
psychology can be applied to a variety of issues that impact health and daily life including performance
enhancement, self-help, ergonomics, motivation, productivity, and much more.

Definition. -- Psychology (tês psuchês logos) is that branch of philosophy which studies the human mind
0r soul. By the mind or soul (psuche) is meant the thinking principle, that by which I feel, know, and will,
and by which my body is animated. The terms Ego, Self, Spirit, are used as synonymous with mind and
soul, and, though slight differences attach to some of them, it will be convenient for us (except where we
specially call attention to divergencies of meaning) to follow common usage and employ them as
practically equivalent.

Psychology Seeks to Describe, Explain, Predict,

Modify and Improve Behaviors
There are four major goals of psychology:
 To describe human thought and behavior
 To explain why these behaviors occur

 To predict how, why and when these behaviors will occur again in the future

 To modify and improve behaviors to better the lives of individuals and society as a whole

Early Psychology

Psychology evolved out of both philosophy and biology. Discussions of these two subjects date as far
back as the early Greek thinkers including Aristotle and Socrates. The word psychology is derived from
the Greek word psyche, literally meaning 'life' or 'breath.' Derived meanings of the word include 'soul' or
'self.'

Schools of Thought

Throughout psychology's history, a number of different schools of thought have thought have formed to
explain human thought and behavior. These schools of thought often rise to dominance for a period of
time. While these schools of thought are sometimes perceived as competing forces, each perspective has
contributed to our understanding of psychology. The following are some of the major schools of thought in
psychology.
 Structuralism
 Functionalism
 Psychoanalysis
 Behaviorism
 Humanism
 Cognitivism

Psychology Today

Today, psychologists prefer to use more objective scientific methods to understand, explain, and predict
human behavior. Psychological studies are highly structured, beginning with a hypothesis that is then
empirically tested. The discipline has two major areas of focus: academic psychology and applied
psychology. Academic psychology focuses on the study of different sub-topics within psychology
including personality, social behavior and human development. These psychologists conduct basic
research that seeks to expand our theoretical knowledge, while other researchers conduct applied
research that seeks to solve everyday problems.
Applied psychology focuses on the use of different psychological principles to solve real world problems.
Examples of applied areas of psychology include forensic psychology, ergonomics, and industrial-
organizational psychology. Many other psychologists work as therapists, helping people overcome
mental, behavioral, and emotional disorders.
 Areas of Psychology

Psychology is a broad and diverse field. A number of different subfields and specialty areashave
emerged. The following are some of the major areas of research and application within psychology:
 Abnormal Psychology is the study of abnormal behavior and psychopathology. This specialty area is
focused on research and treatment of a variety of mental disorders and is linked to psychotherapy,
and clinical psychology.
 Biological Psychology, also known as biopsychology, studies how biological processesinfluence the
mind and behavior. This area is closely linked to neuroscience and utilizes tools such as MRI and PET
scans to look at brain injury or brain abnormalities.
 Clinical Psychology is focused on the assessment, diagnosis, and treatment of mental disorders. It is
also considered the largest employment area within psychology.
 Cognitive Psychology is the study of human thought processes and cognitions. Cognitive
psychologists study topics such as attention, memory, perception, decision-making, problem-solving,
and language acquisition.
 Comparative Psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with the study of animal behavior. This
type of research can lead to a deeper and broader understanding of human psychology.
 Developmental Psychology is an area that looks at human growth and development over the lifespan.
Theories often focus on the development of cognitive abilities, morality, social functioning, identity, and
other life areas.
 Forensic Psychology is an applied field focused on using psychological research and principles in the
legal and criminal justice system.
 Industrial-Organizational Psychology is a field that uses psychological research to enhance work
performance, select employee, improve product design, and enhance usability.
 Personality Psychology looks at the various elements that make up individual personalities. Well-known
personality theories include Freud's structural model of personalityand the "Big Five" theory of
personality.
 School Psychology is the branch of psychology that works within the educational system to help
children with emotional, social, and academic issues.
 Social Psychology is a discipline that uses scientific methods to study social influence, social perception
and social interaction. Social psychology studies diverse subjects including group behavior, social
perception, leadership, nonverbal behavior, conformity, aggression, and prejudice.
 Psychology Uses Scientific Methods
One of the most common myths about psychology is that it is just "common sense." Unlike common
sense, psychology relies on scientific methods to investigate questions and arrive at conclusions. It is
through using empirical methods that researchers are able to discover relationships between different
variables. Psychologists use a range of techniques to study the human mind and behavior,
including naturalistic observation, experiments, case studies, and questionnaires.
 Introduction to Psychology Research Methods
 The Scientific Method
 The Simple Experiment

 Empiricism is the belief that the best way to understand the world is to observe it firsthand.
It is only in the last few centuries that empiricism has come to prominence.

 Empiricism is at the heart of the scientific method, which suggests that our theories about
the world give rise to falsifiable hypotheses, and that we can thus make observations that
test those hypotheses. The results of these tests can disprove our theories but cannot
prove them.

 Observation doesn’t just mean “looking.” It requires a method. The methods of psychology
are special because more than most other natural phenomena, human beings are complex,
variable, and reactive.

Methods of Data Gathering in Psychology

1.Experiment

The experiment is the most useful of all scientific methods because most of the basic facts in psychology are
supplied by the results of experimental studies. This method is generally done in a laboratory setting involving
many controlled variables.

Socio-experiment -> mostly used studies related to social Psychology. This is an experiment that is conducted in
the natural environment instead of a laboratory

2.Survey

This is the most common method. There are two tools a researcher can use in a survey method – questionnaire
and interview.

The questionnaire is best used when study requires many respondents. This saves you more time.

The interview is used when the no. of respondents is just small. Interview is also used when respondents cannot
read or write.

3.Case Histories and Clinical Studies

This method is used when an intensive investigation about a certain case is needed. In this method, the researcher
has to dig into all sorts of records about the subject including hospital, educational, family background and all other
necessary data.

4.Observation

Two kinds of Observation method

+Participant Observation

The researcher has to join the group under study in order to gather deeper and more intensive data.
 +Non-Participant Observation / Naturalistic Observation

The researcher is just a plain observer. Oftentimes, the subjects do not know that they are under study.

5. Test Method

This method uses Psychological Test as its instrument.

Examples of Psychological Test are:

– IQ Test
-Problem Checklist
-Aptitude Test

List of psychological research methods

A wide range of research methods are used in psychology. These methods vary
by the sources of information that are drawn on, how that information is sampled,
and the types of instruments that are used in data collection. Methods also vary
by whether they collectqualitative data, quantitative data or both.

Qualitative psychological research is where the research findings are not arrived
at by statistical or other quantitative procedures.Quantitative psychological
research is where the research findings result from mathematical modeling and
statistical estimation or statistical inference. Since qualitative information can be
handled as such statistically, the distinction relates to method, rather than the
topic studied.

There are three main types of psychological research:

 Correlational research
 Descriptive research
 Experimental research

The following are common research designs and data collection methods:

 Archival research
 Case study
 Computer simulation (modeling)
 Content analysis
 Experiment, often with separate treatment and control groups (see scientific
control and design of experiments)
 Field experiment
 Interview, can be structured or unstructured.
 Meta-analysis
 Neuroimaging and other psychophysiological methods
 Observational study, can be naturalistic (see natural experiment), participant
or controlled.
 Quasi-experiment
 Self-report inventory
 Survey, often with a random sample (see survey sampling)
 Twin study

Research designs vary according to the period(s) of time over which data are
collected:

 Retrospective cohort study: Subjects are chosen, then data are collected on
their past experiences.
 Prospective cohort study: Subjects are recruited prior to the proposed
independent effects being administered or occurring.
 Cross-sectional study, in which a population are sampled on all proposed
measures at one point in time.
 Longitudinal study: Subjects are studied at multiple time points: May address
the cohort effect and indicate causal directions of effects.

Research in psychology has been conducted with both animals and human
subjects:

 Animal study
 Human subject research
Psychology Research
Methods

Lab Experiment
This type of experiment is conducted in a well-controlled environment – not necessarily a laboratory – and
therefore accurate and objective measurements are possible.

The researcher decides where the experiment will take place, at what time, with which participants, in
what circumstances and using a standardized procedure.

Field Experiment
These are conducted in the everyday (i.e. natural) environment of the participants but the situations are
still artificially set up.

The experimenter still manipulates the IV, but in a real-life setting (so cannot really control extraneous
variables).

Case Study Case studies are in-depth investigations of a single person, group, event or community.

Case studies are widely used in psychology and amongst the best-known ones carried out were by
Sigmund Freud. He conducted very detailed investigations into the private lives of his patients in an
attempt to both understand and help them overcome their illnesses.

Case studies provide rich qualitative data and have high levels of ecological validity.

Correlation
Correlation means association - more precisely it is a measure of the extent to which two variables are
related.

If an increase in one variable tends to be associated with an increase in the other then this is known as a
positive correlation.
If an increase in one variable tends to be associated with a decrease in the other then this is known as a
negative correlation.

A zero correlation occurs when there is no relationship between variables.

Interviews Unstructured (informal) interviews are like a casual conversation. There are
no set questions and the participant is given the opportunity to raise whatever topics
he/she feels are relevant and ask them in their own way. In this kind of interview much
qualitative data is likely to be collected.

Structured (formal) interviews are like a job interview. There is a fixed, predetermined set
of questions that are put to every participant in the same order and in the same way.
The interviewer stays within their role and maintains social distance from the
interviewee.

Questionnaire

Questionnaires can be thought of as a kind of written interview. They can be carried out
face to face, by telephone or post.

The questions asked can be open ended, allowing flexibility in the respondent's
answers, or they can be more tightly structured requiring short answers or a choice of
answers from given alternatives.

The choice of questions is important because of the need to avoid bias or ambiguity in
the questions, ‘leading’ the respondent, or causing offence.

Observations

Covert observations are when the researcher pretends to be an ordinary member of

the group and observes in secret. There could be ethical problems or deception and
consent with this particular method of observation.

Overt observations are when the researcher tells the group he or she is conducting
research (i.e. they know they are being observed).

Observations

Natural: Here spontaneous behavior is recorded in a natural setting.

Controlled: behavior is observed under controlled laboratory conditions (e.g. Bandura
Bobo doll).

Participant: Here the observer has direct contact with the group of people they are
observing.

Non-participant(aka "fly on the wall): The researcher does not have direct contact with
the people being observed.

Content Analysis Content analysis is a research tool used to indirectly observe the
presence of certain words, images or concepts within the media (e.g. advertisements,
books films etc.). For example, content analysis could be used to study sex-role
stereotyping.

Researchers quantify (i.e. count) and analyze (i.e. examine) the presence, meanings
and relationships of words and concepts, then make inferences about the messages
within the media, the writer(s), the audience, and even the culture and time of which
these are a part.

To conduct a content analysis on any such media, the media is coded or broken down,
into manageable categories on a variety of levels - word, word sense, phrase,
sentence, or theme - and then examined.

Pilot Study

A pilot study is an initial run-through of the procedures to be used in an investigation; it

involves selecting a few people and trying out the study on them. It is possible to save
time, and in some cases, money, by identifying any flaws in the procedures designed
by the researcher.

A pilot study can help the researcher spot any ambiguities (i.e. unusual things) or
confusion in the information given to participants or problems with the task devised.
Sometimes the task is too hard, and the researcher may get a floor effect, because
none of the participants can score at all or can complete the task – all performances
are low. The opposite effect is a ceiling effect, when the task is so easy that all achieve
virtually full marks or top performances and are “hitting the ceiling”.
History of psychology
The history of psychology as a scholarly study of the mind and behavior dates back to the Ancient Greeks. There is
also evidence of psychological thought in ancient Egypt. Psychology was a branch of philosophy until the 1870s,
when it developed as an independent scientific discipline in Germany and the United States. Psychology borders on
various other fields including physiology,neuroscience, artificial intelligence, sociology, anthropology, as well as
philosophy and other components of the humanities.

Today, psychology is defined as "the scientific study of behavior and mental processes". Philosophical interest in the
mind and behavior dates back to the ancient civilizations of Egypt, Persia, Greece, China, and India. For a
condensed overview of the subject see the Timeline of Psychology article.

Psychology as a self-conscious field of experimental study began in 1879, when Wilhelm Wundt founded the first
laboratory dedicated exclusively to psychological research in Leipzig. Wundt was also the first person to refer to
himself as a psychologist. Other important early contributors to the field include Hermann Ebbinghaus (a pioneer in
the study of memory), William James (the American father ofpragmatism), and Ivan Pavlov (who developed the
procedures associated with classical conditioning).

History of Psychology (387

BC to Present)
387 BC Plato suggested that the brain is the mechanism of mental processes.

335 BC Aristotle suggested that the heart is the mechanism of mental processes.

1774 AD Franz Mesmer detailed his cure for some mental illness, originally called mesmerism and now
known as hypnosis.

1793 Philippe Pinel released the first mental patients from confinement in the first massive movement for
more humane treatment of the mentally ill.

1808 Franz Gall wrote about phrenology (the idea that a person’s skull shape and placement of bumps on
the head can reveal personality traits.

1834 Ernst Heinrich Weber published his perception theory of ‘Just Noticeable DIfference,’ now known as
Weber’s Law.
1848 Phineas Gage suffered brain damage when an iron pole pierces his brain. His personality was
changed but his intellect remained intact suggesting that an area of the brain plays a role in personality.

1859 Charles Darwin published the On the Origin of Species, detailing his view of evolution and
expanding on the theory of ‘Survival of the fittest.’

1861 French physician Paul Broca discovered an area in the left frontal lobe that plays a key role in
language development.

1869 Sir Francis Galton, Influenced by Charles Darwin’s ‘Origin of the Species,’ publishes ‘Hereditary
Genius,’ and argues that intellectual abilities are biological in nature.
1874 Carl Wernicke published his work on the frontal lobe, detailing that damage to a specific area
damages the ability to understand or produce language
1878 G. Stanley Hall received the first American Ph.D. in psychology. He later founded the American
Psychological Association.

1879
Wilhelm Wundt founded the first formal laboratory of Psychology at the University of Leipzig, marking the
formal beginning of the study of human emotions, behaviors, and cognitions.

1883 The first laboratory of psychology in America is established at Johns Hopkins University.

1885 Herman Ebbinghaus introduced the nonsense syllable as a means to study memory processes.

1886 Sigmund Freud began performing therapy in Vienna, marking the beginning of personality theory.

1890 The term “Mental Tests” was coined by James Cattell, beginning the specialization in psychology
now known as psychological assessment.

1890 Sir Francis Galton developed the technique known as the correlation to better understand the
interrelationships in his intelligence studies.

1890 William James published ‘Principles of Psychology,’ that later became the foundation for
functionalism.

1890 New York State passed the State Care Act, ordering indigent mentally ill patients out of poor-houses
and into state hospitals for treatment and developing the first institution in the U.S. for psychiatric
research.
1892 Foundation of the American Psychological Association (APA) headed by G. Stanley Hall, with an
initial membership of 42.

1895 Alfred Binet founded the first laboratory of psychodiagnosis.

1896 Writings by John Dewey began the school of thought known as functionalism.

1896 The first psychological clinic was developed at the University of Pennsylvania marking the birth of
clinical psychology.

1898 Edward Thorndike developed the ‘Law of Effect,’ arguing that “a stimulus-response chain is
strengthened if the outcome of that chain is positive.”

1900 Sigmund Freud published ‘Interpretation of Dreams’ marking the beginning of Psychoanalytic
Thought.

1901 The British Psychological Society was founded.

1905 Alfred Binet’s Intelligence Test was published in France.

1906 The Journal of Abnormal Psychology was founded by Morton Prince.

1906 Ivan Pavlov published the first studies on Classical Conditioning.

1911 Alfred Adler left Freud’s Psychoanalytic Group to form his own school of thought, accusing Freud of
overemphasizing sexuality and basing his theory on his own childhood.

1911 Edward Thorndike published first article on animal intelligence leading to the theory of Operant
Conditioning.

1912 William Stern developed the original formula for the Intelligence Quotient (IQ) after studying the
scores on Binet’s intelligence test. The formula is

1912 Max Wertheimer published research on the perception of movement, marking the beginnings of
Gestalt Psychology.

1913 John E. Watson published ‘Psychology as a Behaviorist Views It’ marking the beginnings of
Behavioral Psychology.
1913 Carl G. Jung departed from Freudian views and developed his own theories citing Freud’s inability
to acknowledge religion and spirituality. His new school of thought became known as Analytical
Psychology.

1916 Stanford-Binet intelligence test was published in the United States.

1917 Robert Yerkes (President of APA at the time) developed the Army Alpha and Beta Tests to measure
intelligence in a group format. The tests were adopted for use with all new recruits in the U.S. military a
year later.

1920 John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner published the Little Albert experiments, demonstrating that fear
could be classically conditioned.

1921 Psychological Corporation launched the first psychological test development company, not only
commercializing psychological testing, but allowing testing to take place at offices and clinics rather than
only at universities and research facilities.

1925 Wolfgang Kohler published ‘The Mentality of Apes’ which became a major component of Gestalt
Psychology.

1927 Anna Freud, daughter of Sigmund Freud, published her first book expanding her father’s ideas in
the treatment of children.

1929 Wolfgang Kohler criticizes behaviorism in his publication on Gestalt Psychology.

1932 Jean Piaget published ‘The Moral Judgment of Children’ beginning his popularity as the leading
theorist in cognitive development.

1932 Walter B. Cannon coined the term homeostasis and began research on the fight or flight
phenomenon.

1935 Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) was published by Henry Murray.

1936 Egas Moniz published his work on frontal lobotomies as a treatment for mental illness.
1938 Electroshock therapy was first used on a human patient.

1939 Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Test was published which eventually became the most widely used
intellectual assessment.

1939 The Canadian Psychological Associated was founded.

1942 CarlROGERS published ‘Counseling and Psychotherapy’ suggesting that respect and a non-
judgmental approach to therapy is the foundation for effective treatment of mental health issues.

1942 Jean Piaget published ‘Psychology of Intelligence’ discussing his theories of cognitive development.

1942 Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) was developed and fast became the most
widely researched and widely accepted psychological assessment device.

1945 The state of Connecticut passed licensure legislation for psychologists, becoming the first state to
recognize psychology as a protected practice oriented profession.
1945 The Journal of Clinical Psychology was founded.

1945 Karen Horney published her feministic views of psychoanalytic theory, marking the beginning of
feminism.

1949 Boulder Conference outlines scientist-practitioner model of clinical psychology, looking at the M.D.
versus Ph.D. used by medical providers and researchers, respectively.

1950 Erik Erikson published ‘Childhood and Society,’ where he expands Freud’s Theory to include social
aspects of personality development across the lifespan.

1952 A study on psychotherapy efficacy was published by Hans Eysenck suggesting that therapy is no
more effective that no treatment at all. This prompted an onslaught of outcome studies which have since
shown psychotherapy to be an effective treatment for mental illness.

1952 The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) was published by The American
Psychiatric Association marking the beginning of modern mental illness classification.

1952 Chlorpromazine (Thorazine) first used in the treatment of schizophrenia.

1953 B.F. Skinner outlined behavioral therapy, lending support for behavioral psychology via research in
the literature.

1953 Code of Ethics for Psychologists was developed by the American Psychological Association.

1954 Abraham Maslow helped to found Humanistic Psychology and later developed his famous Hierarchy
of Needs.
1957 Leon Festinger proposed his theory of ‘Cognitive Dissonance’ and later became an influence figure
in Social Psychology.

1961 John Berry introduced the importance of cross-cultural research bringing diversity into the forefront
of psychological research and application.

1961 CarlROGERS published ‘On Becoming a Person,’ marking a powerful change in how treatment for
mental health issues is conducted.

1963 Alfred Bandura introduced the idea of Observational Learning on the development of personality.

1963 Lawrence Kolberg introduced his ideas for the sequencing of morality development.

1967 Aaron Beck published a psychological model of depression suggesting that thoughts play a
significant role in the development and maintenance of depression.

1968 DSM II was published by the American Psychiatric Association.

1968 First Doctor of Psychology (Psy.D.) professional degree program in Clinical Psychology was
established in the Department of Psychology at The University of Illinois – Urbana/Champaign.

1969 Joseph Wolpe published ‘The Practice of Behavior Therapy.’

1971 First Doctorate in Psychology (Psy.D.) awarded (from The University of Illinois –
Urbana/Champaign).

1973 APA endorsed the Psy.D. degree for professional practice in psychology.

1980 DSM III published by the American Psychiatric Association.

1983 Howard Gardner (professor at Harvard University) introduced his theory of multiple intelligence,
arguing that intelligence is something to be used to improve lives not to measure and quantify human
beings.

1988 American Psychological Society established.

1990 The emergence of managed care prompts the APA to become more political, leading to the idea of
Prescribing Psychologists and equity in mental health coverage.
1994 DSM IV published by the American Psychiatric Association.

1995 First Psychologists prescribe medication through the U.S. military’s psychopharmacology program.

1997 Deep Blue, the supercomputer at the time, beats the World’s best chess player, Kasparov, marking
a milestone in the development of artificial intelligence.

1998 Psychology advances to the technological age with the emergence of e-therapy.

1999 Psychologists in Guam gain prescription privileges for psychotropic medication.

2002 New Mexico becomes the first state to pass legislation allowing licensed psychologists to prescribe
psychotropic medication.

2002 The push for mental health parity gets the attention of the White House as President George W.
Bush promotes legislation that would guarantee comprehensive mental health coverage.

What are the historical roots of Psychology?

Modern psychology was developed from several conflicting traditions and has been constructed based upon the
scientific method, which is the testing of a measurable hypothesis. Psychology's roots can be traced to Greek
thinking, including that of philosophers Plato and Aristotle. These ancient philosophers observed the effects of our
emotions on thinking and perception. Asia and Africa developed their own individual philosophies of the human
"mind." Asian philosophies generally believed that mental disease was a result of disconnect from the group, and in
Africa mental disorders were believed to have stemmed from their deities. One French philosopher, Rene Descartes,
in the late 17th century said human sensations and behaviors are based on activity in the nervous system, opening
the door for psychology based on empirical evidence. The Greek tradition and the Roman Catholic Church held high
levels of influence over Western psychology for centuries.
Different perspectives developed in psychology throughout its history
including structuralism, introspection, functionalism, Gestalt psychology, behaviorism, and psychoanalysis.

Structuralism: Wilhelm Wundt

-Focused on structures of the mind, rather than what the mind is capable of.
-Discovered in 1879 at the Institute for Psychology research at University of Leipzig.
-Used introspection: the process of reporting on one's own conscience mind.

Functionalism- William James

-Not just about the structure, but also functions of consciousness.

-The users of functionalism were the first applied psychologists.
-They supported Darwin's theory and focused on how people adapt.
Gestalt Psychology- Max Werthelmer & Wolfgang Kohler

-Opposite of structuralism.
-Studied how the brain works through perceptions.
-The users were interested in perceptual wholes. They didn't focus on little pieces like the structuralists (line, color,
shape, etc.) but instead focused on the whole and how the whole piece is perceived.

Behaviorism- James B. Watson

-The users observed behavior. Behavioralists did not care about what could not be observed (subjective things).

Psychoanalysis- Sigmund Freud

-Believed that disorders come from conflicts in the unconscious mind.

-Believed that humans perceive the world by adding personal interpretations of their experiences.
-Internal and hidden desires of an individual (Sexual, Violent, etc.)
Seven Major Perspectives in
Psychology
1. The Psychodynamic Perspective

The psychodynamic perspective originated with the work of Sigmund Freud. This view of psychology and human
behavior emphasizes the role of the unconscious mind, early childhood experiences, and interpersonal relationships
to explain human behavior and to treat people suffering from mental illnesses.

Psychoanalysis became one of the earliest major forces within psychology thanks to Freud's work and influence.
Freud conceived of the mind as being composed of three key elements: the id, the ego, and the superego. The id is
the part of the psyche that includes all the primal and unconscious desires. The ego is the aspect of the psyche that
must deal with the demands of the real world. The superego is the last part of the psyche to develop and is tasked
with managing all of our internalized morals, standards, and ideals.

2. The Behavioral Perspective

Behavioral psychology is a perspective that focuses on learned behaviors. Behaviorism differed from many other
perspectives because instead of emphasizing internal states, it focused solely on observable behaviors.

While this school of thought dominated psychology early in the twentieth century, it began to lose its hold during the
1950s. Today, the behavioral perspective is still concerned with how behaviors are learned and reinforced.
Behavioral principles are often applied in mental health settings, where therapists and counselors use these
techniques to explain and treat a variety of illnesses.

3. The Cognitive Perspective

During the 1960s, a new perspective known as cognitive psychology began to take hold. This area of psychology
focuses on mental processes such as memory, thinking, problem solving, language and decision-making. Influenced
by psychologists such as Jean Piaget and Albert Bandura, this perspective has grown tremendously in recent
decades.

Cognitive psychologists often utilize an information-processing model, comparing the human mind to a computer, to
conceptualize how information is acquired, processed, stored, and utilized.

4. The Biological Perspective

The study of physiology played a major role in the development of psychology as a separate science. Today, this
perspective is known as biological psychology. Sometimes referred to as biopsychology or physiological psychology,
this point of view emphasizes the physical and biological bases of behavior.

Researchers who take a biological perspective on psychology might look at how genetics influence different
behaviors or how damage to specific areas of the brain influence behavior and personality. Things like the nervous
system, genetics, the brain, the immune system, and the endocrine systems are just a few of the subjects that
interest biological psychologists.

This perspective has grown significantly over the last few decades, especially with advances in our ability to explore
and understand the human brain and nervous system. Tools such as MRI scans and PET scans allow researchers to
look at the brain under a variety of conditions. Scientists can now look at the effects of brain damage, drugs, and
disease in ways that were simply not possible in the past.

5. The Cross-Cultural Perspective

Cross-cultural psychology is a fairly new perspective that has grown significantly over the last twenty years. These
psychologists and researchers look at human behavior across different cultures. By looking at these differences, we
can learn more about how our culture influences our thinking and behavior.
 For example, researchers have looked at how social behaviors differ in individualistic and collectivistic cultures. In
individualistic cultures, such as the U.S., people tend to exert less effort when they are part of a group, a
phenomenon known as social loafing. In collectivistic cultures such as China, however, people tend to work harder
when they are part of a group.

6. The Evolutionary Perspective

Evolutionary psychology is focused on the study of how evolution explains physiological processes. Psychologists
and researchers take the basic principles of evolution, including natural selection, and apply them to psychological
phenomena. This perspective suggests that these mental processes exist because they serve an evolutionary
purpose – they aid in survival and reproduction.

7. The Humanistic Perspective

During the 1950s, a school of thought known as humanistic psychology emerged. Influenced greatly by the work of
prominent humanists such as Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, this perspective emphasizes the role of motivation
on thought and behavior.

Concepts such as self-actualization are an essential part of this perspective. Those who take the humanist
perspective focus on the ways that human beings are driven to grow, change, and develop their personal potential.
Positive psychology is one relatively recent movement in psychology that has its roots in the humanist perspective.

What are the perspectives psychologists use today?

Psychologists draw conclusions based on one of the nine perspectives they agree with and support. This explains
why different psychologists are able to draw different conclusions from the same data regarding a patient.

 Biological- Focuses primarily on the causes of behavior in the functioning of genes, the brain and nervous system,
and the endocrine system. This view puts an emphasis on how our personality, preferences, behavior, and abilities
are influenced by our physical makeup. Biological psychology, biology, neurology and other disciplines devoted to
understanding how the brain operates are known collectively as neuroscience.
 Evolutionary/Sociobiology- Focuses on how behavior and mental processes have been genetically adapted for
survival and reproduction. This view, proposed by Charles Darwin, comes from the theory of natural selection--the
 idea that environmental forces have killed the weak and favored the survival of the most adaptive individuals, tracing
behavior back to other times/species.
 Developmental- (Nature vs. Nurture) A part of psychology that studies how organisms develop over time as a result
of environmental and biological influences. Psychologists of this perspective focus on studying the ways in which we
change with age and as our development of social skills progresses. They also focus on our ability to learn language,
and assimilating the expectations of our culture.
 Cognitive- Deals with mental processes (cognition) like learning, memory, perception, and thinking of them as parts of
information processing model. This perspective calls attention to how our actions are influenced by the way we
process information streaming in from our environment.
 Cognitive neuroscience- A study that emphasizes the connections among mind, brain, and behavior. This field puts
emphasis on brain activity as information processing and includes fields interested in the link between the brain and
mental processes. Hybrid of biological and cognitive.
 Clinical view- Characterized by a special interest in mental health and mental disorder. This perspective includes two
main groups: Psychodynamic psychology and humanistic psychology. Adherents of this view typically practice
counseling or psychotherapy. Desires are fueled by need for personal growth and fulfillment.
 Psychodynamic- This view, most notably represented by Sigmund Freud, pays close attention to unconscious needs,
desires, memories, and conflicts in order to further our understanding of mental disorders. Psychodynamic
psychology says that our motivation comes from the energy of irrational desires created in our unconscious minds.
 Humanistic- Centers on and emphasizes human ability, growth, potential, and free will. According to this perspective,
our self-concept and need for personal growth and fulfillment are profound influences on our actions.
 Behavioral- This view sees environmental stimuli as the cause of our actions, not mental processes. There is a focus
on the way reinforcements (rewards and punishments) shape the way we act.
 Sociocultural- This view emphasizes how social interaction, social learning, and culture are all important.
Psychologists use this view to examine mysteries such as love, prejudice, aggression, obedience, and conformity.
 Trait views- According to this perspective, individual differences are derived from differences in our underlying
patterns of stable traits (long-lasting personality characteristics). It focuses on personality, and how they affect short-
term mood states such as introversion vs. extroversion, as contrasted with temporary mood states.

Biological

Cause of behavior is your brain.

•To change behaviors, you have to change the way the brain functions

Behaviorism

How does the enviroment impact the way you behave?

•Enviromental conditions like rewards/punishments

Cognitive

Based on mental process (Speaking, Thinking etc.)

•People act becasue they think; People thin becasue they are human
Humanistic

People are innately good and capable of choice.

•Main task of humans is to grow and develop

Psychodynamic

Behavior is result of unconscious dynamics, inner forces.

•Not based on observation

Sociocultural

Behavior results from social and cultural influences.

•Ex: Kissing

Evoluntionary Mental abilities evolve over millions of years

•Ex: Vision