1.

1 Training content
 Characteristic parameters of lines
 Line operation under no-load
 Line operation during matching
 Line operation during symmetric short circuit
 Line operation under different load types (resistive, inductive)
 Transmission losses, efficiency
 Reactive power compensation (parallel and series mode)

1.2 Equipment
Basic equipment
Article Quantit
Designation
number y
CO3301-3A Transmission line model 150 km / 300 km 1
CO3301-5P Power-switch module 1
CO3301-3F Resistive load (3-phase, 1 kW) 1
CO3301-3D Inductive load (3-phase, 1 kW) 1
CO3301-3E Capacitive load (3-phase, 1 kW) 1

Documentation
Article Quantit
Designation
number y
SH5001-6K EUL manual: Power transmission 1

Power supply
Article Quantit
Designation
number y
ST8008-4S Adjustable three-phase supply (0 - 400 V / 2 A, 72PU) 1
Table-top housing for 72PU inserts for CEE three-phase
ST8008-7F 1
connection
ST8010-4J 5-way socket strip with illuminated mains switch 2

Measuring instruments
Article Quantit
Designation
number y
CO5127-1Y Three-phase meter 2
Analog/digital multimeter, power meter/power-factor meter,
CO5127-1Z 1
software
Theoretical fundamentals

1.3 Theoretical fundamentals

A line's behaviour in the steady state can be described by means of the
characteristic parameters comprising resistance, inductance and capacitance. The
expression "line" serves as a general term for overhead lines and underground
cables which basically exhibit the same behaviour. The three characteristic
parameters just mentioned represent constants which apply at any point along the
length of the line (quantities per unit length). At the lengths of 100 – 400 km typical of
extra-high voltage lines, however, concentrations of elements can be considered
without any significant losses in accuracy, thus resulting in the following three-phase
equivalent circuit diagram:

Figure 1.1: Three-phase equivalent circuit diagram of a power transmission line

comprising concentrated elements

The active resistance R is determined by the conductor's material, cross-section and,

naturally, length. The inductance L accounts for the magnetic field generated when a
current flows through a conductor loop. A distinction is made between two types of
capacitance: The line-to-line capacitance CL is the capacitance between any two
outer conductors, while CE is the capacitance between the outer conductors and
earth. The dissipation losses caused by leakage currents and, in particular, corona
losses at high currents, are described by the conductance G. Finally, the
characteristics of the return conductor (earth, earth wire) are represented by means
of the parameters RE and LE. The line model consists of a 380-kV overhead line
comprising groups of four and possessing a cross-section of 4 x 300 mm²
(aluminium). The model has the following longitudinal data (constants):
 R’ = 0.024 Ω / km, L’ = 0.77 mH / km, CB’ = 13.07 nF / km.

Single-phase representation is sufficient if the operating conditions are symmetric

(identical voltages and currents for the three outer conductors). The line and earth
capacitances at various voltages are converted into a new variable designated the
effective or working capacitance CB. In this case: CB = CE + 3 CL. It must be noted
that underground cables have a much higher working capacitance than overhead
lines. Regardless, representation with the help of a Π-element is more advantageous
than the T-type equivalent circuit diagram shown above, the transverse elements
being applied in a proportion of half each at the beginning and end of the diagram.
This results in the following representation:

Figure 1.2: Single-phase equivalent circuit diagram of a line

To keep transmission losses within limits, efforts are made in practice to minimize
the conductor resistance R and maximize the conductance G. Accordingly, R << ωL
and G >> ωCB.

Lines with these properties are described as low-loss. If R and G can be neglected
entirely, one speaks of a lossless line. Though lossless lines cannot be realized in
practice, the simplifications above become more accurate as the considered voltage
level rises. This applies especially when investigating the steady-state response. For
rough calculations confined to essential aspects, the equivalent circuit diagram
shown below can be used to represent operation at zero power loss.
Figure 1.3: Single-phase equivalent circuit diagram of a lossless line.

For further investigations (e.g. determination of efficiency and transmission losses), it

is necessary to at least consider the active resistance as well as R. For exact
modelling (e.g. when investigating processes involving travelling waves), a line of
length l should be composed of an infinite number of π--elements each with a
differential length of dl. This representation can be used to derive line equations
needed for precise calculations of long lines. These equations include a factor
designated characteristic impedance Zw. Assuming a lossless line, this factor is
calculated using the equation ZW = √ (L / CB). If a line is subjected to a resistive load
equal in magnitude to the characteristic impedance, one speaks of matching. This
state is ideal in terms of transmission losses. A variable load resistor at the end of
the line can be used to clearly demonstrate the three states comprising no-load,
matching and (symmetric) short circuit.

R=∞ -> no-load

R=Zw -> Matching
R=0 ->Short circuit

Figure 1.4: Lossless line in various load states

In the case of single-phase representation, it is always necessary to account for star

voltages, i.e. those occurring between a phase and the neutral point (the voltage
measured between two outer conductors is designated line-to-line voltage UΔ here).
On transition to a three-phase system, all powers calculated in the single-phase
representation must be multiplied by a factor of 3 to obtain the total power. The
designations listed below are used (complex variables are underlined).

U1, U2: Voltages respectively at the line's start and end

UL : Voltage drop along the line

I1, I2: Currents respectively at the line's start and end

I10, I20: Currents through the transverse branches respectively at the line's start and
end

I12 : Current through the line's longitudinal branch

In the no-load state, the terminating resistance R at the line's end is infinitely large,
so that the current I2 = 0. The processes taking place in circuits operating at
sinusoidal voltages are visualized by means of phasor diagrams. These diagrams
enable a simultaneous representation of the magnitude and phase angle of the AC
quantities under examination. Phasors can be added or subtracted graphically,
thereby allowing a clear display, for instance, of voltage drops in networks. All
phasors rotate at an angular speed denoted by ω, their diagrams serving to provide
"snapshots" of the system under consideration. These displays are purely of a
qualitative nature and not true-to-scale, and therefore only intended for illustration.
The related, numerical values can be determined individually with the help of
complex calculations. In the combined current/voltage phasor diagrams below, the
voltage vector at the end of the line is defined arbitrarily as the reference phasor, and
drawn in the same direction as the real axis. Furthermore, as is common practice in
energy technology, the display's coordinate system is rotated by +90° so that the real
axis points in the y-direction. The current/voltage phasor diagram below describes
the no-load state.
Figure 1.5: Current/voltage phasor diagram of a lossless line in the no-load state
The phasor diagram shows that in this operating state, the voltage at the line's end is
higher than the voltage at the line's start. This is due to the working capacitance and
known as the Ferranti effect. The voltage at the line's end has risen
disproportionately with respect to the line's length; efforts are therefore made to
avoid this operating state in practice. The current flowing in the no-load state is
termed the charging current, and the associated reactive power the charging power.
As already mentioned, underground cables have a higher working capacity than
overhead lines. The effects described earlier are much more pronounced here. In the
event of matching, the load resistance R is exactly equal to the characteristic
impedance. The power consumed by the active resistance is termed natural power.
The resultant current is just high enough so that the reactive power consumption
attributable to the line inductance is exactly equal to reactive power generated by the
working capacitance. Assuming that the line is lossless, it consumes or generates no
reactive power whatsoever, and the active power it draws from the upstream
connected network only amounts to the natural power. Furthermore, the voltage at
the start of the line in this case has the same magnitude as the voltage at the end of
the line. The next phasor diagram describes this situation.
Figure 1.6: Current/voltage phasor diagram of a lossless line during matching
(termination with the characteristic impedance)

Due to the conductive material of which it is made, every real transmission line also
has an active resistance, which is responsible for the transmission losses. These are
equal to the difference between the supplied and consumed powers. A transmission
system's efficiency is defined as the ratio between the active powers at the system's
output and input. Because no reactive power needs to be transmitted in the event of
matching, the efficiency is maximized in this case. Since the value of a line's load is
determined by the behaviour of the consumers connected to the line, matching
occurs very rarely and randomly. However, reactive power compensation is also
available as an option for minimizing transmission losses. Related experiments are
described in the chapter after the next one. In the case of a (three-pole) short circuit,
the load resistance R has the value 0. The current then flowing is limited only by the
line impedance (assuming that the line inductance results in lossless transmission)
and therefore much higher than the values occurring during normal operation. This
must be detected and isolated as soon as possible by the network protection
devices. The phasor diagram below describes this situation.
Figure 1.7: Current/voltage phasor diagram of a lossless line in the event of a short
circuit at the line's end

Finally, we will look at the phasor diagram in the case of the resistive/inductive loads
such as those occurring most frequently during real-life operation. For a more
precise representation, a low-loss line is assumed here.
Figure 1.8: Current/voltage phasor diagram of a low-loss line in the case of a mixed
(resistive/inductive) load

The resultant current I2 through the load comprises a resistive and an inductive
component in accordance with the ratio of the load's active and reactive powers. In
practice, the influence of the capacitances at the line's end is (qualitatively) lower
than that indicated in the phasor diagram here, i.e. I2 and I12 are approximately equal.
As the reactive power rises, so does the longitudinal current through the line and,
consequently, the losses produced by the line resistance R. To minimize these
losses, electricity supply companies define certain limiting values for the reactive
power and power factor cos φ. Accordingly, it is common to demand a surcharge on
electricity rates (reactive power clause) from cos φ values below 0.8. One alternative
for the customer is to compensate the (usually) inductive reactive power by means of
capacitors connected in parallel. The power triangle shown below illustrates the
relationships involved here.

Figure 1.9: Power ratios with an uncompensated and partly compensated load

P is the active power, Q the reactive power, and S the apparent power. To reduce
the apparent power and, consequently, the apparent current, the reactive power can
be lowered, for instance, from its original value Q to a residual value Q R. This is
equivalent to improving the power factor from cos φ2 to cos φ'2. As indicated in the
diagram, the compensatory reactive power QC needed for this is therefore:

QC = P * (tan φ2 - tan φ'2), where P is the total consumed active power.

The equation indicates that the compensatory capacitance is load dependent. Its
three individual capacitors C connected in star configuration are determined by:

C = QC / (ω * UN²)

The last equation assumes that the nominal voltage is present across the load.
Moreover, half the working capacitance present at the line's end also contributes
very slightly toward compensation. However, both influences are usually ignored
during the design of compensatory mechanisms. For full compensation, φ' 2 must be
zero, so that: QC = P * tan φ2.

Usually, it is sufficient to perform compensation leaving a residual reactive power at

which a surcharge for reactive work is just avoided. Besides this parallel
compensation (of relevance to consumers), there is also the possibility of series
compensation in the case of very long lines. Performed by the transmission
network's operator, this kind of compensation is meant to reduce the effect of the
longitudinal conductivity L and, therefore, the voltage drop UL (refer to Figure 1.4).

The next phasor diagram illustrates the action of series compensation.

Figure 1.10: Series compensation: Circuit diagram and associated phasor diagram
For the sake of simplicity, the line capacitances are not considered because they
have practically no influence on the process of compensation. If the entire voltage
drop UL is to be compensated, the three capacitors C must have the following value:

C = 1 / (ω² * L) = 1 / (ω * XL)

In practice, only partial compensation is often performed to a level of 30% – 60 %

(capacitor reactance in relation to line reactance XL). Wherever possible, the three
capacitors are positioned roughly halfway between the two line ends.

Experiments

1.4 Experiment procedure

Simulated first in these experiments are the three operating states comprising no-
load, matching and short-circuit for the two line lengths of 150 and 300 km. Two
multimeters can be used to simultaneously measure all voltages and currents as well
as active, reactive and apparent powers at both line ends. The feed transformer's
voltage at the start of the line is to be increased in steps to the specified value in
each case. In this process, make sure that the maximum permissible values of the
voltage (400 V between two outer conductors phases) and current (2.5 A during
short circuit) are not exceeded anywhere.

Set up the circuit as illustrated next.

Figure 1.11: Experiment circuit for measurements in the no-load, matching and
short-circuit modes
1.4.1 No-load
Disconnect the resistive load to study operating response under no-load.

For both line lengths, set the voltage to the nominal value (380 V) at the beginning of
the line. The outer conductors are designated L1 , L2 and L3 , the neutral conductor
N. Measure the variables indicated in the table (the powers always comprise three-
phase values, i.e. total power levels):

Line length of 150 km:

Voltage L1 – N (at line start) V

Voltage L2 – N (at line start) V
Voltage L3 – N (at line start) V
Voltage L1 – L2 (at line start) V
Voltage L1 – LN (at line end) V
Voltage L2 – LN (at line end) V
Voltage L3 – LN (at line end) V
Voltage L1 – L2 (at line end) V
Current L1 (at line start) V
Current L2 (at line start) V
Current L3 (at line start) V
Active power (at line start) W
Reactive power (at line start) var

Line length of 300 km:

Voltage L1 – N (at line start) V

Voltage L2 – N (at line start) V
Voltage L3 – N (at line start) V
Voltage L1 – L2 (at line start) V
Voltage L1 – N (at line end) V
Voltage L2 – N (at line end) V
Voltage L3 – N (at line end) V
Voltage L1 – L2 (at line end) V
Current L1 (at line start) V
Current L2 (at line start) V
Current L3 (at line start) V
Active power (at line start) W
Reactive power (at line start) var

Compare the measurement results with the calculated values (all calculations are
carried out for single-phases on the basis of the associated phasor diagram).

To determine the voltage rise at the line's open end, it is best to use the voltage
measured there to calculate the voltage at the line's start. The calculations shown
next apply according to Figure 1.5.

For a line length of 150 km:

I20 = U2 * ?CB / 2 = 223 V * 314 s-1 * 1 µF = 0.07 A

UL = X * I20 = 2.53 V

U1 = U2 – UL = 220.5 V

For a line length of 300 km:

I20 = U2 * ?CB / 2 = 231 V * 314 s-1 * 2 µF = 0.145 A

UL = X * I20 = 10.48 V

U1 = U2 – UL = 220.5 V

The charging power can be ascertained with sufficient precision assuming that the
voltages at the start and end of the line are identical.
In this case: Qc = 3 * (UN / v3) ² * ? * CB = UN ² * ? * CB

For a line length of 150 km:

Qc = (380 V) ² * 314 s-1 * 2 µF = 90.7 var

For a line length of 300 km:

Qc = (380 V) ² * 314 s-1 * 4 µF = 181.4 var

The measured and calculated values thus concur quite well.

1.4.2 Matching
To study the response during matching, the resistive load is decreased from its
maximum value until attainment of the power levels specified in the table below. In
the case of both line lengths, the nominal voltage (380 V) is to be set at the start of
the line and maintained at this value through readjustment wherever necessary. The
variables indicated next are to be measured.

For a line length of 150 km:

Power in W 300 400 500 600 700

Voltage L1 - L2 (line end) in V
Current L1 (load) in A
Current L1 (line start) in A
Active power (line start) in W
Reactive power (line start) in var

For a line length of 300 km:

Power in W 300 400 500 600 700

Voltage L1 - L2 (line end) in V
Current L1 (load) in A
Current L1 (Leitungsanfang) in A
Acitve power (line start) in W
Reactive power (line start) in var
What can be said about the sign of the reactive power fed into the line?
At low power levels, the line acts as an inductance
(reactive power has a negative sign). The line's
behaviour is then said to be below the natural level. At
high power levels, however, the line acts as a
capacitance (reactive power has a positive sign). The
line's behaviour is then said to be above the natural
level. The load itself neither consumes nor produces
reactive power.
At low power levels, the line acts as a capacitance
(reactive power has a negative sign). The line's
behaviour is then said to be below the natural level. At
high power levels, however, the line acts as an
inductance (reactive power has a positive sign). The
line's behaviour is then said to be above the natural
level. The load itself neither consumes nor produces
reactive power.
At low power levels, the line acts as a capacitance
(reactive power has a negative sign). The line's
behaviour is then said to be above the natural level. At
high power levels, however, the line acts as an
inductance (reactive power has a positive sign). The
line's behaviour is then said to be below the natural
level. The load itself neither consumes nor produces
reactive power.

Situated between these ranges is the operating state known matching. The supplied
reactive power is now at its minimum value (theoretically zero). This operating point
is to be found by slowly changing the load resistance, starting from its maximum
value.

Measurement values during matching (line length of 150 km and supply voltage of
380 V):

Active power of the load (natural power in this case): W

Voltage L1 – L2 (line end) V
Current L1 (load) A
Current L1 (line start) A
Active power (line start) W
Reactive power (line start) var

Measurement values during matching (line length of 300 km and feed voltage of 380
V):

Active power of the load (natural power in this case): W

Voltage L1 – L2 (line end) V
Current L1 (load) A
Current L1 (line start) A
Active power (line start)) W
Reactive power (line start) var

The equation P = U2? ²/ R or R = U2? ²/ P is used to calculate the corresponding load

resistance which also represents the characteristic impedance (U2? is the line-to-line
voltage across the load).

Evaluate the line resistances.

For a line length of 150 km: R = ZW = Ohm

For a line length of 300 km: R = ZW = Ohm

For the purpose of monitoring, this resistance can naturally also be measured by
means of an ohmmeter with the load disconnected.

Here too, a comparison is performed with the theoretically expected value for a
lossless line for both line lengths (the characteristic impedance is independent of the
line length).

lossless line: ZW = v (L / CB) = Ohm

The deviation between the measured and theoretical values is explained by the fact
that the nominal voltage was not present across the load during the experiment, due
to the line's active resistance.

Finally, the measured values are used to determine the efficiency during matching
for both line lengths:

Efficiency h150 = (P2 / P1) = %

Efficiency h300 = (P2 / P1) = %

1.4.3 Short circuit

To study the response in the event of a three-pole (symmetric) short circuit, the
resistive load is disconnected, and the three outer conductors connected to each
other as well as the return conductor. These connections must be established before
the power switch is turned on.
In this experiment, the line can be considered as a model of a 110-kV line
possessing the same line constants for R, X and CB as a 380-kV line. Even with
these values, the line model remains realistic.

Because of the high current in the short-circuited state, the experiment should be
carried out swiftly at a reduced supply voltage. The current should remain on only
until the desired measurement values have been obtained. Increase the line-to-line
voltage at the start of the line to 110 kV and measure the variables indicated below.

Line length: 150 km 300 km

Voltage L1 - L2 (line start) V V
Current L1 (at line start) A A
Active power (line start) W W
Reactive power (line start) var var
Current L1 (at line end) A A

How can the measurement results be interpreted?

 The current at the start of the line is lower than at the
shorted line end. This is explained by the influence of
the working capacitance.
The measurement results show that the line mainly
consumes inductive reactive power in the event of a
short circuit.
As shown for a lossless line in Figure 6.7, the short-
circuit current is purely capacitive and reduced by the Several answers
inductive transverse current at the end of the line. may be correct.
However, the difference between the two amperages is
minimal.
As shown for a lossless line in Figure 6.7, the short-
circuit current is purely inductive and reduced by the
capacitive transverse current at the end of the line.
However, the difference between the two amperages is
minimal.

Note:

In this experiment, the currents were measured only in the steady state. The initial
values occurring on a short circuit of relatively short lines in meshed networks with
multiple feeds can be much higher. Unbalanced and earth faults, of equal
importance to the design of protective equipment, are treated in a separate
experiment.

1.4.4 Mixed loads

The most important case in practice is a supply for mixed resistive-inductive loads.
Investigated beforehand, however, is the line response in the case of purely
capacitive and inductive loads.
All the tests are conducted again at the nominal voltage of 380 V.
For measurements with capacitive loads, assemble the circuit as shown next.
Figure 1.12: Experiment circuit for measurements with purely capacitive loads

Connect the capacitor in star configuration, and set the voltage at the start of the line
to a constant value of 340 V; perform any readjustment necessary to avoid excess
voltages at the end of the line. Enter the values of the specified parameters in the
table below. The power levels again comprise total values.
C= 2 µF 4 µF 6 µF 8 µF 10 µF 12 µF
Voltage L1 - L2 (line end)
Current L1 (at line end)
Reactive power (at line end)
Strom L1 (am Leitungsanfang)in
A
Active power (at line start)
Reactive power (at line start)

How does the voltage at the line's end depend on the connected capacitance?
Evidently, the voltage at the end of the line rises
disproportionately with increasing inductive load. This
can be explained by the Ferranti effect, as already
described in the case of no-load.
Evidently, the voltage at the end of the line rises
disproportionately with increasing capacitive load. This
can be explained by the Ferranti effect, as already
described in the case of no-load.
Evidently, the voltage at the end of the line rises
disproportionately with increasing resistive load. This
can be explained by the Ferranti effect, as already
described in the case of no-load.

For measurements with purely inductive loads, assemble the circuit as shown next.
Figure 1.13: Experiment circuit for measurements with purely inductive loads

Connect the inductor in star configuration, and set the voltage at the start of the line
to 380 V; perform any necessary readjustments. Enter the values of the specified
parameters in the table below. The power levels again comprise total values.

Für L= 3,2 H 2,8 H 2,4 H 2,0 H 1,6 H 1,2 H

Voltage L1 - L2 (line end)
Current L1 (at line end)
Reactive power (at line end)
Current L1 (at line start)A
Active power (at line start)
Reactive power (at line
start)

How does the voltage at the end of the line depend on the connected inductance?
In the case of inductive loads, the voltage at the start of
the line drops as the load increases (i.e. as the
inductance increases). The line behaves similarly to a
purely resistive load.
In the case of inductive loads, the voltage at the end of
the line drops as the load decreases (i.e. as the
inductance decreases). The line behaves similarly to a
purely resistive load.
In the case of inductive loads, the voltage at the end of
the line drops as the load increases (i.e. as the
inductance decreases). The line behaves similarly to a
purely resistive load.

Besides purely resistive loads (lighting, process heat), operations in a real power
network also involve numerous loads of a resistive-inductive nature (transformers,
electric motors). The overall power factor cos f in this case usually ranges between
0.8 and 0.9. These load cases are accordingly given due consideration below. All
experiments here are conducted with a line length of 150 km.

For tests involving mixed resistive-inductive loads, assemble the circuit as shown
next.
Figure 1.14: Experiment circuit for measurements with mixed resistive-inductive
loads

Connect the inductor and load resistor in parallel and star-configuration in each case;
set the voltage at the start of the line to 380 V and perform any necessary
readjustments. Note the values of the exemplified variables in the table. The power
levels again comprise total values.
Measured values for L = 3.2 H and a load adjusted (starting with large values of R)
so as to consume an active power of 300 W:
Voltage L1 – L2 (line end) V
Current L1 (at line end) A
Reactive power (load) var
Power factor cos f (load)
Current L1 (at line start) A
Active power (at line start) W
Reactive power (at line start) var

Measured values for L = 2.0 H and a load adjusted (starting with large values of R)
so as to consume an active power of 400 W:
Voltage L1 – L2 (line end) V
Current L1 (at line end) A
Reactive power (load) var
Power factor cosf (load)
Current L1 (at line start) A
Active power (at line start) W
Reactive power (at line start) var

Measured values for L = 1.2 H and a load adjusted (starting with large values of R)
so as to consume an active power of 500 W:
Voltage L1 – L2 (line end) V
Current L1 (at line end) A
Reactive power (load) var
Power factor cos f (load)
Current L1 (at line start) A
Active power (at line start) W
Reactive power (at line start) var

As an example, the results of the last measurement are to be checked through

calculation.
Perform single-phase calculations on the basis of the phasor diagram in Figure 1.8.
The load's active power at the measured voltage results the following active current:

I2 active = P2 / (v3 * U2?) = 500 W / (1.732 * 342 V) = 0.844 A

The inductive load of 1.2 H results in the following reactive current:

I2 reactive = U2? / (v3 *?L) = 0.524 A.

Accordingly, the complex current at the end of the line is:

I2= (0.844 – j 0.524); value of I2 = 0.993 A.

The following applies to the load's power factor: tan j2 = I2 reactive / I2 active = 0.62 and
cos f2 = 0.85.

The transverse current due to half the working capacitance at the end of the line is:

I20 = U2 * (j ?CB / 2) = j 0.062 A (star voltage U2 = 197.46 V).

The longitudinal current along the line is I12 = I2 + I20 = (0.844 – j 0.462) A.

Consequently, U1 = U2 + (R + j X) * I12.

If R = 3.6 W und X = 36.15 W (line values) are used, then U1 = (217.2 + j 28.847) V
and U1? = (376.19 + j 49.964).

The voltage at the start of the line is U1? = 379.5 V

The transverse current due to half the working capacitance at the start of the line is:
I10 = U1 * (j ?CB / 2) = (- 0.009 + j 0.068) A

Consequently, the current flowing through the line is:

I1 = I12 + I10 = (0.835 – j 0.394) A; value of I1 = 0.923 A.

The (total) apparent power consumed by the line is:

S = 3 * U1 * I1 * (I1 * is the conjugated, complex value of I1).

After multiplication, the active power is:

P1 = 510 W and the reactive power is Q1 = 329 var.

The minor differences compared to the measured values can be explained by

component tolerances.

A load state involving a poor power factor will now to be simulated in order to
demonstrate the possibility of reactive power compensation.
Measured values for L = 1.2 H and a load adjusted (starting with large values of R)
so as to consume an active power of 300 W:
Voltage L1 – L2 (line end) V
Current L1 (at line end) A
Reactive power (load) var
Power factor cos f (load)
Current L1 (at line start) A
Active power (at line start) W
Reactive power (at line start) var

A capacitance of 3 x 4 µF is now to be star-connected in parallel with the RL load,

and the measurement repeated. The voltage at the start of the line is to be
maintained at a constant value of 380 V, and the resistive load adjusted so as to
consume 300 W again.
Voltage L1 – L2 (line end) V
Current L1 (at line end) A
Reactive power (load) var
Power factor cos f (load)
Current L1 (at line start) A
Active power (at line start) W
Reactive power (at line start) var

Repeat the experiment with a capacitance of 3 x 8 µF in a star-connection. The

voltage at the start of the line is to be maintained at a constant value of 380 V, and
the resistive load adjusted so as to consume 300 W again.
Voltage L1 – L2 (line end) V
Current L1 (at line end) A
Reactive power (load) var
Power factor cos f (load)
Current L1 (at line start) A
Active power (at line start) W
Reactive power (at line start) var

What do the measurement results indicate?

Clearly, the load's power factor is improved by the
compensation capacitance, even nearly to a value of
one in the last case. Compensation increases the
voltage across the consumer and lowers the current
flowing via the line. This also reduces transmission
losses, evident from the lower active-power
consumption of the line given a constant load at its end.
Clearly, the load's power factor is improved by the
compensation capacitance, even nearly to a value of
one in the last case. Compensation increases the
voltage across the consumer and lowers the current
flowing via the line. This also increases transmission
losses, evident from the lower active-power
consumption of the line given a constant load at its end.

A computational verification of these capacitance values using the equations stated

in section "Theoretical Fundamentals" is somewhat complicated, because of the
different voltages present at the end of the line during the measurement series, and
the need to account for the influence of the line's working capacitance.

As described in chapter on theoretical fundamentals, series compensation can be

performed in the case of long transmission lines to avoid excessively high voltage
drops along them. This is achieved with the circuit shown in Figure 1.14, but for a
line length of 300 km this time. First, the line is operated in the uncompensated
mode. The supply voltage is set to 400 V at the start of the line.

Measured values for L = 2.0 H and the load R adjusted so as to consume an active
power of 500 W:
Voltage L1 – L2 (line end) V
Current L1 (at line end) A
Reactive power (load) var
Power factor cos f (load)
Current L1 (at line start) A
Active power (at line start) W
Reactive power (at line start) var
The experiment demonstrates that the load at the end of a long line causes an
impermissibly high voltage drop. A series capacitor can be used to reduce this drop.
Three individual capacitances with the value C = 1 / (? * XL) are required for full
compensation. At a length of 300 km, the line model has a reactance XL = 72.3 O,
so that C = 44 µF. In the experiment, this value can be realized by a parallel
connection of capacitors rated respectively at 30, 8, 4 and 2 µF. The three
capacitances formed in this manner are to be connected between the end of the line
and the multimeter in each case. This permits continued measurement of the sought
variables across the load. The resistive load is to be readjusted until a consumption
of 500 W is achieved again, and the same variables as those in the uncompensated
state are to be measured:
Voltage L1 – L2 (line end) V
Current L1 (at line end) A
Reactive power (load) var
Power factor cos f (load)
Current L1 (at line start) A
Active power (at line start) W
Reactive power (at line start) var

What has changed compared with the uncompensated state?

Evidently, series compensation raises the voltage
across the load to the value of the supply voltage. At
the same power level, this causes a reduction in the
line's current load.
Evidently, series compensation lowers the voltage
across the load to the value of the supply voltage. At
the same power level, this causes a reduction in the
line's current load.