Chapters 1 - 6: - Chapter 6

Chapters 1 – 6
• Chapter 1:
– Photogrammetry: Definition, introduction, and applications.
• Chapters 2 – 4:
– Electro-magnetic radiation.
– Optics.
– Film development and digital cameras.
• Chapter 5:
– Vertical imagery: Definitions, image scale, and relief
displacement.
• Chapter 6:
– Measurement and refinement of image coordinates.
Analytical Photogrammetry Ayman F. Habib
1
ENGO 431: Chapter 7
Mathematical Model

2
1
Overview
• Mathematical model: Objectives.
• Mathematical model: Alternatives.
• Rotation matrices (2-D and 3-D).
– Derivation and characteristics.
• Collinearity equations.
– Concept and derivation.
• Bundle block adjustment.
– Concept and objectives.
• Least squares adjustment in photogrammetry.

3
Mathematical Model
• Objective: Develop a general mathematical

relationship between image and ground coordinates.
• Alternatives:
– Projective Transformation.
– Collinearity Equations.
– Direct Linear Transformation (DLT).
• The mathematical model of choice for most of the
photogrammetric applications is the Collinearity
Equations.

4
2
Image Coordinate System: Diapositive
Flight Direction
Perspective Center y
xa a
ya
x
Fiducial Marks
5
Ground Coordinate System
A
XA ZA
YA
X

6
3
Mathematical Model
z Z
Perspective Center y Y
xa a A
ya
x XA ZA
YA
X
xa = f x ( X A , YA , Z A , .........)
ya = f y ( X A , YA , Z A , .........)
7
Mathematical Model
• Before looking into the mathematical model, we

have to investigate the concept of rotation
matrices.
– Rotation in a plane.
– Rotation in space.
– Derivation.
– Characteristics.

8
4
Rotation Matrices
• Rotation in a plane:
– Given a point p(x, y) w.r.t. an xy-coordinate system.
– The system is rotated with an angle α yielding a new
coordinate system x`y`.
– We would like to express the coordinates of the point
(p) w.r.t. the new system (x`, y`) as a function of:
• The old coordinates (x, y), and
• The rotation angle α.

9
Rotation in a Plane
Y
Y´
a
b
x P
x´ y´
c
X´
y
d
α
α
X

10
5
Rotation in a Plane
x′= a + b = x cos α + ysin α

y′= c − d = − x sin α + y cos α
 x′   cos α sin α   x
 y′ = − sin α cos α   y
    
where :
 cos α sin α 
Rotation matrix ( R) = 
− sin α cos α 

11
Properties of the Rotation Matrix

r r12 
R =  11
 r21 r22 
where :
r11 = cos α
r12 = sin α
r21 = − sin α r112 + r212 = cos 2 α + sin 2 α = 1
r22 = cos α
r122 + r222 = sin 2 α + cos 2α = 1
r11 r12 + r21 r22 = sin α cos α − sin α cos α = 0
R T R= R R T = I 2
12
6
Properties of the Rotation Matrix
• The above mentioned properties are known as the

orthogonality conditions.
• The rotation matrix has four elements.
• These elements must satisfy three constraints
(orthogonality conditions).
• Therefore, the rotation matrix is completely
defined by one independent parameter (α).

13
Rotation in Space
Z & Z´
Y´ Y P
z & z´
α x
x´ y y´
X´
α X

14
7
Rotation in Space
x `= x cos α + y sin α
y `= − x sin α + y cos α
z `= z
 x `  cos α sin α 0 x 

 y ` =  − sin α cos α 0   y 
  
 z `  0 0 1   z 
Where :
 cos α sin α 0
R = rotation matrix =  − sin α cos α 0 
 0 0 1 

15
Orthogonality Conditions
 r11 r12 r13 
R = r21 r22 r23 
r31 r32 r33 
r 112 + r 212 + r 312 = 1

r 122 + r 222 + r 322 = 1
r 132 + r 232 + r 332 = 1
r 11 r 12 + r 21 r 22 + r 31 r 32 = 0
r 11 r 13 + r 21 r 23 + r 31 r 33 = 0
r 12 r 13 + r 22 r 23 + r 32 r 33 = 0
16
8
Rotation in Space
• In 3-D, the rotation matrix has nine elements.

• These nine elements must satisfy six orthogonality
conditions.
• Therefore, any 3-D rotation matrix can be defined
by only three independent parameters.
• In photogrammetry, we use the three rotation
angles ω, φ, and κ.

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Primary Rotation (ω)
Zω Z Yω
Y
ω
X & Xω

18
9
Primary Rotation (ω)
 xω  1 0 0  x 
 y  = 0 cos ω sin ω  y 
 ω   
 zω  0 − sin ω cos ω  z 
 xω   x
 y  = M  y
 ω ω   x  1 0 0  xω 
 zω   z   y  = 0 cos ω − sin ω  yω 
  
 z  0 sin ω cos ω  zω 
 x  xω 
 y = R  y 
  ω ω
 z   zω 
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Secondary Rotation (φ)
zω
zωφ
yω & yωφ
xω
xωφ

20
10
Secondary Rotation (φ)
 xωφ  cos φ 0 − sin φ   xω 

  
 yωφ  = 0 1 0   yω 
 zωφ   sin φ 0 cos φ   zω 
 
 xωφ   xω   xω   cos φ 0 sin φ   xωφ 
 y =  0  
    1 0   yωφ 
 yωφ  =M φ  yω   ω 
 zωφ   zω   zω  − sin φ 0 cos φ   zωφ 
 
 xω   xωφ 
 y  =R  y 
 ω  φ  ωφ 
 zω   zωφ 
 
21
Tertiary Rotation (κ)
Zωφ & Zωφκ
Yωφκ
κ Yωφ
κ
Xωφκ
κ Xωφ

22
11
Tertiary Rotation (κ)
 xωφκ   cos κ sin κ 0  xωφ 
    
 yωφκ  =− sin κ cos κ 0  yωφ 
 zωφκ   0 0 1  zωφ 
 
 xωφκ   xωφ   xωφ  cos κ − sin κ 0  xωφκ 
        
 yωφκ  =M κ  yωφ   yωφ  =  sin κ cos κ 0  yωφκ 
 zωφκ   zωφ   zωφ   0 0 1  zωφκ 
     
 xωφ   xωφκ 
   
 yωφ  =Rκ  yωφκ 
 zωφ   zωφκ 
   
23
Rotation in Space
 xωφκ   x
   
 yωφκ  =M κ M φ M ω  y 
 zωφκ   z 
 
// to the image coordinate system // to the ground coordinate system
 x  xωφκ 
 y  =R R R  y 
  ω φ κ  ωφκ 
 z   zωφκ 
 
// to the ground coordinate system // to the image coordinate system
24
12
Rotation in Space
m 11 m 12 m 13 
M κ M φ M ω = M =  m 21 m 22 m 23


 m 31 m 32 m 33

where :
m 11 = cos φ cos κ
m 12 = cos ω sin κ + sin ω sin φ cos κ
m 13 = sin ω sin κ − cos ω sin φ cos κ
m 21 = − cos φ sin κ
m 22 = cos ω cos κ − sin ω sin φ sin κ
m 23 = sin ω cos κ + cos ω sin φ sin κ
m 31 = sin φ
m 32 = − sin ω cos φ
m 33 = cos ω cos φ

25
Rotation in Space
 r 11 r 12 r 13 
R ω R φ R κ = R =  r 21 r 22 r 23 

 r 31 r 32 r 33 
where :
r 11 = cos φ cos κ
r 12 = − cos φ sin κ
r 13 = sin φ
r 21 = cos ω sin κ + sin ω sin φ cos κ
r 22 = cos ω cos κ − sin ω sin φ sin κ
r 23 = − sin ω cos φ
r 31 = sin ω sin κ − cos ω sin φ cos κ
r 32 = sin ω cos κ + cos ω sin φ sin κ
r 33 = cos ω cos φ

26
13
Alternative Derivation of the Rotation Matrix
z Z
y
Y
k Kj
J x
i
X
I

27

• XYZ: Ground coordinate system.
– I, J, and K: unit vectors along the X, Y, and Z axes,
respectively.
• xyz: Image coordinate system.
– i, j, and k: unit vectors along the x, y, and z axes,
respectively.
• Remember: The component of a unit vector along
another unit vector can be obtained through the
dot product of these vectors.
r
a
r r
θ
r
b
a • b = a b cos θ
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14
cos( xX ) cos( yX ) cos( zX )
r  r  r 
i =  cos( xY )  j =  cos( yY )  k =  cos( zY ) 
 cos( xZ )   cos( yZ )   cos( zZ ) 
• They represent the components of the unit vectors along

the image coordinate system with respect to the ground
coordinate system.
r r r r
i = cos( xX ) I + cos( xY ) J + cos( xZ ) K
r r r r
j = cos( yX ) I + cos( yY ) J + cos( yZ ) K
r r r r
k = cos( zX ) I + cos( zY ) J + cos( zZ ) K
29

• Let’s consider a point whose coordinates relative to the
image coordinate system are (x, y, z).
r r r r
p = xi + y j + z k
w.r.t. the image coordinate system
r r r r
P= XI +YJ + ZK
w.r.t. the ground coordinate system
X  cos( xX ) cos( yX ) cos( zX )

 Y  = x  cos( xY )  + y  cos( yY )  + z  cos( zY ) 
       
 Z   cos( xZ )   cos( yZ )   cos( zZ ) 
30
15
 X  cos( xX ) cos( yX ) cos( zX )  x 

 Y  =  cos( xY ) cos( yY ) cos( zY )   y 
    
 Z   cos( xZ ) cos( yZ ) cos( zZ )   z 
X   x
 Y  = R  y
   
 Z   z 

31

r r r
R = [r1 r2 r3 ]
• r1: The components of a unit vector along the x-axis of the

image coordinate system w.r.t. the ground coordinate
system.
• r2: The components of a unit vector along the y-axis of the
system.
• r3: The components of a unit vector along the z-axis of the
system.

32
16
r r r
r1 = 1 r2 = 1 r3 = 1
r r
r1 • r2 = 0.0
r r
r1 • r3 = 0.0
r r
r2 • r3 = 0.0
• Which are the orthogonality conditions for rotations matrices.
R −1 = R T
R T R= R R T = I 3

33
Rotation in Space
• Remarks:
– The elements of the rotation matrix depends on the
sequence of rotations.
• i.e., Rκ Rφ Rω ≠ Rκ Rω Rφ.
– Positive rotation angle is defined as the one that is
counter clock wise when looking at the system with the
positive direction of the axis of rotation is pointing
towards us.
– The angles (ω, φ, κ) are the rotation angles that need to
be applied to the ground coordinate system until it
becomes parallel to the image coordinate system.
34
17
Positive Rotation Angles
(Right Handed System)
z
+ve κ
y
+ve ω +ve φ
x
35
Rotation Angles (ω, φ, κ)

y y y
z
z z
x x x
Z Y Y
Y
φ
ω
X X
Z κ
X
ω ≈ 90° Z φ ≈ -20° κ ≈ 0°
36
18
Rotation Angles (ω, φ, κ)
z
y
x
Z
ω ≈ ?, φ ≈ ?, and κ ≈ ?
37
Rotation Angles (Azimuth, Pitch, Roll)
Azimuth ≡ Yaw
38
19
Collinearity Equations
• Objective:
– Mathematically represent the general relationship
between corresponding image and ground coordinates.
• Concept:
– Image Point, Object Point, and the Perspective Center
are collinear.

39
(a) Image Point
Perspective Center
Straight Line
(A) Object Point

40
20
o
oa = λ oA
These vectors should be defined w.r.t.

the same coordinate system. A

41
(Perspective Center)
zi yi
ZG
a (xa, ya)
c pp
+ xi
+
R(ω , φ ,κ ) Oi
A
ZO
YG ZA
XA
XO YA
YO XG
OG

42
21
The vector connecting the perspective
center to the image point
o
 xa   x p   xa − x p 
vi =  ya  − y  = y −y 
r
 p  a p a
 0   c   − c 
w.r.t. the image coordinate system

43
The vector connecting the perspective

center to the object point
o
 X   X   X − XO 
r  A  O  A
Vo =  YA  −  YO  =  YA − YO 
 Z A   ZO   Z A − ZO 
A
w.r.t. the ground coordinate system

44
22
r r
vi =λ M (ω , φ , κ ) VO
 xa − x p   m11 m12 m13   X A − X O 
 y − y  =λ m m22 m23   YA −YO 
 a p   21
 − c   m31 m32 m33   Z A −Z O 
Where: λ is a scale factor

45
m11 ( X A −XO )+m12 (YA −YO )+m13 (Z A −ZO )

xa =xp −c
ya = y p −c
r11 ( X A −XO )+r21 (YA −YO )+r31 (Z A −ZO )

xa =xp −c
ya = y p −c
46
23
xa =xp −c
ya = y p −c
• Involved parameters:
– Image coordinates (xa, ya).
– Ground coordinates (AA, YA, ZA).
– Exterior Orientation Parameters – EOP, (XO, YO, ZO, ω, φ, κ).
– Interior Orientation Parameters – IOP, (xp, yp, c).
47
Interior Orientation
• Interior Orientation Parameters (IOP) describe the
internal characteristics of the implemented camera.
– IOP include the principal distance, principal point
coordinates, and distortion parameters.
– IOP are determined using a calibration procedure.

48
24
Interior Orientation
• IOP together with the image coordinates of selected
features define a bundle of light rays (image bundle).
pc (xp, yp, c)
z

49
Exterior Orientation
• Exterior Orientation Parameters (EOP) define the
position and the attitude of the image bundle
relative to the ground coordinate system.
– The position of the bundle is defined by (XO, YO, ZO).
– The attitude of the bundle (image coordinate system)
relative to the ground coordinate system is defined by
the rotation angles (ω, φ, κ).
• EOP can be either:
– Indirectly estimated using Ground Control Points
(GCP), or
– Directly measured using GPS/INS units onboard the
imaging platform.

50
25
Exterior Orientation
z y
pc x
ZG
R (ω ,φ ,κ )
YG
Zo
Xo
Yo
XG
• EOP:
– Indirectly estimated (indirect geo-referencing), or
– Directly measured (direct geo-referencing).
51
Indirect Geo-Referencing: Single Image
exterior orientation
interior orientation

52
26
Indirect Geo-Referencing: Image Block
Ground Control Points.

Tie Points.
53
Direct Geo-Referencing
INS b-frame
GPS antenna
b
b R
c
m a
R (t)
b
c-frame
m
m r
r (t) pc
INS
m m b
R (t) = R (t) R
c b c
Camera attitude INS attitude Calibration

m-frame

54
27
Direct Geo-Referencing
GPS Antenna
INS PC
Two Base Stations Camera
GPS Receiver

55
Bundle Block Adjustment

56
28

57
Ground Control Points.

Tie Points.
58
29

59
Bundle Adjustment: Concept
• During the bundle block adjustment procedure, the

bundles within the block are rotated and shifted in
space until:
– Conjugate light rays (corresponding to tie points)
intersect as well as possible.
– Light rays that correspond to ground control points
(GCP) pass as close as possible to their ground
locations.

60
30
Tie Points

61
Bundle Adjustment: Concept

62
31
Analog Camera (WILD RC10)

63
Aerial Block (WILD RC10)

64
32
Digital Camera: SONY DSC 717

65
SONY DSC F717 Aerial Block

66
33
Digital Camera: EOS-1D

67
Canon EOS-1D Aerial Block

68
34
Least Squares Adjustment in
Photogrammetry

69
Least Squares Adjustment in

Photogrammetry
• Prior to the adjustment, we need to identify:
– Unknown parameters.
– Observable quantities.
– The mathematical relationship between the unknown
parameters and the observable quantities.
• Linearize the mathematical relationship (if it is not
linear).
• Apply least squares adjustment formulas.

70
35
Unknown Parameters
• Unknown parameters might include:

– Ground coordinates of tie points (points that
appear in more than one image).
– Exterior orientation parameters of the involved
imagery.
– Interior orientation parameters of the involved
cameras (for camera calibration purposes).

71
Observable Quantities
• Observable quantities might include:

– Image coordinates of tie as well as control
points.
– The ground coordinates of control points
(GCP).
– Interior orientation parameters of the involved
cameras (Camera Calibration Certificate).
– Exterior orientation parameters of the involved
imagery (from a GPS/INS unit onboard).
72
36
Tie Points

73
Ground Control Points: Preparation

74
37
Ground Control Points: Collection

75
Ground Control Points: Aerial Dataset

76
38
Ground Control Points: Terrestrial Dataset

77
IOP: Camera Calibration Certificate
• Wild Heerbrugg Instruments Inc

• Camera type : Wild RC10
• Identification number : 2061
• Lens : Wild 15 UAG I
• Identification Number : 6029
• Calibrated Focal Length : C = 153.167 mm
• Principal point coordinates in the Fiducial system :
– xp = 0.001 mm.
– yp = -0.053 mm.
78
39

79
• Fiducial Marks:
• ID x-Coordinate mm y-Coordinate mm
• 01 -105.999 -105.978
• 02 105.996 106.022
• 03 -106.018 106.021
• 04 105.988 -105.978

80
40
• Radial Lens Distortion Coefficients:

– K1 = 2.99778547E-08 mm-2.
– K2 = -3.15091119E-12 mm-4.
– K3 = 6.05776623E-17 mm-6.
• De-centering Lens Coefficients :
– P1 = 2.76490955E-07 mm-1.
– P2 = -1.06518601E-06 mm-1.

81
EOP: GPS-INS (Land Based Systems)
Digital camera
GPS antenna
INS

82
41
EOP: GPS-INS (Airborne System)
GPS Antenna
INS PC
Two Base Stations Camera
GPS Receiver

83
Mathematical Model
r11( X A −XO )+r21(YA −YO )+r31(ZA −ZO )

xa =xp − c + ∆x + ex
r13 ( X A −XO )+r23 (YA −YO )+r33 (ZA −ZO )
ya =yp − c + ∆y + ey
ex 
e  ~ (0, σo P )
2 −1
 y

84
42
Mathematical Model
• ∆x = ∆x Radial Lens Distortion + ∆x Decentric Lens Distortion

+ ∆x Atmospheric Refraction + ∆x Affine Deformation
+ etc….
• ∆y = ∆y Radial Lens Distortion + ∆y Decentric Lens Distortion

+ ∆y Atmospheric Refraction + ∆y Affine Deformations
+ etc….

85
Distortion Parameters
∆xRadial Lens Distortion = x (k1 r 2 +k2 r 4 + k3 r 6 +....)
∆yRadial Lens Distortion = y (k1 r 2 +k2 r 4 + k3 r 6 +....)
∆xDecentric Lens Distortion = (1+ p32 r 2 ){ p1 (r 2 + 2 x 2 ) +2 p2 x y }
∆yDecentric Lens Distortion = (1+ p32 r 2 ){2 p1 x y + p2 (r 2 + 2 y 2 )}
where: r = {(x - xp)2 + (y - yp)2}0.5
x = x − xp
y = y − yp
86
43
Least Squares Adjustment
y= Ax+e e ~ (0, σ o2 P −1 )
y n × 1 observatio n vector
A n × m design matrix
x m × 1 vector of unknowns
e n × 1 noise contaminat ing the observatio n vector
σ P 2
o
−1
n × n variance covariance matrix of the noise vector

87
Least Squares Adjustment
xˆ = ( AT PA) −1 AT Py
D{xˆ}= σ o2 ( AT PA) −1
e~ = y − Axˆ
σˆ o2 = (e~ T Pe~ ) / (n − m)

88
44
Y = a( X ) + e
Non Linear System
a ( X ) is the non − linear function
We use Taylor Series Expansion
∂a
Y ≈ a( X o ) + (X − Xo)+ e ( We ignore higher order terms )
∂X Xo
Where :
Xo
is approximate values for the unknown parameters
∂a
Y − a( X o ) = (X − Xo)+ e
∂X X o
y= Ax+e
Where :
y = Y − a( X o )
∂a
A=
∂X Xo
• Iterative solution for the unknown parameters.

• When should we stop the iterations?
89
Examples
• Linear System:
– 2-D Similarity Transformation.
• Given:
– The coordinates of a set of points in two different
coordinate systems, which can be related to each other
through 2-D similarity transformation.
• Unknown parameters:
– The 2-D similarity transformation parameters (xt, yt, a, b).
• Non-Linear System:
– Computing the radius of a circle.
• By observing the area of a circle, we would like to estimate its
radius.
90
45
2-D Similarity Transformation
x  xt  a − b   x′ ex 

 y = y  + b + e 
   t  a   y ′   y
ex 
e  ~ (0, σ o P )
2 −1
 y

91
2-D Similarity Transformation

- Assuming that we observed three points.
 x1   1 0 x1′ − y1′   e x1 
 y  0 e 
 1  1 y1′ x1′   xt   y1 
 x2  1 0 x 2′ − y 2′  y  e 
  =    t  +  x2 
 y 2  0 1 y 2′ x 2′  a e y2 
 x3  1   ex 
0 x 3′ − y 3′  b
     3
 y 3   0 1 y 3′ x 3′   e y 3 
92
46
Estimating the Radius of a Circle
Areaobs. = π R 2 + e Areaobs .
e Areaobs . ~ (0, σ o2 P −1 )
Areaobs. = π Ro2 + 2 π Ro ( R − R o ) + ........ + e Areaobs .

Areaobs. − π Ro2 = 2 π Ro ∆R + e Areaobs .
1442443 123 { x
y A

93
Estimating the Radius of a Circle

- Assuming that we measured the area three times.
 y1  2 π Ro   e Area1 
 y  = 2 π R  [∆R ] +  
 2  o e
 Area2 
 y3  2 π Ro  e Area 
 3 

94
47
Example (4 Images in Two Strips)
1 2 1 2
3 4 3 4
Control Point
5 6 5 6 Tie Point
I II
3 4 3 4
5 6 5 6
7 8 7 8
III IV
95
Balance Between Observations & Unknowns
• Number of equations:
– 4 x 6 x 2 = 48 equations (collinearity equations).
• Number of unknowns:
– 4 x 6 + 3 x 4 = 36 unknowns
• Redundancy:
– 12.
• Assumptions:
– IOP are known.

96
48
Structure of the Design Matrix (BA)
• Y = a(X) + e e ~ (0, σ2 P-1).
• Using approximate values for the unknown

parameters (Xo) and partial derivatives, the above
equations can be linearized leading to the
following equations:
• y48x1 = A48x36 x36x1 + e36x1 e ~ (0, σ2 P-1).

97
Structure of the Design Matrix

I II III IV 3456
A= y=

98
49
Structure of the Normal Matrix
I II III IV
[N ] =
3 4 5 6

99
Sample Data:
• 2 cameras.
• 4 images.
• 16 points.
• All the points appear in all the images.

• Two images were captured by each camera.
100
50
Structure of the Normal Matrix: Example

101
51

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Chapters 1 – 6

ENGO 431: Chapter 7

Analytical Photogrammetry Ayman F. Habib

Analytical Photogrammetry Ayman F. Habib

• Objective: Develop a general mathematical

Analytical Photogrammetry Ayman F. Habib

Ground Coordinate System

Analytical Photogrammetry Ayman F. Habib

• Before looking into the mathematical model, we

Analytical Photogrammetry Ayman F. Habib

Analytical Photogrammetry Ayman F. Habib

Analytical Photogrammetry Ayman F. Habib

x′= a + b = x cos α + ysin α

Analytical Photogrammetry Ayman F. Habib

Properties of the Rotation Matrix

• The above mentioned properties are known as the

Analytical Photogrammetry Ayman F. Habib

Analytical Photogrammetry Ayman F. Habib

 x `  cos α sin α 0 x 

Analytical Photogrammetry Ayman F. Habib

r 112 + r 212 + r 312 = 1

• In 3-D, the rotation matrix has nine elements.

Analytical Photogrammetry Ayman F. Habib

Primary Rotation (ω)

Analytical Photogrammetry Ayman F. Habib

Secondary Rotation (φ)

Analytical Photogrammetry Ayman F. Habib

 xωφ  cos φ 0 − sin φ   xω 

Tertiary Rotation (κ)

Zωφ & Zωφκ

Analytical Photogrammetry Ayman F. Habib

Analytical Photogrammetry Ayman F. Habib

Analytical Photogrammetry Ayman F. Habib

Analytical Photogrammetry Ayman F. Habib

Alternative Derivation of the Rotation Matrix

• They represent the components of the unit vectors along

Alternative Derivation of the Rotation Matrix

X  cos( xX ) cos( yX ) cos( zX )

 X  cos( xX ) cos( yX ) cos( zX )  x 

Analytical Photogrammetry Ayman F. Habib

Alternative Derivation of the Rotation Matrix

• r1: The components of a unit vector along the x-axis of the

Analytical Photogrammetry Ayman F. Habib

Analytical Photogrammetry Ayman F. Habib

Rotation Angles (ω, φ, κ)

Rotation Angles (Azimuth, Pitch, Roll)

Analytical Photogrammetry Ayman F. Habib

(a) Image Point

(A) Object Point

Analytical Photogrammetry Ayman F. Habib

These vectors should be defined w.r.t.

Analytical Photogrammetry Ayman F. Habib

Analytical Photogrammetry Ayman F. Habib

w.r.t. the image coordinate system

Analytical Photogrammetry Ayman F. Habib

The vector connecting the perspective

Analytical Photogrammetry Ayman F. Habib

Where: λ is a scale factor