2 Transformers PDF

Electrical Machines
(Transformers)
by
Dr. Mithun Mondal

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus
Dr. Mithun Mondal Transformers 1/112

A look back in the History
Who invented the transformer?

Otto Blathy, Miksa Deri, Karoly Zipernowsky first designed
Later on Lucien Gaulard, Sebstian Ferranti, and William Stanley
perfected the design
When was the transformer invented? In 1886, William Stanley, built the
first reliable commercial transformer
Where were the first transformers used? Great Barrington, Massachusetts
in 1886
In 1891, Mikhail Dobrovsky designed and demonstrated his 3 phase
transformers at Frankfurt, Germany
A look back in the History (contd.)
Michael Faraday: principle of electro-magnetic induction in 1831.

The finding forms the basis for many magneto-electric machines.
The earliest use of this phenomenon was in the development of
induction coils.
These coils were used to generate high voltage pulses to ignite the
explosive charges in the mines.
d.c. power system was in use at that time
Limitation of d.c. system:
A look back in the History (contd.)
for economic transmission of power the generating station and the

load center have to be necessarily close to each other
the d.c. generators cannot be scaled up due to the limitations of the
commutator
world look for other efficient methods for bulk power generation and
transmission.
During the second half of the 19th century the alternators,
transformers and induction motors were invented.
These machines work on alternating power supply
With the invention of transformers, it was possible to choose a
moderate voltage for generation of a.c power, a high voltage for
transmission of this power over long distance, and finally use a small
and safe operating voltage at the user end

Transformer: The heart of the AC system

Transformer: The heart of the AC system (contd.)
Transformer is a static device

Change the voltage and current levels keeping the power invariant
Consists of two electrical circuit linked by a common magnetic circuit
One of the electrical coils is used for generation of time varying
magnetic field
Second coil links to the magnetic field and has induced voltage in it
Magnitude of the induced emf is decided by the number of turns in
each coil
Voltage level can be changed by changing the number of turns
Excitation winding is called primary winding and output winding is
called secondary
No conductive connection between two electrical circuits and thus
provides electrical isolation
Frequency on the two sides will be the same
Efficiency of the conversion is extremely high

Transformer: The heart of the AC system (contd.)
No change in the nature of power so ’Transformer’ and not

’Converter’
Transformers are not limited to power systems
frequency operating from few Hz to several MHz
power rating from few milliwatts to several hundred of Megawatts
Electric power generation demand doubles every decade in a
developing country
For every MVA of generation, the installed capacity of transformers
grows by about 7 MVA

Construction
The construction of the transformer differs based on their end use

Apart from use in power systems, special transformers are used in
application like, electronic supplies, rectification, furnaces, traction,
etc.
Principle of operation remains the same
Focus on power transformer
Constructional aspects will be discussed under three categories:
Core construction
Winding arrangements
Cooling aspects

Core Construction
Material used for core should be highly permeable (µr > 1000)
High permeability will give low reluctance for the path of the flux
Flux line will confine to the iron core
Silicon steel in the form of thin laminations is used
Over the years, for better magnetic properties, Hot rolled
non-oriented to Hot rolled grain oriented steel is used
Later better lamination in Cold Rolled Grain Oriented Steel
(CRGOS) became available
The thickness of the laminations progressively got reduced from over
0.5 mm to the present 0.25 mm per lamination
Laminations are coated with a thin layer of insulating varnish, oxide
or phosphate
Magnetic material is required to have
high permeability µ
high saturation flux density
small area under the B-H loop-to permit high flux density of
operation with low magnetizing current and low hysteresis loss
Core Construction (contd.)
The resistivity of the iron sheet itself is required to be high to reduce
the eddy current losses
The eddy current itself is highly reduced by making the laminations
very thin
If the lamination is made too thin then the production cost of steel
laminations increases
For very small transformers (few VA to few KVA) hot rolled silicon
steel laminations in the form of E&I, C&I or O are used and core
cross-section should be square or rectangle

Silicon content in steel is 3.5%. Above this steel becomes very

brittle and also very hard to cut
Saturation flux density of the present steel laminations is about 2%
Core type transformer:

In core type construction the winding surrounds the core

Shell type transformer:
In shell type construction the iron surrounds the winding

A very commonly-used shell type is the one known as Berry

Transformer, which consists of laminations arranged in groups that
radiate pout from the centre

In very small transformer:

the conductors are very thin and round that can be easily wound on
a former with rectangular or square cross-section
No special care needed for the construction of the core
For large transformer:
conductor size also increases
Flat conductors are preferred to round ones
Winding such conductor on a rectangular former is difficult and also
introduces stresses at the bends of the conductor
From the short-circuit with stand capability point of view also not
desirable
Also, for a given area the length of the conductor becomes more,
results in more load losses
To avoid the problems, the coils are made cylindrical
Core construction should be such that fill the circular space inside
the coil with steel laminations
Stepped core construction thus becomes mandatory


Winding arrangements
Primary Winding: Winding connected to the voltage source and

creates a flux.
Secondary Winding: The winding where voltage is induced by
induction.
Step down transformer: Secondary voltage is less than that of
the primary
Step up transformer: Secondary voltage is more than that of the
primary
A step down transformer can be made a step up transformer by
making the low voltage winding its primary.
Hence it may be more appropriate to designate the windings as High
Voltage (HV) and Low Voltage (LV) windings.
The winding with more number of turns will be a HV winding.
The current on the HV side will be lower as V-I product is a
constant and given as the VA rating of the machines.

Winding arrangements (contd.)
Also the HV winding needs to be insulated more to withstand the
higher voltage across it.
HV also needs more clearance to the core, yoke or the body.
These aspects influence the type of the winding used for the HV or
LV windings.
Transformer coils can be broadly classified in to concentric coils and
sandwiched coils
The former are very common with core type transformers while the
latter one are common with shell type transformers.

In concentric arrangement, in view of the lower insulation and
clearance requirements, the LV winding is placed close to the core
which is at ground potential.
The HV winding is placed around the LV winding.
Also taps are provided on HV winding when voltage change is
required.
Three most common types of coils viz. helical, cross over and disc
coils are shown in Fig.

Disc coils:
Consist of flat conductors wound in a spiral form at the same place
spiralling outwards.
Alternate discs are made to spiral from outside towards the center.
Sectional discs or continuous discs may be used.
Excellent thermal properties and the behavior of the winding is
highly predictable.
Winding of a continuous disc winding needs specialized skills.

Cross over coils:

Made of circular conductors not exceeding 5 to 6 sq mm in cross
section.
Used for HV windings of relatively small transformers.
Turns are wound in several layers.
The length and thickness of each block is made in line with cooling
requirements.
A number of such blocks can be connected in series, leaving cooling
ducts in between the blocks, as required by total voltage requirement.

Helical Winding:
Made of large cross section rectangular conductor wound on its flat
side.
The coil progresses as a helix and commonly used for LV windings
The insulation requirement also is not too high.
Between layers no insulation (other than conductor insulation) is
needed as the voltage between layers is low.
The complexity of the winding rapidly increases as the current to be
handled becomes more.
The conductor cross section becomes too large and difficult to
handle.
The eddy current losses in the conductor rapidly increases.
Hence two or more conductors have to be wound and connected in
parallel.
The parallel circuits bring in problems of current sharing between the
circuits.
Transpositions of the parallel paths reduce unequal current
distribution.
The modern practice is to use continuously transposed and bunched
conductors.

Sandwich coils:
They permit easy control over the short circuit impedance of the
transformer.
By bringing HV and LV coils close on the same magnetic axis the
leakage is reduced and the mutual flux is increased.
By increasing the number of sandwiched coils the reactance can be
substantially reduced.

Insulation
The insulation used in the case of electrical conductors in a

transformer is varnish or enamel in dry type of transformers.
In larger transformers to improve the heat transfer characteristics
the conductors are insulated using un-impregnated paper or cloth
and the whole core-winding assembly is immersed in a tank
containing transformer oil.
The transformer oil thus has dual role : insulator and coolant.
The porous insulation around the conductor helps the oil to reach
the conductor surface and extract the heat.
The conductor insulation may be called the minor insulation as the
voltage required to be with- stood is not high.
The major insulation is between the windings.
Annular bakelite cylinders serve this purpose.
Oil ducts are also used as part of insulation between windings.
The oil used in the transformer tank should be free from moisture or
other contamination to be of any use as an insulator.

Cooling aspects
Why larger unit sizes of transformers economically attractive ?

Consider a transformer of certain rating designed with certain flux
density and current density.
If now the linear dimensions are made larger by a factor of K keeping
the current and flux densities the same; the core and conductor areas
increase by a factor of K 2 .
The losses in the machine, which are proportional to the volume of
the materials used, increase by a factor of K 3 .
The rating of the machine increases by a factor of K 4
The surface area however increases by a factor of K 2 only.
Thus the ratio of loss per surface area goes on increasing by a factor
of K.
The substantial increase in the output is the major attraction in
going in for larger units.
However cooling of the transformer becomes more and more difficult.
As the rating increases better cooling techniques are needed.

Cooling aspects (contd.)
Simple air cooling of the transformers is adopted in dry type
transformers for a rating of few kVA.
Hence air cooling is used in low voltage machines.
This method of cooling is termed as AN (Air Natural).
Air Blast(AB) method improves on the above by directing the blast
of air at the core and windings.
Substantial improvement is obtained when the transformer is
immersed in an oil tank.
The oil reaches the conductor surface and extracts the heat and
transports the same to the surface of the tank by convection.
This is termed as ON (Oil Natural) type of cooling.
This method permits the increase in the surface available for the
cooling further by the use of ducts, radiators etc.
OB (Oil Blast) method is an improvement over the ON-type and it
directs a blast of air on the cooling surface.
In the above two cases the flow of oil is by natural convective forces.

The rate of circulation of oil can be increased with the help of a
pump, with the cooling at the surface remaining natural cooling to
air.
This is termed as OFN (Oil Forced Natural).
If now a forced blast of air is also employed, the cooling method
become OFB (Oil Forced Blast).
A forced circulation of oil through a radiator is done with a blast of
air over the radiator surface.
Substantial amount of heat can be removed by employing a water
cooling.
Here the hot oil going into the radiator is cooled by a water circuit.
Due to the high specific heat of water, heat can be evacuated
effectively.
Next in hierarchy comes OFW which is similar to OFB except that
instead of blast of air a forced circulation of cool water in the
radiator is used in this.


Properties of the Transformer Oil
Basic properties: (a) Insulation (b) Cooling

There are many other properties which make a particular oil
eminently suitable
Organic oils of vegetative or animal origin are good insulators but
tend to decompose giving rise to acidic by-products which attack the
paper or cloth insulation around the conductors
Mineral oils are suitable from the point of electrical properties but
tend to form sludge.
The properties that are required to be looked into before selecting
an oil for transformer application are as follows:
Insulating property : Most of the oils naturally fulfil this. Therefore
deterioration in insulating property due to moisture or contamination
may be more relevant.
Viscosity : Determines the rate of flow of the fluid. Highly viscous
fluids need much bigger clearances for adequate heat removal.
Purity : The oil must not contain impurities which are corrosive.
Sulphur or its compounds as impurities cause formation of sludge
and also attack metal parts.
Properties of the Transformer Oil (contd.)
Sledge formation : Thickening of oil into a semisolid form is called a

sludge. Sludge cause the oil to slowly forms semi-solid hydrocarbons.
These impede flows and due to the acidic nature, corrode metal
parts. Heat in the presence of oxygen is seen to accelerate sludge
formation. If the hot oil is prevented from coming into contact with
atmospheric air sludge formation can be greatly reduced.
Acidity : Oxidized oil normally produces CO2 and acids. The
cellulose which is in the paper insulation contains good amount of
moisture. These form corrosive vapors. A good breather can reduce
the problems due to the formation of acids.
Flash point and fire point : Flash point of an oil is the temperature
at which the oil ignites spontaneously. This must be as high as
possible (not less than 1600 C from the point of safety). Fire point is
the temperature at which the oil flashes and continuously burns.
This must be very high for the chosen oil (not less than 2000 C).
Synthetic transformer oil like chlorinated diphenyl has excellent
properties like chemical stability, non-oxidizing, good dielectric
strength, moisture repellant, reduced risk due fire and explosion.

Ideal Transformer
An ideal transformer is one which has no losses, i.e. its windings

have no ohmic resistance, there is no magnetic leakage, and hence
has no I 2 R and core losses
In other words, an ideal transformer consists of two purely inductive
coils wound on a loss-free core
It is impossible to realize such a transformer in practice
Consider an ideal transformer whose secondary is open and primary
is connected to sinusoidal alternating voltage V1
Potential difference cause an alternating current to flow in the
primary
Since, the primary coil is purely inductive and the secondary is open
(no output) the primary draws a magnetizing current Iµ only
Iµ is very small in magnitude, magnetize the core, and lags V1 by 900
The alternating current Iµ produces an alternating flux Φ, which at
all times is proportional to the current and is in phase with it.

Ideal Transformer (contd.)
This changing flux is linked with both N1 and N2

Therefore, it produced self induced emf in the primary (E1 ) which at
every instant oppose V1 known as counter emf or back emf of the
primary
Similarly, there is secondary mutually induced emf (E2 ), antiphase
with V1
The magnitude of E2 is proportional to the rate of change of flux
and the number of secondary turns

EMF Equation of a transformer
Let,
N1 = No. of turns in primary
N2 = No. of turns in secondary
Φm = Bm × A Maximum flux in core in webers
f= Frequency of a.c. input in Hz
Flux increases from zero to maximum value Φm in one quarter of the

cycle i.e. 1/4 f s
Φm
∴ Average rate of change of flux =
1/4f
= 4f Φm volt
Rate of change of flux per turn means induced emf in volts
∴ Average emf/turn = 4f Φm volt

EMF Equation of a transformer (contd.)
If flux varies sinusoidally, then rms value of induced emf is obtained
by multiplying the average value with form factor
r.m.s value
Form factor = = 1.11
average value
∴ r.m.s value of e.m.f/turn = 1.11 × 4f Φm = 4.44f Φm volt
Now, r.m.s value of the induced e.m.f in the whole primary winding
E1 = 4.44fN1 Φm = 4.44 fN1 Bm A
Similarly, for secondary winding
E2 = 4.44fN2 Φm = 4.44 fN2 Bm A
From above two equations
E1 /N1 = E2 /N2 = 4.44f Φm
emf/turn is same for both the primary and secondary winding

Voltage Transformation Ratio
E2 N2
= =K
E1 N1
Step-Up Transformer:
N2 > N1 ⇒ K > 1
Step-Down Transformer:
N2 < N1 ⇒ K < 1
For an ideal transformer, input VA = output VA
V1 I1 = V2 I2
I2 V1 1
⇒ = =
I1 V2 K
Currents is in inverse proportional of the voltage transformation ratio

Case-1: Transformer on no-load
Even under no-load I1 is not wholly reactive
Under no-load, I1 = I0 has to supply
1 Iron loss in the core: Hysteresis and eddy current loss
2 very small amount of copper loss in the primary winding alone
(I2 = 0)
3 Hence, I0 is not at 90◦ behind V1 , but lags by Φ0 < 90◦
No-load input power:
W0 = V1 I0 cos(Φ0 )
where cos(Φ0 ) is primary power factor

under no-load condition
Iw = I0 cos(Φ0 )
Im = I0 sin(Φ0 ) q
I0 = Iw2 + Im2
Case-1: Transformer on no-load (contd.)
Important points:
I0 is very small about 1% of the full-load primary current
As I0 is very small, no-load primary Cu loss is negligibly small,
means no-load primary input is practically equal to the iron loss in
the transformer
As core loss is responsible for the shift in the current vector, Φ0 is
known as the hysteresis angle of advance
Since, Core µ varies with the instantaneous value of Im , hence wave
of Im is not truly sinusoidal. Thus it should not be represented by
vector (only sinusoids are represented by vectors), but it makes no
difference

Case-2: Transformer on load
When the transformer is on loaded condition, the secondary of the

transformer is connected to load.
The load can be resistive, inductive or capacitive.
The current I2 flows through the secondary winding of the
transformer.
|I2 | depends on V2 and the load impedance.
The phase angle between I2 and V2 depends on the nature of the
load.

Operation of the Transformer on Load Condition
When secondary of the transformer is kept open, it draws the

no-load current from the main supply.
The no-load current induces the magnetomotive force N1 I0 and this
force set up the flux Φ in the core of the transformer.
When the load is connected I2 flows through secondary winding.

I2 induces N2 I2 on the secondary winding of the transformer.
This force set up Φ2 in the transformer core.
Φ2 oppose the flux Φ, according to Lenz’s law

Operation of the Transformer on Load Condition (contd.)
As Φ2 opposes Φ, the resultant flux decreases and reduces the

induces EMF E1 .
Thus, strength of V1 is more than E1 and an additional primary
0
current I1 drawn from the main supply.
The additional current is used for restoring the original value of the
flux in the core so that V1 = E1 .
0
The primary current I1 is in phase opposition with I2 . Thus, it is
called the primary counter balancing current.
0 0 0
I1 induces N1 I1 that set up Φ1 .

Operation of the Transformer on Load Condition (contd.)
The direction of the flux is same as that of the Φ and it cancels Φ2

which induces because of the N2 I2
0
Now, N1 I1 = N2 I2

0 N2
I1 = I2 = KI2
N1
Therefore,
→
− → − → −0
I1 = I0 + I1

Practical Transformer
• Transformer with winding Resistance but No Magnetic

Leakage
In an actual transformer, there will be some resistance in both sides

winding i.e primary & secondary winding due to the presence of copper
winding
V2 = E2 − I2 R2
E1 = V1 − I1 R1

Practical Transformer (contd.)

• Equivalent Resistance
Resistance of two winding can be transferred to any one winding

The advantage of concentrating both the resistances in one winding
is that it makes calculations very simple and easy because one has to
work in one winding only
The equivalent secondary resistance as referred to primary:
0
R2 → R2 /K 2

Equivalent resistance in primary which would have caused the same

loss as R2 in secondary
0
I22 R2 = I12 R2
0
⇒ R2 = (I2 /I1 )2 R2
0
⇒ R2 = R2 /K 2
Neglecting I0 , then (I2 /I1 ) = 1/K

Similarly, equivalent primary resistance as referred to secondary:
0
R1 = K 2 R1

Effective resistance referred
0
R01 = R1 + R2 = R1 + R2 /K 2
0
R02 = R2 + R1 = R2 + K 2 R1

• Magnetic Leakage flux in transformer
It is impossible to link all the flux with N1 and N2

All the flux linked with N1 does not link N2 but part of it i.e. ΦL1
completes its magnetic circuit by passing through air rather than
through the core

The primary leakage flux is produced due to primary ampere-turns

(mmf)
ΦL1 is in phase with I1 and induces eL1 in primary but not in
secondary
Similarly the case for secondary leakage flux ΦL2
At no or light load, primary and secondary ampere-turns are small,
hence leakage fluxes are negligible
As load increased both winding carry huge currents generating large
mmf, hence there is leakage flux
X1 = eL1 /I1
X2 = eL2 /I2

• Transformer with resistance and leakage reactance
q
Z1 = R21 + X12
q
Z2 = R22 + X22
V1 = E1 + I1 (R1 + jX1 ) = E1 + I1 Z1
E2 = V2 + I2 (R2 + jX2 ) = V2 + I2 Z2
Leakage reactance can also be transferred from one winding to the other
in the same way as resistance
0 0
X2 = X2 /K 2 and X1 = K 2 X1
0 0
X01 = X1 + X2 and X02 = X2 + X1
q
Z01 = R201 + X01
2
q
Z02 = R202 + X02
2


Voltage Drop in a Transformer
At no load:
V1 ≈ E1
E2 = KE1 = KV1
E2 =0 V2
At load:

Voltage Drop in a Transformer (contd.)
The approximate voltage drop is:
I2 R02 cos Φ ± I2 X02 sin Φ
where + is for lagging pf and − is for leading pf

Similarly, approximate voltage drop referred to primary is
I1 R01 cos Φ ± I1 X01 sin Φ
% voltage drop in secondary is

I2 R02 cosΦ ± I2 X02 sinΦ
= × 100
0 V2
=vr cosΦ ± vx sinΦ
where
I2 R02 I1 R01
vr = × 100 = × 100 = percentage resistive drop
0 V2 V1
I2 X02 I1 X01
vx = × 100 = × 100 = percentage reactive drop
0 V2 V1

Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer
Equivalent circuit is basically a diagram in which the resistance and

leakage reactance of the transformer are imagined to be external to the
winding
The equivalent circuit diagram of transformer is given below:-

Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer (contd.)
The secondary circuit and its equivalent primary value
The total equivalent circuit is obtained by adding in the primary

impedance

It can be simplified
At last, the circuit is simplified by omitting I0 altogether

The total impedance between the input terminal:

n 0 0

Z = Z1 + Zm Z2 + ZL
0 0

Zm Z2 + ZL
= Z1 + 0 0
Zm + Z2 + ZL
Therefore the input voltage is given by

 0 0

Zm Z2 + ZL
V1 = I1 Z1 + 0 0

Zm + Z2 + ZL

Transformer Tests
The performance of a transformer can be calculated on the basis of

its equivalent circuit which contains four parameters (as referred to
primary)
1 the equivalent resistance R01
2 the equivalent leakage reactance X01
3 the core loss conductance G0 or resistance R0
4 the magnetizing susceptance B0 or reactance X0
Transformer Tests (contd.)
These constants or parameters can be determined by two tests:

1 open-circuit tests
2 short-circuit tests
Tests also determine the voltage regulation and efficiency.
Tests are very economical and convenient, because they furnish the
required information without actually loading the transformer

Open Circuit Test

Open Circuit Test (contd.)
The shunt branch parameters are determined by performing this test
The core loss and the magnetizing current depend on applied
voltage only and are practically unaltered by the load current
Hence to get these parameters, Rated voltage is supplied generally
to LV winding keeping HV open
I0 is very small as compared to IFL the loss in R1 is neglected
Thus W0 drawn from source is dissipated as heat in the core
W0
W0 = V1 I0 cosΦ0 ⇒ cosΦ0 =
V1 I0
=⇒ Iw = I0 cosΦ0 =⇒ Im = I0 sinΦ0
⇒ R0 = V1 /Iw ⇒ Xm = V1 /Im
Separation of Core losses
Wi = Wh + We
= PB1.6 2 2
m f + QBm f
Carry out two experiments using two different f but with same Bm to
evaluate constants P and Q
Short Circuit Test

Short Circuit Test (contd.)
Input voltage is reduced to a small fraction of rated value and

secondary terminals are short-circuited.
A current will circulate in the secondary winding.
Since a small fraction of rated voltage is applied to the primary
winding, the flux in the core and hence the core loss is very small.
Hence, the power input on short circuit is dissipated as heat in the
winding
Since, the applied voltage is very small (may be of the order of
5-8%), the magnetizing branch can now be eliminated from the
equivalent circuit.
Vsc Wsc
Zsc = ⇒ RT = 2
Isc Isc
q
⇒XT = Zsc2 − R2
T

Why Transformer Rating is given in KVA and not in KW?
Copper losses (I 2 R) depends on current which passing through

transformer winding
Iron losses or core losses or Insulation losses depends on Voltage.
Total losses depends on voltage (V) and current (I) which expressed
in Volt ampere (VA) and not on the load power factor (p.f).
Hence, the transformer rating may be expressed in VA or kVA, not
in W or kW
Moreover manufactures design a transformer with no idea which
kind of load will be connected to the transformer
The load may be resistive (R), inductive (L), capacitve (C) or mixed
load (R, L and C).
Its mean, there would be different power factor (p.f) at the
secondary (load) side on different kind of connected loads depends
on R, L and C.

Voltage Regulation of a transformer
The percentage of voltage difference between no load and full load

voltages of a transformer with respect to its full load voltage
E2 − V2
voltage regulation(%) = × 100
V2
At no load, the secondary terminal voltage is E2
At full load, rated current I2 flows through the secondary circuit and
voltage drop comes into picture.
At this situation, primary winding will also draw equivalent full load
current from source.
The voltage drop due to the secondary impedance is I2 Z2
In general, voltage regulation is given by
I2 R2 cos θ2 ± I2 X2 sin θ2
voltage regulation(%) =
V2
+ for lagging and − for leading load

Voltage Regulation of a transformer (contd.)

Efficiency of a transformer
output power output power

η= =
input power output power+losses
output power
=
output power+iron losses+copper losses
V2 I2 cos Φ2
=
V2 I2 cos Φ2 + Pi + Pc
where
V2 Secondary terminal voltage
I2 Full-load secondary current
cos Φ2 Power factor of the load
Pi Iron losses =hysterises +eddy current losses
Pc Full load copper losses = I 2 RT
If x is the fraction of the full-load, then efficiency is given as

x × Output xV2 I2 cos Φ2
ηx = =
2
x × Output + Pi + x Pc xV2 I2 cos Φ2 + Pi + x2 I22 RT
Efficiency of a transformer (contd.)
Condition for the maximum efficiency
V2 I2 cos Φ2 V2 cos Φ2
η= =
V2 I2 cos Φ2 + Pi + I22 RT V2 cos Φ2 + Pi /I2 + I2 RT
Now, V2 is constant. Thus for a given cos Φ2 , η depends upon I2 .
Hence, efficiency will be maximum when

d Pi
= V2 cosΦ2 + + I2 RT = 0
dI2 I2
Pi
⇒ 0 − 2 + RT = 0
I2
⇒ Pi = I22 RT
⇒ Iron loss = copper loss
Value of output current for maximum efficiency

r
Pi
I2 =
RT
Efficiency of a transformer (contd.)
If x is the fraction of full load KVA at which ηmax . Then
Iron loss = Pi
Copper loss = x2 Pc
For maximum efficiency x2 Pc = Pi

r
Pi
x=
Pc
The output KVA corresponding to maximum efficiency

ηmax = x × KVAFL
r
Pi
⇒ ηmax = KVAFL ×
Pc

All-Day Efficiency
Power transformer (at generating station) and Distribution

transformer (distribution substation)
Power transformers are switched in or out of the circuit depending
upon the load to be handled
Distribution transformer is never switched off remain irrespective of
the load
In such case, constant loss continues to be dissipated
Concept of energy based efficiency arise - ”all day efficiency”
Output energy in KWh during a day

%all-dayη = × 100
Input energy in KWh during a day
Output energy in KWh during a day
= × 100
Output energy +Energy spent for total losses

Auto-Transformer
Transformer with one winding only

Part of the winding is common to both primary and secondary
No electrical isolation as in 2-winding transformer
Theory and operation remains similar
Because of one winding, uses less copper and hence cheaper
It is used where transformation ratio varies little from unity

Auto-Transformer (contd.)


Saving of Cu
Volume (or weight) ∝ length and area of cross-section
length of conductor ∝ number of turns
cross-section depends on current
Weight ∝ product of current and number of turns
Wt. of Cu in section AC is ∝ (N1 − N2 )I1
Wt. of Cu in section BC is ∝ N2 (I2 − I1 )
∴ Total Wt. of Cu ∝ (N1 − N2 )I1 + N2 (I2 − I1 )
If a 2-winding T/F perform the same task, then

Wt. of Cu in primary ∝ N1 I1
Wt. of Cu in secondary ∝ N2 I2
∴ Total Wt. of Cu ∝ N1 I1 + N2 I2
Wt. of Cu in auto-transformer (N1 − N2 )I1 + N2 (I2 − I1 )

∴ = = (1−K)
Wt. of Cu in ordinary transformer N1 I1 + N2 I2
⇒ Wa = (1 − K) × W0

∴ Saving = W0 − Wa = W0 − (1 − K) W0 = KW0
Hence, saving will increase as K approaches unity

⇒ Power transferred inductively is
Pind = Input × (1 − K)
⇒ The rest of the power is conductively transferred
Pcond = Input × K

Advantages of Auto transformer
X Less costly
X Better regulation
X Low losses as compared to 2-winding T/F of the same rating
Disadvantages of Auto transformer
X The secondary winding is not insulated from primary so if a low
supply voltage is used from a high voltage and if a break occurs in
secondary winding then full primary voltage comes across the
secondary terminal which is dangerous to the operator and the
equipment.
X used only in limited places where a slight variation of the output
voltage from input voltage is required.
Applications of Auto transformer
X Used as a starter to give 50-60% of full voltage to the stator of a
squirrel cage induction motor during starting
X used to give a small boost to a distribution cable, to correct the
voltage drop
X used as a voltage regulator
X in power T & D system and also in audio system and railways
Per Unit Calculations
Transformers of various sizes, ratings, voltage ratios can seen being

used in a power system
The parameters of the equivalent circuits of these machines vary
over a large range
The comparison of the machines can be made simpler if all the
parameters are normalized
If simple scaling of the parameters is done then one has to carry
forward the scaling factors in the calculation
Expressing in percent basis is one example of scaling
However if the scaling is done on a logical basis one can have a
simple representation of the parameters without the bother of the
scaling factors
Also different units of measurement are in use in the different
countries (FPS, CGS, MKS, etc.), which also undergo several
revisions over the years
If the parameters can be freed from the units then the system
becomes very simple
Per Unit Calculations (contd.)
The ’per-unit’ system is developed keeping these aspects in mind

The parameters of the transformer are referred to some base values
and thus get scaled
A common base value is adopted in view of the different ratings of
the equipment
In case of individual equipments, its own nominal parameters are
used as base values
Choose Vbase and Ibase as nominal voltage and current on the
primary side of the transformer, and compute Sbase and Zbase
Pbase , Qbase , Sbase = Vbase ∗ Ibase

Vbase
Rbase , Xbase , Zbase =
Ibase
Ibase
Gbase , Bbase , Ybase =
Vbase

Normally Sbase and Vbase are known from name plate details. Other
base values can be derived from them
V(volt)
Vp.u =
Vbase (volt)
I (Amps) I
Ip.u = =
Ibase (Amps) Sbase
Vbase
Z (ohm) Ibase Sbase
Zp.u = = Z(ohm) ∗ = Z(ohm) ∗ 2
Zbase (ohm) Vbase Vbase
Many times, when more transformers are involved in a circuit one is

required to choose a common base value for all of them
Parameters of all the machines are expressed on this common base
The conversion of the base values naturally lead to change in the per
unit values of their parameters

An impedance Zp.u.,old on the old base of Sbase,old and Vbase,old shall

get modified on new base Sbase,new , Vbase,new as
2
Vbase,old Sbase,new
Zp.u.,new = Zp.u.,old ∗ ∗ 2
Sbase,old Vbase,new
If all the equivalent circuit parameters are referred to the secondary
side and per unit values of the new equivalent circuit parameters are
computed with secondary voltage and current as the base values,
there is no change in the per unit values. This can be easily seen by
0
0 0 S 0 1
Zp.u. = Zohm · base
02 but Zohm = 2 · Zohm
Vbase a

where
a = turns ratio of primary to secondary

Z = impedance as seen by primary
0
Z = impedance as seen by secondary
0
Sbase = Sbase as transformer rating is unaltered
0 1
Vbase = Vbase ·
a
0
Thus, Zp.u. = Zp.u.

Parallel Operation of Transformers
Parallel operation means two or more transformers are connected to

the same supply bus bars on the primary side and to a common bus
bar/load on the secondary side
Reasons that necessitate parallel operation:
1 Non-availability of a single large transformer to meet the total load
requirement
2 Increase in power demand leading to augmentation of the capacity
3 Improved reliability : Even if there is fault in one transformer or
taken out for maintenance the load can continued to be serviced
4 Transportation problems limit installation of large transformers at
site, it is easier to transport smaller ones to site and work them in
parallel

Parallel Operation of Transformers (contd.)
a1 , a2 : turns ratio of Transformers

ZA , ZB : equivalent impedance referred to secondary
ZL , VL , IL : secondary load impedance, voltage and current
IA , IB : current supplied to the load by secondary of the transformers

Conditions for parallel operation of transformers sharing a

common load:
1 The voltage ratio must be the same
2 The per unit impedance of each machine on its own base must be
the same
3 The polarity must be the same, so that there is no circulating
current between the transformers
4 The phase sequence must be the same and no phase difference must
exist between the voltages of the two transformers
IA + IB = IL (1)
V1
VL = − IA ZA (2)
a1
V1 V1
VL = − IB ZB = − (IL − IA ) ZB (3)
a2 a2

Solving (2) and (3), we get
ZB IL V1 (a2 − a1 )
IA = +
ZA + ZB a1 a2 (ZA + ZB )
ZA IL V1 (a2 − a1 )
IB = +
ZA + ZB a1 a2 (ZA + ZB )
There are two components in current IA and IB . The first component

represents the transformer share of the load current and the second
component is the circulating current in the secondary winding
EA − EB V1 /a1 − V1 /a2 V1 (a2 − a1 )

Ic = = =
ZA + ZB ZA + ZB a1 a2 (ZA + ZB )
Undesirable effects of the circulating current:

X increase in copper loss
X overload one transformer and reduce the permissible load KVA

Equal Voltage Ratio:
To eliminate circulating currents, the voltage ratio must be identical,
i.e. a1 = a2
Under this condition,
ZB IL
IA =
ZA + ZB
ZA IL
IB =
ZA + ZB
From Equations, we get
IA ZB
=
IB ZA
Thus, transformer currents are inversely proportional to impedance
Thus for efficient paralleling, the potential differences at full load
across the internal impedance should be equal
The condition ensures that the load sharing between the
transformers are according to their rating
If per unit equivalent impedance are not equal transformers will not
share the load in proportion to their KVA ratings, and as a result the
overall rating of the transformer bank will be reduced
IA ZA = IB ZB
The Volt-Amperes of the Transformers

ZB ZB
SA = VL IA = VL IL = SL
ZA + ZB ZA + ZB

ZA ZA
SB = VL IB = VL IL = SL
ZA + ZB ZA + ZB
SA ZB
⇒ =
SB ZA
VA load on each transformer is inversely proportional to its
impedance
Hence, to share the load in proportion to their ratings, the
transformers should have the impedance which is inversely
proportional to their ratings
3-Phase Transformers-Introduction
A 3-Φ transformer can be constructed in two different ways:

Using one pre-assembled and balanced 3-Φ transformer consisting of
three pairs of single phase windings mounted onto one single
laminated core
connecting together three 1-Φ transformer known as transformer
bank
The advantage of a single 3-Φ transformer is that for the same KVA
rating it will be smaller, cheaper, and lighter than three individual
1-Φ transformers connected together because the copper and iron
core are used more effectively

3-Phase Transformers-Construction
Three 1-Φ cores are positioned at 120◦ to each other

For balanced 3-Φe sinusoidal voltages applied the fluxes Φa , Φb , and
Φc will also be sinusoidal and balanced
The total combined flux in the merged leg becomes zero
Therefore, the central leg can be removed as it carries no flux
This structure is not convenient for the core

3-Phase Transformers-Construction (contd.)
Other way is core made up of three limbs in the same plane built
using stack lamination
Each leg carries the low and high voltage winding
The magnetising paths of the leg a and c are greater than that of
leg b (central), thus construction is not symmetrical, and result in
imbalance in magnetising current

3-Phase Transformers-Construction (contd.)
Shell type is constructed by stacking three single phase shell

transformer
Winding direction of the central unit b is made opposite to that of
units a and c
If the system is balanced with phase sequence a-b-c, the flux will
also be balanced
Magnitude of the combined flux is equal to the magnitude of each of
its components

3-Phase Transformers-Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages of 3-Φ transformer:
For the same KVA rating, the core material required is very less as
compared to bank of three 1-Φ transformer
It is lighter and smaller
It requires less space to install
Higher efficiency
Low cost compared with three units of 1-Φ transformer
Bus bar structure and switchgear installation for single 3-phase unit
is simpler
Only three terminals are required as compared to six terminals of
1-phase
Disadvantages of 3-Φ transformer:
In case of fault or loss of one phase results in complete unit shut
down because a common core is shared for all the three units.
The core of the defective unit would immediately saturate because of
absence of an opposing magnetic field

3-Phase Transformers-Advantages and Disadvantages
(contd.)
This causes escape of magnetic flux to the metal enclosure from the
core and raises the heating of the metallic parts
In some cases heating results in fire
Cost of repair is more for 3-phase transformer
To restore the service, spare unit cost is more as compared to one
single transformer
Under self cooling the capacity is reduced

3-Phase Transformers-Winding Connections

STAR-STAR CONNECTIONS
Consider three 1-Φ identical transformer each rating of
10KVA, 200V/100V, 50Hz
IHV =10000/200 = 50A

ILV =10000/100 = 100A
Total
√ KVA√that√can be supplied to the load:
3VL IL = 3( 3100) = 30KVA
STAR-STAR CONNECTIONS (contd.)
Generally used for small, high-voltage transformers. Because of star
connection,
√ number of required turns/phase is reduced (as
Vp = 1/ 3VL ). Thus, the amount of insulation required is also
reduced.
This connection can be used only if the connected load is balanced
Problems Associated With Star-Star Connection
The Y-Y connection has two very serious problems. They are
Not satisfactory for the unbalance load in the absence of a neutral
connection. If the neutral is not provided, then the phase voltages
become severely unbalance when the load is unbalanced.
The Y-Y connection contains a third harmonics, and in balanced
conditions, these harmonics are equal in magnitude and phase with
the magnetising current. Their sum at the neutral of star connection
is not zero, and hence it will distort the flux wave which will produce
a voltage having a harmonics in each of the transformers
The unbalanced and third harmonics problems of Y-Y connection can be
solved by using the solid ground of neutral and by providing tertiary
windings.
STAR-DELTA CONNECTIONS
Total
√ KVA√that can
√ be supplied to the load:
3VL IL = 3100( 3100) = 30KVA
This connection is mainly used in step down transformer at the
substation end of the transmission line

STAR-DELTA CONNECTIONS
The main use of this connection is at the substation end of the

transmission line where the voltage is to be stepped down
This can be used to provide 3-pase 4-wire service (Y-with neutral
grounded)
√
The ratio between secondary to primary line voltage is 1/ 3 times
the transformation ratio of each transformer
There is a 30◦ shift between the primary and secondary line voltage
which means that a Y − ∆ transformer bank cannot be paralleled
with either a Y − Y or ∆ − ∆ bank
Also third harmonic currents flows in the ∆ to provide a sinusoidal
flux

DELTA-STAR CONNECTIONS
Used to step-up the voltage as for example, at the beginning of high

tension transmission system
3-phase 4 wire service (Y-neutral grounded)
Connection gained popularity because it can serve both the 3-phase
power equipment and single-phase lightning circuits
Because of 30◦ shift between primary and secondary line voltages
and line currents, it is impossible to parallel such a bank with a
∆ − ∆ or Y − Y bank
√
The ratio of primary voltage is 3 times the transformation ratio of
each transformer

DELTA-DELTA CONNECTIONS
This connection is generally used for large, low-voltage transformers.

Number of required phase/turns is relatively greater than that for
Y-Y connection
This connection can be used even for unbalanced loading
Another advantage of this type of connection is that even if one
transformer is disabled, system can continue to operated in open
delta connection but with reduced available capacity

OPEN DELTA or V-V CONNECTIONS
This connection can be used when one of the transformers in ∆ − ∆

bank is disabled and the service is to be continued until the faulty
transformer is repaired or replaced.
It can also be used for small three phase loads where installation of
full three transformer bank is unnecessary

OPEN DELTA or V-V CONNECTIONS (contd.)
The total load carrying capacity of open-delta connection is 57.7%

than that would be for delta-delta connection

OPEN DELTA or V-V CONNECTIONS (contd.)

SCOTT or T-T CONNECTIONS
3-phase to 2-phase and vice versa

Proposed by Charles F. Scott
Main Transformer: Centre taps both
on primary and secondary winding
forms the horizontal member
Teaser Transformer: 0.866 tap. Its
one end of the primary and secondary
winding is joined to the centre taps on
both primary and secondary of the
main transformer, respectively.
The other end A1 of the teaser
primary and the two ends B1 and C1
of the main transformer primary are
connected to the 3-phase supply

Application of Scott Connection
Electric furnace installation where it is desired to operate two

single-phase together and draw the balanced load from the
three-phase supply.
Supply the single phase loads such as electric train which are so
scheduled as to keep the load on the three phase system as nearly as
possible.
Link a 3-phase system with a two–phase system with the flow of
power in either direction.
The Scott-T connection permits conversions of a 3-phase system to a
2-phase system and vice versa. But since 2-phase generators are not
available, the converters from two phases to three phases are not used in
practice.

The two Transformers are connected electrically but not magnetically

Assume a 3-phase VL = 100 V and K = 1
EDC and EDB differ by 180◦ because both coils are on the same
magnetic circuit and are connected in opposition
Each side of the equilateral triangle represents 100 V
√
Voltage EDA is ( 3/2) × 100 = 86.6 V and lags behind the voltage
across the main by 90◦
The same relation holds good in the secondary winding so that abc
is a symmetrical 3-phase system
With reference to secondary voltage triangle for UPF load Idb lags
Edb by 30◦ and Idc leads Edc by 30◦
In other words, the teaser and each half of the main transformer, all
operates at different power factors
Obviously, the full rating of the transformers is not being utilized
The teaser transformer operates at only 0.866 of its rated voltage
The main transformer coils operate at cos 30◦ = 0.866 power factor,
which is equivalent to the main transformers coils working at 86.6%
of their KVA rating
Hence, the capacity to rating ratio in a T-T connection is 86.6%–the
same as in V-V connection if two identical units are used


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Electrical Machines

Dr. Mithun Mondal

Dr. Mithun Mondal Transformers 1/112

Who invented the transformer?

Michael Faraday: principle of electro-magnetic induction in 1831.

for economic transmission of power the generating station and the

Dr. Mithun Mondal Transformers 4/112

Dr. Mithun Mondal Transformers 5/112

Transformer is a static device

Dr. Mithun Mondal Transformers 6/112

No change in the nature of power so ’Transformer’ and not

Dr. Mithun Mondal Transformers 7/112

The construction of the transformer differs based on their end use

Dr. Mithun Mondal Transformers 8/112

Dr. Mithun Mondal Transformers 10/112

Silicon content in steel is 3.5%. Above this steel becomes very

Dr. Mithun Mondal Transformers 11/112

In core type construction the winding surrounds the core

Dr. Mithun Mondal Transformers 12/112

A very commonly-used shell type is the one known as Berry

Dr. Mithun Mondal Transformers 13/112

In very small transformer:

Dr. Mithun Mondal Transformers 14/112

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Primary Winding: Winding connected to the voltage source and

Dr. Mithun Mondal Transformers 16/112

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Dr. Mithun Mondal Transformers 18/112

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Cross over coils:

Dr. Mithun Mondal Transformers 20/112

Dr. Mithun Mondal Transformers 21/112

Dr. Mithun Mondal Transformers 22/112

The insulation used in the case of electrical conductors in a

Dr. Mithun Mondal Transformers 23/112

Why larger unit sizes of transformers economically attractive ?

Dr. Mithun Mondal Transformers 24/112

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Dr. Mithun Mondal Transformers 26/112

Dr. Mithun Mondal Transformers 27/112

Basic properties: (a) Insulation (b) Cooling

Sledge formation : Thickening of oil into a semisolid form is called a

Dr. Mithun Mondal Transformers 29/112

An ideal transformer is one which has no losses, i.e. its windings

Dr. Mithun Mondal Transformers 30/112

This changing flux is linked with both N1 and N2

Dr. Mithun Mondal Transformers 31/112

Flux increases from zero to maximum value Φm in one quarter of the

Dr. Mithun Mondal Transformers 32/112

E1 = 4.44fN1 Φm = 4.44 fN1 Bm A

Similarly, for secondary winding

E2 = 4.44fN2 Φm = 4.44 fN2 Bm A

From above two equations

E1 /N1 = E2 /N2 = 4.44f Φm

emf/turn is same for both the primary and secondary winding

Dr. Mithun Mondal Transformers 34/112

No-load input power:

where cos(Φ0 ) is primary power factor

Dr. Mithun Mondal Transformers 36/112