Chapter 7:

Sensors/Transducers
PRINCIPLES OF INSTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENT (BEKG 1233))

Lecturer: Noor Azwan Bin Shairi

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At the end of this chapter, students should
be able to:

Explain the operation and function of the
transducer/sensor

Explain the application of the
transducer/sensor

Explain the limitation of certain
transducer/sensor

Differentiate several function of transducer in
order to choose the correct type of transducer
in instrumentation application.

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A transducer is defined as a device that receives
energy from one system and transmits it to another,
often in a different form (electrical, mechanical or
acoustical).

Basically, there are two types of transducers :
1) Electrical
2) Mechanical

The electrical output of a transducer depends on the
basic principle involved in the design.

The output may be analog, digital, or frequency
modulated.

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An electrical transducer is a device that converts a
physical, mechanical or optical quantity into a
proportional voltage or current quantity.

An electrical transducer must have the following
parameters :
1) Linearity
• Linear relationship between a physical parameter and
the resulting electrical signal.
2) Sensitivity
• Defined as the electrical output per unit change in
the physical parameter (eg. V/0C)
• High sensitivity is desirable.

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3) Dynamic Range
• Transducer must have a wide operating range.
4) Repeatability
• The input/output relationship for a transducer
should be predictable over a long period of time.
5) Physical Size
• The transducer must have minimal weight and
volume to minimize the disturbance to the existing
conditions/environment.

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Electrical transducers can be classified into two major
categories :
1) Active transducers
• Generates an electrical signal directly in response to
the physical parameter (does not require external
power to operate).
• Example : piezo-electric sensor and photo cells.

2) Passive transducers
• Requires external power to operate.
• Example : Strain gauges and thermistors.

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Electrical transducers are used mostly to measure non-
electrical quantities.

A transducer which converts a non-electrical quantity
into an analog electrical signal consists of two parts
the sensing element ant the transduction element.

Sensing element – responds to a change in a physical
phenomenon.

Transduction element – transforms the output of a
sensing element to an electrical output.

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 The different electrical phenomena employed in the
transduction elements of transducers are as follows:
1. Resistive
2. Inductive
3. Capacitive
4. Electromagnetic
5. Piezo-electric
6. Photo-emmisive
7. Photo-resistive
8. Potentiometric
9. Thermo-electric
10. Frequency generating

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Operates under a principle of resistance change by the physical
movement under measurement.

One type of resistive position transducer is shown in Figure 7.1
(a).

The basic operation of this transducer uses resistive element
with a sliding contact or wiper linked to the object being
measured.

The shaft and wiper can be moved to the left or right causes a
change in the circuit resistance in Figure 7.1(b).

The output voltage of the circuit is given by :
VO R2
= (7-1)
Vt R1 + R2

The output voltage is proportional to R2 .

If the resistance of the transducer is distributed uniformly along
the length of the wiper movement, the resistance will be linear.

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Figure 7.1: Resistive transducers

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A resistive position transducer with a shaft stroke of 3 in is
applied to the circuit 7.1 (b). The total resistance of the
potentiometer is 5 k@. The applied voltage Vt is 5V. When the
wiper is 0.9 in from B, what is the value of output voltage?

Solution:
0.9in 9
R2 = × 5k = × 5k ≈ 1500Ω
3.0in 30
Vo R2
= ;
Vt R1 + R 2
R2
Vo = ×Vt
R1 + R 2
1500
Vo = ×5V = 1.5V
5k

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A resistive transducer with a resistance of 5 k@ is used in the
arrangement in Figure 7.2. Potentiometer R3-R4 is also 5 k@
and Vt is 5V. The initial position to be used as a reference
point is such that R1=R2 (ie. the shaft is at the center). At the
beginning, R3 and R4 are adjusted so that the bridge is
balanced (Ve = 0). Assuming that the object being monitored
moves a maximum resistance of 0.5 in towards A, what will
be the new value of Ve? (Shaft distance is 5 in).

Figure 7.2
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Solution:

If the wiper moves 0.5 in towards A from the center, it will
have moved 3 in from B.

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Capacitive transducer operates by a linear change in
capacitance.

The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is given
by:
kAε 0
C= (Farad) (7-3)
d
where
k = the dielectric constant
A = the area of the plate, in m2
ε0 = 8.854 x 10-12 , in Farads / m
d = the plate spacing in m.

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From equation (7-3), the capacitance increases if (i) the
effective area of the plate is increased, and (ii) the
material has a high dielectric constant.

A variable plate area transducer is shown in Figure 7.8.

It is made of a fixed plate called Stator and a movable
plate called the Rotor.
Rotor

The capacitance of the transducer is changing as the
rotor changes its position relative to the stator.

This transducer can be used to detect the amount of
roll in an aircraft.

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Figure 7.8: Variable plate area transducer

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Another example of capacitive transducer is the
capacitive pressure transducer as shown in Figure 7.9.

This sensor is designed to measure pressure (in
vacuum).

A metallic diaphragm will move to the left when
pressure is applied to the chamber and to the right
when vacuum is applied.

This diaphragm is used as one plate of a variable
capacitor.

The capacitive transducer is simple to construct,
inexpensive, and effective for HF variations.

For example: To detect the changes in HF acoustical signal.

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Figure 7.9: Capacitive Pressure Transducer

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Inductive transducers may be either of the self
generating or the passive type.

The self generating type utilizes the basic electrical
generator principle, ie. a motion between a conductor
and magnetic field induces a voltage in the conductor.

A tachometer is an example of the self generating
transducer which directly converts speed or velocity
into an electrical signal.

The passive type inductive transducers utilizes the
change in inductance.

An inductive electromechanical transducer converts
physical motion into a change in inductance.

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Figure 7.10 (a) and (b) are transducers used for the
measurement of displacement of linear and angular movement
respectively.

In both cases, as the number of turns are changed, the self
inductance and the output also changes.

µ r µo N 2 A
L=
l

Figure 7.11 shows an inductive transducer which works on the
principle of the variation of permeability causing a change in
self inductance.

When the iron core is inside the winding, its permeability is
increased, and so is the inductance.

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Figure 7.10: (a) Linear Inductive Transducer,
(b) Angular Inductive Transducer

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Figure 7.11: Inductive Transducer (Variation of Permeability)

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Figure 7.12 shows the variable reluctance transducer.

The transducer consists of a coil wound on a
ferromagnetic core.

The displacement which is to be measured is applied to
a ferromagnetic target.

The core and the target are separated by an air gap.

The self inductance of the coil is inversely proportional
to the length of the air gap.

When the target is near the core, the length is small,
thus increases the self inductance.

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 displacement

target
air gap

core
(ferromagnetic)

output

Figure 7.12: Variable Reluctance Transducer

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The inductance of the variable reluctance transducer is given by:
N2
L=
Ri + Rg

where N = number of turns

The reluctance of the iron (target) part is negligible, thus:

N2 lg where lg = length of the air gap

Rg is proportional to lg, thus L is inversely proportional to lg.

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