Measurement of Force, Torque and Shaft Power
Measurement of Force, Torque and Shaft Power
Measurement of Force, Torque and Shaft Power
MEASUREMENT OF FORCE
Pneumatic Load Cell:
In this type of load cell, shown in Figure, air is supplied under pressure to a chamber
having a diaphragm at one end and a nozzle at the other. The force to be measured
is applied to the top side of the diaphragm. Due to this force, the diaphragm deflects
and causes the flapper to shut-off the nozzle opening, thus changing pressure in the
chamber. As the flapper has closed the nozzle opening, a back pressure results
underneath the diaphragm. This back pressure acts on the diaphragm producing an
upward force. Air pressure is regulated until the diaphragm returns to the pre-loaded
position which is indicated by air starting to come out of the nozzle. At this stage the
corresponding pressure indicated by the pressure gauge becomes a measure of
applied force when calibrated. This type of load cell is used up to 20 k N.
In this type of device, hydraulic pressure is used to indicate the force F, applied to
diaphragm or some other type of force transmitting element. When a force F is
applied, pressure is developed in the fluid which is normally an oil. This can be
measured by a pressure indicating device like a Bourdon gauge. Such a device can
be used up to vary large forces, of the order of millions of newton.
Proving Ring:
A proving ring is a circular ring of rectangular cross section which may be subjected
to either tensile or compressive forces across its diameter. The deflection is given
by, x = {[(π/2) – (4/ π)] x d3 x Force} / (16 E I). Where d = diameter of the ring, E =
modulus of elasticity of ring material, and I = moment of inertia.
An LVDT is attached with the integral internal bosses for sensing deflection of the
ring.
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METROLOGY & MEASUREMENT
In an LVDT type of transducer, shown in figure, a soft iron core provides the
magnetic coupling between a primary coil and two secondary coils, connected in
series opposition. When the core is central and both secondary coils are identical,
the voltage across them is equal in magnitude. However, the output is zero as both
the secondary coils are in series opposition. As the core moves up or down, the
induced voltage of one secondary coil increases while that of the other decreases.
The output voltage which is modulated is the difference of the two secondary coils.
Load Cell:
A tensile compressive load cell uses four strain gauges each mounted at 90 0 to each
other on a steel cylinder. If the load to be measured is applied on the steel cylinder,
the two strain gauges experience tensile stresses while the other two are subjected
to compressive stresses. Thus when strained, the resistance of the various gauges
changes. This change in resistance of the strain gauges are measured by the output
voltage of the wheat stone bridge is given by,
e0 = [2(1 + μ) x Gauge factor x Є x E] / 4.
The change in output voltage due to applied load becomes a measure of applied
load when calibrated.
Example: A load cell is formed of a hollow steel cylinder loaded axially. The four
strain gauges with gauge resistance = 1000Ω and gauge factor = 2 are so bonded as
to enhance the signal and compensate for temperature variation. The load cell has a
cross-sectional area of 2 cm2. Young’s modulus of steel is 2.07 x 1011 N/m2 and
Poisson’s ratio 0.3. The current in strain gauge is limited to 20 mA. Calculate (i) the
bridge supply voltage and (ii) current in the detector arm if this consists of a micro
ammeter of resistance 500Ω, when the load cell is subjected to a force of 105 N.
R1and R3 measures axial strains while R2 and R4 measure the circumferential strains,
which are opposite in nature to the axial ones.
Signal enhancement factor = 2(1+ μ) = 2(1+0.3) = 2.6
For the initially balanced system, battery voltage Eb = [20mA (R1+ R4)]
= [20 x10-3(1000 + 1000)]
= 40 Volts
Axial strain in the cylinder
= (Force / Cross-sectional area of the cylinder) / Young’s modulus
= [(105 / 2 x 10-4) / 2.07 x 1011]
= 2.415 x 10-3
Example: For strain measurement, a Wheatstone bridge circuit is used in which one
gauge each is connected in the limbs of the bridge. These gauges have been
mounted on the fixed end of a mild steel cantilever (600 mm long x 60 mm wide x 18
mm deep) and are connected electrically to form a full-bridge configuration. The
nominal resistance of each gauge is 120 Ω, the gauge factor is 2.0. The bridge
supply voltage is 6 V and the measuring instrument has an infinitely high internal
resistance. If a unit kg of mass is applied at the free end of the cantilever, calculate
the sensitivity of the system in mV/kg. Take, modulus of elasticity for mild steel = 200
GN/m2.
Let us now calculate strain (€) in the cantilever when a mass of 1kg is applied to its
free end.
For pure bending: M/I = σ/y
Where, M = Bending moment = F x L = mg x L = 1 x 9.81 x 0.6 = 5.886 N-m
I = Moment of Inertia = (b x t3) / 12 = [0.06 x (0.018)3] / 12 = 2.916 x 10-8 m4
y = Half the beam depth = 0.018/2 = 0.009 m, and
σ = bending stress = (M/I) x y = (5.886 / 2.916 x 10-8) x 0.009
= 1.817 x 106 N /m2
This change in voltage results when 1 kg mass is applied at the free end of
cantilever. Hence, the system has a sensitivity of 0.109 mV / kg.
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METROLOGY & MEASUREMENT
Torque Meter:
The mounting of four resistance strain gauges on rotating shaft for measuring the
strain with Wheatstone bridge arrangement.
During torsion of cylinder, the principal strains (tensile or compressive) exist at 45º to
the axis. These can be measured by bonded resistance gauges, as shown in the
figure. The output is increased by using four strain gauges so that adjacent arms of
the Wheatstone bridge have strains of opposite nature. For taking signals in and out
of the rotating shaft, slip rings and brushes are used as shown in the figure.
Example:
A mild shaft is used to connect a motor drive to a constant load torque. To measure
this torque, a resistance strain gauge with resistance of 120 Ω and a gauge factor of
2, is mounted on a shaft with its active axis at 450 to the shaft axis. Shear modulus of
mild steel is 8 × 1010 N/m2. Shaft diameter is 3 cm and the change in gauge
resistance due to load is 0.2 Ω. Find the load torque.
In a solid shaft of diameter d, rotating with rpm N, subjected to torque T,
Power = (2 x π x N x T) / 60
Also, Torque, T= [(fs x π x d3) / 16] where fs = Shear stress induced in the shaft.
Shear strain = Shear stress induced in the shaft / Shear modulus
Longitudinal strain in the shaft at 45º to the axis of the shaft, Є45 = Shear strain / 2
Gauge Factor = 2 = (∆R/R) / Є45 = (0.2/120) / Є45
Є45 = (0.2/120) / 2 = 8.33 x 10-4 = 833 μ strain
Therefore shear strain = 2 x Є45 = 2 x 8.33 x 10-4 = 1666 μ strain
Cradled Dynamometer:
It is shown in fig; power is absorbed by fluid friction due to breaking action of the
vortex produced by flow of water along a helix. This is brought about by the relative
motion of the rotor with respect to a stator or the casing of the dynamometer. The
rotor and stator have cup shaped pockets such that the path of the water is a helix.
The tendency of the stator to rotate is opposed by an arm on the stator with a
balancing mass. The stator is freely pivoted on the bearings. The load is controlled
by control of sluice gates in the spaces between stator and rotor pockets. This
control can be affected from outside and changes the breaking effect between the
rotor and stator.
Review Questions
Q1) Explain the method of measuring force using a hydraulic load cell.
Q2) Explain the method of measuring force using a pneumatic load cell.
Q3) Explain the method of measuring force using a strain gauge load cell.
Q4) Explain the working of a proving ring with LVDT is used to measure force.
Q6) For strain measurement, a Wheatstone bridge circuit is used in which one gauge
each is connected in the limbs of the bridge. These gauges have been mounted
on the fixed end of a mild steel cantilever (500 mm long x 50 mm wide x 15 mm
deep) and are connected electrically to form a full-bridge configuration. The
nominal resistance of each gauge is 100 Ω, the gauge factor is 2.0. The bridge
supply voltage is 6 V and the measuring instrument has an infinitely high internal
resistance. If a unit kg of mass is applied at the free end of the cantilever,
calculate the sensitivity of the system in mV/kg. Take, modulus of elasticity for
mild steel = 200 GN/m2.
Q7) A strain gauge load cell consists of a solid steel cylinder which has four identical
strain gauges mounted upon it in the Poisson’s configuration. For each gauge
the nominal resistance is 100 Ω, gauge factor 2 and the gauges are connected
electrically to the four arms of a Wheatstone bridge circuit. The applied
compressive load produces a stress of 200 MN/m 2. Find the output voltage if the
bridge supply voltage is 4 V. For steel cylinder, Poisson’s ratio = 0.3 and
modulus of elasticity for mild steel = 200 GN/m2.
Q8) In a cantilever beam the four active strain gauges are mounted with maximum
signal enhancement and are connected across the arms of wheat stone bridge
circuit. Strain gauge resistances are R1=R2=R3=R4=R=120Ω. The input
voltage is 9V. If the output voltage of the bridge is 20mV, find the value of the
force applied to the beam.
Given: i) Thickness of the beam=1mm
ii) Width of the beam=10mm
iii) Young’s modulus of beam material =8x1010N/m2.
iv) Length of the beam =50mm.
6 PL
v) Strain at the root of the cantilever=
Ebt 2
vi) Gauge factor=2.4
Q9) Explain with neat sketch how the torque & power can be measured using
cradled dynamometer.
Q11) Explain with neat sketch how the torque & power can be measured using strain
gauge Torque meter.
Q12) A mild steel shaft is used to connect a motor drive to a constant load torque. To
measure this torque, a resistance strain gauge with resistance of 120 Ω and
gauge factor of 2, is mounted on a shaft with its active axis at 45º to the shaft
axis. Shear modulus of mild steel is 8 x 1010 N/m2. Shaft diameter is 3 cm and
change in gauge resistance due to load is 0.2Ω. Find the load torque.
Q13) Using a rope brake dynamometer explain how to measure the shaft power.
Q14) The following data were recorded with rope brake dynamometer, in a
laboratory experiment:
Diameter of the brake wheel = 1.44 m
Diameter of the rope = 15 mm
Speed of the engine = 240 rpm
Dead load on the brake = 720 N
Spring balance reading = 180 N
Calculate the brake power of the engine.
Q15) A shaft running at a speed of 1500 rpm transmits maximum power of 60 kW.
Measurement of torque are made by a pair of strain gauges which are bonded
on a specially machined portion of the shaft. Each gauge has a nominal
resistance of 100 Ω, gauge factor of 2 and are connected electrically to the two
arms of a half-activated Wheatstone bridge circuit which is energized with an
excitation voltage of 6 V. The gauges have a maximum strain of 0.0012. The
shear modulus of elasticity of shaft material is 200 GN/m 2.
Calculate the following: (i) The diameter of the shaft (ii) The output voltage and
sensitivity of the measuring system.