Lecture Notes The Fibonacci Sequence page 1

De…nition: The Fibonacci sequence starts with 1 and 1 and for all other terms in the sequence, we must
add the last two terms.

F1 = 1 F2 = 2 and for all n 1, Fn + Fn+1 = Fn+2

So the …rst few terms of the Fibonacci sequence are

1; 1; 2; 3; 5; 8; 13; 21; 34; 55; 89; 144; : : :

The de…nition shown above is a recursive one. If we are needed to compute the 100th term of the sequence, we
would be forced to compute …rst the …rst 99 terms in the sequence. So we are naturally interested in …nding a
formula that enables us to compute the 100th element directly. Such a formula is callled explicit. Like so many
things about this sequence, the explicit formula for its nth term is fascinating and surprising. We will derive this
formula later.

The Fibonacci sequence is named after Leonardo Fibonacci and p has very strange and beautiful properties. A lot
1+ 5
of these properties are connected to the golden mean, ' = 1: 618 033 988 749 9.
2
Consider now another sequence, fqn g that is formed by taking the quotients of consecutive term in the Fibonacci
1 2 3 5 8 13
sequence. That is, ; ; ; ; ; ;.....
1 1 2 3 5 8
Fn
qn = for all natural number n.
Fn+1
The decimal presentations of the terms in this sequence show an interesting pattern.
1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34
=1 =2 = 1:5 1:66667 = 1:6 = 1:625 1:615 384 6 1: 619 047 62
1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21

The quotients oscillate back and forth and seem to be closer and closer to each other. Amazingly, there is only one
number that is inside all of the "swirls" shown on the picture above. These ratios approach a single number. We
call this number the limit of this sequence and we compute its exact value in the sample problems.

De…nition: A Fibonacci-type of a sequence starts with any two real numbers and the rest of the
sequence is generated the same way the Fibonacci sequence is.

f1 ; f2 2 R and for all n 1, fn + fn+1 = fn+2

Suppose we start with f1 = 3 and f2 = 4. The …rst few terms of this Fibonacci-type sequence are

3; 4; 7; 11; 15; 26; 41; 67; 108; 175; : : :

We can de…ne operations on Fibonacci-type sequences. Consider fan g and fbn g de…ned as follows:

fan g : 3; 4; 7; 11; 18; 29; 47; 76; 123; 199; : : :

fbn g : 2; 7; 9; 16; 25; 41; 66; 107; 173; 280; : : :

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Lecture Notes The Fibonacci Sequence page 2

We can multiply a sequence by a number by multiplying each term by that number:

2 fan g : 6; 8; 14; 22; 30; 52; 82; 134; 216; 350; : : :

and the resulting sequence is still Fibonacci-type.

We can also add two sequences by adding them term by term:

cn = an + bn

cn = fan + bn g : 5; 11; 16; 27; 43; 70; 113; 183; : : :

and the sum is again Fibonacci-type. Also, it is very easy to see that every Fibonacci-type sequence is uniquely
determined by its …rst two terms.

These properties are used when we derive the explicit formula for the nth term of the Fibonacci sequence.

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Lecture Notes The Fibonacci Sequence page 3

Sample Problems

1. Solve the equation x2 = x + 1.

p p
1+ 5 1 5
2. De…ne ' = and = . Prove each of the following.
2 2
1
a) 1 ' = b) =
'
3. Find the limit of of the sequence formed from consecutive terms in the Fibonacci sequence. In short,
Fn+1
compute lim .
n!1 Fn

4. De…nition: Two positive integers are relatively prime if their greatest common divisor is 1.
Prove that any two consecutive terms of the Fibonacci sequence are relatively prime.

5. Consider a Fibonacci-type of a sequence with …rst term 1 and second term x. Is there a value of x for which
all terms of the sequence fall between 100 and 100?

6. De…nition: A geometric sequence is de…ned as a; ar; ar2 ; ar3 ; ar4 ; ::::::. The number r is called the common
an+1
ratio of the sequence because if r 6= 0, then r = for all n 2 N. It is clear that a geometric sequence
an
is determined by its …rst element and common ratio. One great advantage of a geometric sequence over a
Fibonacci-type of a sequence is that there is a very easy explicit formula for the nth term of the sequence:
an = arn 1 :
Is there a Fibonacci-type sequence that is also a geometric series?
p
1+ 5
7. Consider the geometric sequence de…ned by …rst element 1 and common ratio r = . Compute the
2
exact value of the 9th term in the sequence.

8. Use results form the previous problems to …nd the explicit formula for the nth term of the Fibonacci sequence.

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Lecture Notes The Fibonacci Sequence page 4

Solutions - Sample Problems

1. Solve the equation x2 = x + 1

Solution 1. Using the quadratic formula
x2 x 1 = 0
p p
1 1 ( 4) 1 5
x1;2 = =
2 2
Solution 2. Completing the square
2
1 1
x2 x 1 = 0 x = x2 x+
2 4
1 1
x2 x + 1 = 0
| {z 4} 4
2
1 5
x = 0
2 4
2 p !2
1 5
x = 0
2 2
p ! p !
1 5 1 5
x + x = 0
2 2 2 2
p p p p
1 5 1 5 1 5 1+ 5
x1 = = x2 = + =
2 2 2 2 2 2
p p
1+ 5 1 5
2. De…ne ' = and = . Prove each of the following.
2 2
a) 1 ' =
Solution: p p p p p
1+ 5 2 1+ 5 2 1+ 5 2 1 5 1 5
1 '=1 = = = = =
2 2 2 2 2 2
1
b) =
'
1
Solution: We rationalize the radical expression using its conjugate.
'
p p p
1 2 2 2 5 1 2 5 1 2 5 1
= p = p 1= p p = p p =
' 5+1 5+1 5+1 5 1 5+1 5 1 4
p p
5 1 1 5
= = =
2 2

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Lecture Notes The Fibonacci Sequence page 5

3. Find the limit of of the sequence formed from consecutive terms in the Fibonacci sequence. In short,
Fn+1
compute lim .
n!1 Fn
Solution 1: Let us assume …rst that the consecutive terms
1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144
; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; :::
1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89
do approach a single number x. Imagine we are much further into the sequence, after millions and millions
of terms. Then these numbers are very close to x and thus also very close to each other. Sort of like
89 144
x we are in the Fibonacci sequence: 144 = 89 + 55
55 89
89 89 + 55
55 89
89 89 55
+
55 89 89
89 55
1+
55 89
1
x 1+
x
Using more general notation, we arrive to the same conclusion. For very large values of n,
Fn+1 Fn+2
x we are in the Fibonacci sequence: Fn+2 = Fn + Fn+1
Fn Fn+1
Fn+1 Fn + Fn+1
Fn Fn+1
Fn+1 Fn Fn+1
+
Fn Fn+1 Fn+1
Fn+1 Fn
+1
Fn Fn+1
1
x +1
x
1
We solve the equation x = 1 +
x
1
x = +1 multiply by x
x
x2 = 1+x
x2 x 1 = 0
p
1 5
x1;2 =
2
p
1 5
We rule out because it is negative, and the sequence clearly approaches a number above 0:6. The
2 p
1+ 5
other solution, , the golden mean is the limit.
2

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Lecture Notes The Fibonacci Sequence page 6

Solution 2: This is the same computation but this time it is presented with calculus notation.
Fn+1
Let us denote lim by x.
n!1 Fn

Fn+1 Fn
lim = lim +1
n!1 Fn n!1 Fn+1
Fn+1 Fn+2 1
lim = lim x = +1
n!1 Fn n!1 Fn+1
x
Fn+1 Fn + Fn+1 x2 = 1+x
lim = lim
n!1 Fn n!1 Fn+1
x2 x 1 = 0
Fn+1 Fn Fn+1 p
lim = lim + 1 5
n!1 Fn n!1 Fn+1 Fn+1 x1;2 =
2
Fn+1 Fn
lim = lim +1
n!1 Fn n!1 Fn+1

p
1 5
We rule out because it is negative, and the sequence clearly approaches a number above 0:6. The
2 p
Fn+1 1+ 5
other solution, the golden mean is the limit. lim = .
n!1 Fn 2
4. De…nition: Two positive integers are relatively prime if their greatest common divisor is 1.
Prove that any two consecutive terms of the Fibonacci sequence are relatively prime.
Solution: this is an interesting application of proofs by contradiction.
Suppose for a contradiction that there exist two consecutive terms Fk and Fk+1 (for some natural number k)
that are not relatively prime. Then there exists a positive integer d > 1 such that d is a divisor of both Fk
and Fk+1 . Then there exist and positive integers such that Fk = d and Fk+1 = d. We claim that
then d is also a divisor of Fk 1 .
Fk + Fk 1 = Fk+1
Fk 1 = Fk+1 Fk = d d = d( )
Thus d also divides Fk 1 . Next we similarly prove that d is then also a divisor of Fk 2 and Fk 3 ; and so
on, all the way till F1 . Thus d is a divisor of F1 . This is impossible because d > 1 and F1 = 1. This is a
contradiction completing our proof.
5. Consider a Fibonacci-type of a sequence with …rst term 1 and second term x. Is there a value of x for which
all terms of the sequence fall between 100 and 100?
Solution: The Fibonacci sequence vey quickly becomes very large. The question is: how can we ensure that
the terms of the sequence do not become large? Consider a Fibonacci-type sequence with …rst term 1 and
second term x.
1; x; x + 1; 2x + 1; 3x + 2; 5x + 3; 8x + 5; 13x + 8; 21x + 13; : : : :
eventually the terms are Fn + Fn 1 x. If x is positive, even if tiny, the other part alone, Fn will ensure that
the nth term is very large. Thus, if we want the terms to stay small, we need x to be negative.
This idea generalizes. We want every second term positive and every other term negative, because two
consecutive terms with the same sign guarantee that the terms after that get very large. Suppose that a and
b are two consecutive terms with the same sign. Then from then on, we have that
a; b; a + b; a + 2b; 2a + 3b; 3a + 5b; 5a + 8b; : : : ; Fn a + Fn+1 b ; : : : :
So we want alternating sings in the sequence
1; x; x + 1; 2x + 1; 3x + 2; 5x + 3; 8x + 5; 13x + 8; 21x + 13; : : : :
That is:

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Lecture Notes The Fibonacci Sequence page 7

1 positive, 2x + 1 negative, 8x + 5 positive,

x negative, 3x + 2 positive, 13x + 8 negative,
x + 1 positive, 5x + 3 negative, 21x + 13 positive,

and so on. We solve all these inequalities:

x<0 3
5x + 3 < 0 =) x<
5
x+1>0 =) x> 1 5
8x + 5 > 0 =) x>
8
1
2x + 1 < 0 =) x< 8
2 13x + 8 < 0 =) x<
13
2 13
3x + 2 > 0 =) x> 21x + 13 > 0 =) x>
3 21

It looks like x must be between the values de…ned by consecutive terms of the Fibonacci sequence. These
rations display a strange behavior, they spiral around over a smaller and smaller interval (see problem 3). The
Fn Fn+1
only di¤erence here is that we are looking at instead of . The ratios in this problem approach
Fn+1 Fn p
2 1 5
the negative reciprocal of the golden mean. We rationalize p and obtain . This is the only
5+1 2
number that will work for x. This sequence will have terms with alternating signs and thus each term will
have a smaller absolute value than the previous term. It is an amazing thought that for any other values of
x, the sequence will reach huge numbers and outgrow any bound.
We can present a bit more formal computation: denote the sequence by an :

fan g : 1; x; x + 1; 2x + 1; 3x + 2; 5x + 3; 8x + 5; 13x + 8; 21x + 13; : : : :

Notice that for all n 3

an = Fn 1x + Fn 2

where fFn g is the Fibonacci sequence.

fFn g : 1; 1; 2; 3; 5; 8; 13; 21; 34; 55; 89; 144

We want a1 , a3 , a5 ,... positive and a2 ; a4 ; a6 ;... negative. For all n, we need a2n+1 > 0 and a2n < 0.

a2n = F2n 1x + F2n 2 and a2n+1 = F2n x + F2n 1

F2n 1x + F2n 2 > 0 and F2n x + F2n 1 < 0

F2n 2 F2n 1
x > and x< for all n
F2n 1 F2n
F2n 2 F2n 1
< x< for all n
F2n 1 F2n

Since these quotiens oscillate around and enclose only a single number, x must be that number. Thus
p
F2n 1 1 1 1 5
x = lim = = p =
n!1 F2n F m+1 1+ 5 2
lim
m!1 Fm 2

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Lecture Notes The Fibonacci Sequence page 8

6. De…nition: A geometric sequence is de…ned as a; ar; ar2 ; ar3 ; ar4 ; ::::::. The number r is called the common
an+1
ratio of the sequence because if r 6= 0, then r = for all n 2 N. It is clear that a geometric sequence
an
is determined by its …rst element and common ratio. One great advantage of a geometric sequence over a
Fibonacci-type of a sequence is that there is a very easy explicit formula for the nth term of the sequence:
an = arn 1 :
Is there a Fibonacci-type sequence that is also a geometric series?
Solution: Let fan g be a Fibonacci-type geometric sequence with …rst element a and comon ratio r. Then
the …rst three elements (since geometric) are
a; ar; ar2
Let us assume that a 6= 0. (The constant zero sequence is both Fibonacci-type and geometric, but not very
interesting.) The sequence is also Fibonacci-type and so

a + ar = ar2
0 = ar2 ar a factor out a
2
0 = a r r 1 divide by a
2
0 = r r 1
p p
1 12 ( 4) 1 5
r1;2 = =
2 2
At this point, we are not surprised that we again bumped into the golden mean. Both solutions work, which
will be very useful later on.
Suppose that a = 1. Then one sequence is
p p p
1+ 5 3+ 5 p 7+3 5
1; ; ;2 + 5 ; ; :::
2 2 2
is an increasing sequence that grows unbounded. The other sequence is
p p p
1 5 3 5 p 7 3 5
1; ; ; 2 5; ; :::
2 2 2
is a sequence with alternating sings and thus small terms, and the two sequences appear to be conjugates of
each other, term by term.
p
1 5
The computation above shows that only r = will result in a non-zero Fibonacci-type sequence. On
2
the other hand, all other such sequences are just constant muliples of these two. All Fibonacci-type sequences
with …rst term a are of the form
p ! p ! p !
1+ 5 3+ 5 p 7+3 5
a; a ; a ; a 2+ 5 ; a ; : : : and
2 2 2
p ! p ! p !
1 5 3 5 p 7 3 5
a; a ; a ; a 2 5 ; a ; :::
2 2 2

What makes these sequences special is that their nth term can be so easily determined because they are
geometric sequences as well.
p
1+ 5
7. Consider the geometric sequence de…ned by …rst element 1 and common ratio r = . Compute the
2
exact value of the 9th term in the sequence.
Solution:
p !8 p !8
1+ 5 1+ 5
a9 = ar8 = 1 =
2 2

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Lecture Notes The Fibonacci Sequence page 9

p !2
1+ 5
We start with
2

p !2 p 2 p p
1+ 5 1+ 5 6+2 5 3+ 5
= = =
2 22 4 2

We square this number:

2 3
p !4 p !2 2 p !2 p 2 p p
1+ 5 1+ 5 5 3+ 5 3+ 5 14 + 6 5 7+3 5
=4 = = = =
2 2 2 22 4 2

We square again:
2 3
p !8 p !4 2 p !2 p 2 p p
1+ 5 1 + 5 7 + 3 5 7+3 5 49 + 45 + 42 5 49 + 45 + 42 5
= 4 5 = = = =
2 2 2 22 4 4
p p
94 + 42 5 47 + 21 5
= =
4 2
p
47 + 21 5
and so a9 = .
2
This might seem laborous but if n is large, it is still much better than having to compute all previous terms.

8. Use results form the previous problems to …nd the explicit formula for the nth term of the Fibonacci sequence.
Solution: We will express the Fibonacci sequence as the sum of two Fibonacci-type geometric sequences.
First, we need to verify that the constant mutplies and sums of Fibonacci-type sequences are still Fibonacci-
type. Second, we will use the fact that the …rst two elements uniquely determine any Fibonaccy-type of
sequence.
p p
1+ 5 1 5
De…ne fan g and fbn g geometric sequences as follows. a1 = 1 and ra = and bn = 1 and rb = .
2 2
Thus p !n p !n
1+ 5 1 5
an = and bn =
2 2
These sequences are also Fibonacci-type (see problem 6). Thus, any constant multiples and sums formed
from these sequences will still be Fibonacci-type. Could we use fan g and fbn g to "concoct" the Fibonacci
sequence?
Let x and y be real numbers such that for all n

cn = xan + yan and c1 = 1 and c2 = 1

If we could …nd such x and y, we would be done because a Fibonacci-type sequence that begins with 1 and 1
is THE …bonacci-sequence.
p ! p !
1+ 5 1 5
1 = c1 = xa1 + ya1 =) 1=x +y
2 2
p !2 p !2
1+ 5 1 5
1 = c2 = xa2 + ya2 =) 1=x +y
2 2

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Lecture Notes The Fibonacci Sequence page 10

8 p ! p !
>
> 1+ 5 1 5
>
< x
>
2
+y
2
=1
The system p !2 p !2 is a linear system in x and y so we should be able to solve
>
> 1 + 5 1 5
>
>
: x 2
+y
2
=1

it. We simplify both equations. Since

p !2 p 2 p p
1+ 5 1+ 5 6+2 5 3+ 5
= = =
2 22 4 2

the system is 8 p ! p !
>
> 1+ 5 1 5
>
>
< x 2
+y
2
=1
p ! p !
>
> 3+ 5 3 5
>
>
: x 2
+y
2
=1

Let us multiply by 2 p p
x 1 + p5 + y 1 p5 = 2
x 3+ 5 +y 3 5 =2
We solve for y in the …rst equation: p
2 x 1+ 5
y= p
1 5
and substitute into the second equation and solve for x:
p
p 2 x 1+ 5 p p
x 3+ 5 + p 3 5 = 2 multiply by 1 5
1 5
p p p p p
x 3+ 5 1 5 + 2 x 1+ 5 3 5 = 2 1 5
p p p p p
x 2 2 5 +2 3 5 x 1+ 5 3 5 = 2 2 5
p p p p
x 2 2 5 +2 3 5 x 2+2 5 = 2 2 5
p p p p p
x 2 2 5 +6 2 5+x 2 2 5 = 2 2 5 add 5 subtract 6
p p
x 2 2 5 +x 2 2 5 = 4 factor out x
p p
x 2 2 5+2 2 5 = 4
p p
x 4 5 = 4 divide by 4 5
1
x = p
5
We substitute this into the expression expressing y.
p p
2 x 1+ 5 1 5
y= p and x= p =
1 5 5 5

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Lecture Notes The Fibonacci Sequence page 11

p !
p p 5 p
1 1 1 5 p 1 1+ 5
2 p 1+ 5 2 p 1 1 p 1 5
5 p 5p 5 5 1+ 5
y = = = p = p p =
1 5 1 5 1 5 1 5 1+ 5 1 5
p !
5 5 p
1+ 5 1 p p p p p p p
5 5 5 5 1+ 5 5 5 1+ 5 5 5 1 5+1
= = 5 = =
1 5 4 20 20
p p
5 4 5
= =
20 5
1 1
So x = p and y = p . Consequently, the nth term in the Fibonacci sequence is
5 5
p !n p !n !
1 1+ 5 1 5
Fn = p
5 2 2

This formula seems very unlikely to produce integers. Let us see the …rst few elements generated by the
formula. p ! p !! p p p
1 1+ 5 1 5 1 1+ 5 1+ 5 1 2 5
F1 = p =p =p =1
5 2 2 5 2 5 2

0 1
p !2 p !2 p p ! p p
1 @ 1+ 5 1 5 A 1 3+ 5 3 5 1 3+ 5 3+ 5
F2 = p =p =p
5 2 2 5 2 2 5 2
p
1 2 5
= p =1
5 2
p !3
1+ 5
Before computing F3 , let us compute .
2

p !3 p ! p !2 p ! p ! p p p
1+ 5 1+ 5 1+ 5 1+ 5 3+ 5 1+ 5 3+ 5 8+4 5 p
= = = = =2+ 5
2 2 2 2 2 4 4

p !3
1 5
We similarly obtain the exact value of and then we are ready to compute F3 .
2
0 1
p !3 p !3
1 @ 1+ 5 1 5 A 1 p p 1 p
F3 = p =p 2+ 5 2 5 = p 2 5=2
5 2 2 5 5

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c Hidegkuti, 2013 Last revised: August 12, 2013