This document describes the design and construction of a capacitance adapter for multimeters. The adapter allows multimeters to measure very small capacitance values from less than 1 picofarad to over 2 microfarads. The adapter uses op amps, resistors, capacitors, and diodes in its circuit design. When used with a multimeter, it provides five ranges for measuring unknown capacitor values. The adapter outputs a series of pulses that are averaged on the multimeter to provide a steady capacitance reading.
This document describes the design and construction of a capacitance adapter for multimeters. The adapter allows multimeters to measure very small capacitance values from less than 1 picofarad to over 2 microfarads. The adapter uses op amps, resistors, capacitors, and diodes in its circuit design. When used with a multimeter, it provides five ranges for measuring unknown capacitor values. The adapter outputs a series of pulses that are averaged on the multimeter to provide a steady capacitance reading.
This document describes the design and construction of a capacitance adapter for multimeters. The adapter allows multimeters to measure very small capacitance values from less than 1 picofarad to over 2 microfarads. The adapter uses op amps, resistors, capacitors, and diodes in its circuit design. When used with a multimeter, it provides five ranges for measuring unknown capacitor values. The adapter outputs a series of pulses that are averaged on the multimeter to provide a steady capacitance reading.
This document describes the design and construction of a capacitance adapter for multimeters. The adapter allows multimeters to measure very small capacitance values from less than 1 picofarad to over 2 microfarads. The adapter uses op amps, resistors, capacitors, and diodes in its circuit design. When used with a multimeter, it provides five ranges for measuring unknown capacitor values. The adapter outputs a series of pulses that are averaged on the multimeter to provide a steady capacitance reading.
Many modern multimeters come with capacitance ranges, but they're no good for very small values. Most multimeters do not have provision for measuring capacitance and their usefulness will be considerably enhanced by the use of this add-on instrument. This project allows a standard digital multimeter to measure very low values of capacitance from less than one picofarad to over 2uF. It will allow you to measure tiny capacitors or stray capacitances in switches, connectors and wiring. 2 INTRODUCTION When used in conjunction with an analogue multimeter set to a 0-50µA range, this simple device provides the following five ranges of capacitance measurement: 0-2, 500pF, 0-5,000pF, 0- 0.05µF, 0-0.5µF and 0-5µF. Most multimeters do not have provision for measuring capacitance and their usefulness will be considerably enhanced by the use of this add-on instrument. Many multimeters have a 0-50µA range, but the unit can also be used with multimeters not having such a range. All that is required is a modification to two of the resistor values in the unit. The output of the add-on adaptor does not consist of a straightforward direct current but is instead a series of pulses. These pulses are averaged in an analogue meter to give a single steady reading. Because of the nature of the output, the unit cannot be employed with a digital multimeter. If preferred, the adaptor could be built as a completely self-contained capacitance measuring instrument having its own 0-50µ panel -mounted meter. However, the cost of good quality panel meters is relatively high these days, and an obvious saving is given by employing the unit with a multimeter which will already be on hand. Following mathematical forms are used to determine unknown capacitor value.
Square wave of constant amplitude V is applied to the circuit, the amplitude of the output waveform V° will be proportional to the unknown capacitor C. The range of capacitance displayed could be selected by altering the value of C1 and/or R2. 3 BLOCK DIAGRAM: -
Figure 1 Block Diagram
4 Construction: -
To complete the capacitance adapter all that is needed is a constant amplitude a.c. source and a circuit to convert the peak value of Vo into a d.c. level. To do this a precision full wave rectifier can be used, as shown in Fig. The a.c. source generated by connecting a Schmitt trigger between output and input of the integrator. However the amplitude of the square wave will not be constant if the unit is battery driven. If this amplitude were clamped using zener diodes all the outputs would be independent of supply voltage changes. Looking at data sheets of suitable Op-Amps such as the TL074 shows that, with the minimum supply of +/- 3.5 volts, the output may be limited to +/- 2 volts. Zener diodes are not available for this voltage so they could not be used as a clamp. Band gap regulator diodes are available but are expensive. A suitable alternative could be a light emitting diode (LED). A low cost red LED will have a forward conduction voltage of about 1.6 volts. If the Op-Amp ( like the TL074) has output current limiting at a suitable level, the clamping diodes can be connected directly to the output.
5 HARDWARE DESCRIPTION The system basically consists of following components
5.1 Diode: - A diode is a specialized electronic component with two electrodes called the anode and the cathode. Most diodes are made with semiconductor materials such as silicon, germanium, or selenium. Some diodes are comprised of metal electrodes in a chamber evacuated or filled with a pure elemental gas at low pressure. Diodes can be used as rectifiers, signal limiters, voltage regulators, switches, signal modulators, signal mixers, signal demodulators, and oscillators.
5.2 TL074 Quad Op Amp IC
The main distinguishing feature of the TL074 Op-Amp is that they incorporate high- voltage JFET and bipolar transistors which helps the transistor to have very high input impedance and low bias current. Also this Op-Amp has low noise and harmonic distortion making it an ideal choice for audio amplifiers.
Inputs: Op-Amps are known for its high input impedance, meaning it will not draw any current (or disturb) the signal that is being given to the Input pin. The input stage of an Op-Amp is mostly complex since it involves many stages. The Input common-mode range value must be considered while supplying voltage signals because the input voltage should never exceed the rail voltage else it will create a latch-up condition which in return will create a short circuit of the supply voltage and thus damaging the circuit permanently. Also the difference between the voltage values of the Inverting and the Non-Inverting pin should not be more than the Differential Input Voltage Rating.
Output: The TL074 is not a rail to rail Op-Amp hence the output voltage will not reach the maximum positive or maximum negative voltage when saturated. It will always be ~2V less than the supply voltage, this voltage drop occurs because of the Vcc voltage drop of the transistors present inside the Op-Amp. Also a saturated Op-Amp will comparatively draw more current and thus results in power loss.
Gain/Feedback: Op-Amps are known for their very large Open-Loop Gain, but sadly this gain is accompanied by noise hence most of the circuits are designed using Closed-Loop. A Closed- Loop system provides feedback to the input this limiting the gain value of the Op-Amp and the noise associated with it. A Negative feedback is commonly preferred, since it has predictable behaviour and stable operation.
Applications Circuit requiring high input impedance Buffer application Filter circuits, Voltage followers Integrator, Differentiator, Summer, adder, Voltage follower, etc., DC gain blocks Comparators (Loop control & regulation)
5.3 Resistors A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as a circuit element. In electronic circuits, resistors are used to reduce current flow, adjust signal levels, to divide voltages, bias active elements, and terminate transmission lines, among other uses. 5.4 Capacitors capacitor is an electronic component that stores electric charge. The capacitor is made of 2 close conductors (usually plates) that are separated by a dielectric material. The plates accumulate electric charge when connected to power source. One plate accumulates positive charge and the other plate accumulates negative charge. The capacitance is the amount of electric charge that is stored in the capacitor at voltage of 1 Volt.
5.5 CA3140 IC CA3140 is the 4.5MHz BiMOS Operational Amplifier with MOSFET inputs and Bipolar output. This Op Amp combines the advantage of PMOS transistors and high voltage bipolar transistor
CA3140 has gate protected MOSFETs (PMOS) transistors in the input circuit to provide very high input impedance typically around 1.5T Ohms.
The IC requires very low input current as low as 10pA to change the output status, high or low. The IC has very fast response and high speed of performance. The output stage of the IC uses bipolar transistors and includes built in protection against damage from load terminal short circuiting to either supply rails or to ground.
The use of PMOS FET in the input stage results in common mode input voltage capabilities down to 0.5 volts below the negative supply terminals. These operational amplifiers are internally phase compensated to achieve stable operation in unity gain follower operation, and additionally, have access terminal for a supplementary external capacitor if additional frequency roll-off is desired. Terminals are also provided for use in applications requiring input offset voltage Nulling. 6 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
7 WORKING: - Dealing first with the oscillator, the non -inverting input of the CA3140E has a potential which is con- trolled by R12, R14 and R13. All of these resistors have the same value of with the result that, if the output of the op -amp is high the voltage at the non - inverting input is two-thirds of the supply voltage and, if the output is low, the non -inverting input voltage is one-third of supply voltage. Capacitor C is con- nected between the inverting input and the negative rail. Immediately after switch -on it will be discharged, whereupon the op -amp output will be high. The capacitor charges via R4 until the voltage across it reaches and marginally passes two-thirds of the sup- ply voltage. The op -amp output will then swing low, whereupon the capacitor discharges via R4, R5 and the now forward biased D1 until the voltage across it falls to very slightly less than one-third of the supply voltage.
We know that, on the most sensitive range, the output voltage will be 200mV when C is 200pF. By examining fig.2 we can calculate the corresponding peak to peak input voltage to the full wave rectifier. Consider an input voltage V1 of -1 volt. The output of Q2 would go positive, reverse biasing D1 and forward biasing D2. The circuit is now effectively an inverting amplifier with a gain of R/2R = 0.5, the output voltage will be +0.5 volts. Consider an input voltage V1 of +1 volt. The output of Q2 would go negative, reverse biasing D2 and forward biasing Dl. The virtual earth at the input of Q2 will be maintained by feedback through DI. Provided the output load resistance of the following stage is large R, then the output voltage will be set by the potential divider action of the two resistors R. The output voltage will again be + 0.5 volts. Thus the circuit is a precision full wave rectifier. The value of the feedback resistors, R12 and R14 are low relative to the reactance of the diode capacitance so that the rectification action is precise even at very small input voltages. The lowest value of the resistors will be determined by the drive current available from the Op-Amp and the maximum output voltage. Therefore R14min. = 0.2/2 k = 100 ohm. However the preceding stage also has to provide this current and also the current to its own feedback path. We know the output voltage will be 800 mV peak to peak. When C is 200 pF R8 1 M Ohm. now calculate the rate of change of voltage from the integrator IC la. the capacitor C3 limits the gain of IC 1c at high frequencies and suppresses tinging on the output square wave. The resistors, R5, R6, and R7 provide a ± 10 mV offset adjustment to ensure the average voltage into the precision rectifier is zero.
8 MULTISIM SIMULATION: -
9 COST ESTIMATION Name Number of components Cost ($) Capacitors 10 1.3 LEDs 2 0.1 Resistors 13 0.7 Variable Resistor 3 0.2 battery 1 1 CA3140 IC 1 0.35 Diodes 2 0.1 Vero board design 1 1 TL074 4 1.4 switch 2 0.5 Total cost 6.65
10 ADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS: -
It used to measure tiny capacitors or stray capacitances in switches, connectors and wiring.
11 CONCLUSION: - The completed adaptor found to have excellent linearity and accuracy. Despite the simplicity of its design it give results that are more than accurate for normal amateur requirements. 12 REFERENCES: -
I. https://www.amazon.com II. https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-Radio- Constructor/80s/RC-1980-07.pdf
Star Delta Starter Circuit Comes in Circuit First During Starting of Motor, Which Reduces Voltage 3 Times, That Is Why Current Also Reduces Up To 3 Times and Hence Less Motor Burning Is Caused
Star Delta Starter Circuit Comes in Circuit First During Starting of Motor, Which Reduces Voltage 3 Times, That Is Why Current Also Reduces Up To 3 Times and Hence Less Motor Burning Is Caused
