Mining

Surface coal mining

Sulfur miner with 90 kg of sulfur carried from the floor of the Ijen Volcano
(2015)

Simplified world active mining map

Mining is the extraction of valuable minerals or other

geological materials from the Earth, usually from an ore
body, lode, vein, seam, reef or placer deposit. These
deposits form a mineralized package that is of economic
interest to the miner.

Ores recovered by mining include metals, coal, oil shale,

gemstones, limestone, chalk, dimension stone, rock salt,
potash, gravel, and clay. Mining is required to obtain any
material that cannot be grown through agricultural
processes, or feasibly created artificially in a laboratory or
factory. Mining in a wider sense includes extraction of any
non-renewable resource such as petroleum, natural gas, or
even water.

Mining of stones and metal has been a human activity since

pre-historic times. Modern mining processes involve
prospecting for ore bodies, analysis of the profit potential of
a proposed mine, extraction of the desired materials, and
final reclamation of the land after the mine is closed. De Re
Metallica, Georgius Agricola, 1550, Book I, Para. 1[1]

Mining operations usually create a negative environmental

impact, both during the mining activity and after the mine
has closed. Hence, most of the world's nations have passed
regulations to decrease the impact. Work safety has long
been a concern as well, and modern practices have
significantly improved safety in mines.

Levels of metal recycling are generally low. Unless future

end-of-life recycling rates are stepped up, some rare metals
may become unavailable for use in a variety of consumer
products. Due to the low recycling rates, some landfills now
contain higher concentrations of metal than mines
themselves.[2]

History
Prehistoric mining

Chalcolithic copper mine in Timna Valley, Negev Desert

Since the beginning of civilization, people have used stone,

ceramics and, later, metals found close to the Earth's
surface. These were used to make early tools and weapons;
for example, high quality flint found in northern France,
southern England and Poland was used to create flint
tools.[3] Flint mines have been found in chalk areas where
seams of the stone were followed underground by shafts
and galleries. The mines at Grimes Graves and Krzemionki
are especially famous, and like most other flint mines, are
Neolithic in origin (c. 4000–3000 BC). Other hard rocks
mined or collected for axes included the greenstone of the
Langdale axe industry based in the English Lake District.
Diorama of traditional mining at Philippine National Museum.

The oldest-known mine on archaeological record is the

Ngwenya Mine in Eswatini (Swaziland), which radiocarbon
dating shows to be about 43,000 years old. At this site
Paleolithic humans mined hematite to make the red
pigment ochre.[4][5] Mines of a similar age in Hungary are
believed to be sites where Neanderthals may have mined
flint for weapons and tools.[6]

Ancient Egypt

Ancient Egyptians mined malachite at Maadi.[7] At first,

Egyptians used the bright green malachite stones for
ornamentations and pottery. Later, between 2613 and 2494
BC, large building projects required expeditions abroad to
the area of Wadi Maghareh in order to secure minerals and
other resources not available in Egypt itself.[8] Quarries for
turquoise and copper were also found at Wadi Hammamat,
Tura, Aswan and various other Nubian sites on the Sinai
Peninsula and at Timna.[8]

Mining in Egypt occurred in the earliest dynasties. The gold

mines of Nubia were among the largest and most extensive
of any in Ancient Egypt. These mines are described by the
Greek author Diodorus Siculus, who mentions fire-setting as
one method used to break down the hard rock holding the
gold. One of the complexes is shown in one of the earliest
known maps. The miners crushed the ore and ground it to a
fine powder before washing the powder for the gold dust.

Ancient Greek and Roman mining

Ancient Roman development of the Dolaucothi Gold Mines, Wales

Mining in Europe has a very long history. Examples include

the silver mines of Laurium, which helped support the Greek
city state of Athens. Although they had over 20,000 slaves
working them, their technology was essentially identical to
their Bronze Age predecessors.[9] At other mines, such as
on the island of Thassos, marble was quarried by the
Parians after they arrived in the 7th century BC.[10] The
marble was shipped away and was later found by
archaeologists to have been used in buildings including the
tomb of Amphipolis. Philip II of Macedon, the father of
Alexander the Great, captured the gold mines of Mount
Pangeo in 357 BC to fund his military campaigns.[11] He
also captured gold mines in Thrace for minting coinage,
eventually producing 26 tons per year.

However, it was the Romans who developed large scale

mining methods, especially the use of large volumes of
water brought to the minehead by numerous aqueducts.
The water was used for a variety of purposes, including
removing overburden and rock debris, called hydraulic
mining, as well as washing comminuted, or crushed, ores
and driving simple machinery.

The Romans used hydraulic mining methods on a large

scale to prospect for the veins of ore, especially a now-
obsolete form of mining known as hushing. They built
numerous aqueducts to supply water to the minehead.
There, the water stored in large reservoirs and tanks. When
a full tank was opened, the flood of water sluiced away the
overburden to expose the bedrock underneath and any gold
veins. The rock was then worked upon by fire-setting to heat
the rock, which would be quenched with a stream of water.
The resulting thermal shock cracked the rock, enabling it to
be removed by further streams of water from the overhead
tanks. The Roman miners used similar methods to work
cassiterite deposits in Cornwall and lead ore in the
Pennines.
The methods had been developed by the Romans in Spain
in 25 AD to exploit large alluvial gold deposits, the largest
site being at Las Medulas, where seven long aqueducts
tapped local rivers and sluiced the deposits. Spain was one
of the most important mining regions, but all regions of the
Roman Empire were exploited. In Great Britain the natives
had mined minerals for millennia,[12] but after the Roman
conquest, the scale of the operations increased
dramatically, as the Romans needed Britannia's resources,
especially gold, silver, tin, and lead.

Roman techniques were not limited to surface mining. They

followed the ore veins underground once opencast mining
was no longer feasible. At Dolaucothi they stoped out the
veins and drove adits through bare rock to drain the stopes.
The same adits were also used to ventilate the workings,
especially important when fire-setting was used. At other
parts of the site, they penetrated the water table and
dewatered the mines using several kinds of machines,
especially reverse overshot water-wheels. These were used
extensively in the copper mines at Rio Tinto in Spain, where
one sequence comprised 16 such wheels arranged in pairs,
and lifting water about 24 metres (79 ft). They were worked
as treadmills with miners standing on the top slats. Many
examples of such devices have been found in old Roman
mines and some examples are now preserved in the British
Museum and the National Museum of Wales.[13]
Medieval Europe

Agricola, author of De Re Metallica

Gallery, 12th to 13th century, Germany

Mining as an industry underwent dramatic changes in

medieval Europe. The mining industry in the early Middle
Ages was mainly focused on the extraction of copper and
iron. Other precious metals were also used, mainly for
gilding or coinage. Initially, many metals were obtained
through open-pit mining, and ore was primarily extracted
from shallow depths, rather than through deep mine shafts.
Around the 14th century, the growing use of weapons,
armour, stirrups, and horseshoes greatly increased the
demand for iron. Medieval knights, for example, were often
laden with up to 100 pounds (45 kg) of plate or chain link
armour in addition to swords, lances and other weapons.[14]
The overwhelming dependency on iron for military purposes
spurred iron production and extraction processes.

The silver crisis of 1465 occurred when all mines had

reached depths at which the shafts could no longer be
pumped dry with the available technology.[15] Although an
increased use of banknotes, credit and copper coins during
this period did decrease the value of, and dependence on,
precious metals, gold and silver still remained vital to the
story of medieval mining.

Due to differences in the social structure of society, the

increasing extraction of mineral deposits spread from
central Europe to England in the mid-sixteenth century. On
the continent, mineral deposits belonged to the crown, and
this regalian right was stoutly maintained. But in England,
royal mining rights were restricted to gold and silver (of
which England had virtually no deposits) by a judicial
decision of 1568 and a law in 1688. England had iron, zinc,
copper, lead, and tin ores. Landlords who owned the base
metals and coal under their estates then had a strong
inducement to extract these metals or to lease the deposits
and collect royalties from mine operators. English, German,
and Dutch capital combined to finance extraction and
refining. Hundreds of German technicians and skilled
workers were brought over; in 1642 a colony of 4,000
foreigners was mining and smelting copper at Keswick in
the northwestern mountains.[16]

Use of water power in the form of water mills was

extensive. The water mills were employed in crushing ore,
raising ore from shafts, and ventilating galleries by
powering giant bellows. Black powder was first used in
mining in Selmecbánya, Kingdom of Hungary (now Banská
Štiavnica, Slovakia) in 1627.[17] Black powder allowed
blasting of rock and earth to loosen and reveal ore veins.
Blasting was much faster than fire-setting and allowed the
mining of previously impenetrable metals and ores.[18] In
1762, the world's first mining academy was established in
the same town there.

The widespread adoption of agricultural innovations such

as the iron plowshare, as well as the growing use of metal
as a building material, was also a driving force in the
tremendous growth of the iron industry during this period.
Inventions like the arrastra were often used by the Spanish
to pulverize ore after being mined. This device was powered
by animals and used the same principles used for grain
threshing.[19]

Much of the knowledge of medieval mining techniques

comes from books such as Biringuccio’s De la pirotechnia
and probably most importantly from Georg Agricola's De re
metallica (1556). These books detail many different mining
methods used in German and Saxon mines. A prime issue in
medieval mines, which Agricola explains in detail, was the
removal of water from mining shafts. As miners dug deeper
to access new veins, flooding became a very real obstacle.
The mining industry became dramatically more efficient
and prosperous with the invention of mechanical and
animal driven pumps.

Classical Philippine civilization

The image of a Maharlika class of the Philippine Society, depicted in Boxer

Codex that the Gold used as a form of Jewelry (ca.1400).

Mining in the Philippines began around 1000 BC. The early

Filipinos worked various mines of gold, silver, copper and
iron. Jewels, gold ingots, chains, calombigas and earrings
were handed down from antiquity and inherited from their
ancestors. Gold dagger handles, gold dishes, tooth plating,
and huge gold ornaments were also used.[20] In Laszlo
Legeza's "Tantric elements in pre-Hispanic Philippines Gold
Art", he mentioned that gold jewelry of Philippine origin was
found in Ancient Egypt.[20] According to Antonio Pigafetta,
the people of Mindoro possessed great skill in mixing gold
with other metals and gave it a natural and perfect
appearance that could deceive even the best of
silversmiths.[20] The natives were also known for the pieces
of jewelry made of other precious stones such as carnelian,
agate and pearl. Some outstanding examples of Philippine
jewelry included necklaces, belts, armlets and rings placed
around the waist.

The Americas

Lead mining in the upper Mississippi River region of the U.S., 1865.

During prehistoric times, large amounts of copper was

mined along Lake Superior's Keweenaw Peninsula and in
nearby Isle Royale; metallic copper was still present near
the surface in colonial times.[21][22][23] Indigenous peoples
used Lake Superior copper from at least 5,000 years ago;[21]
copper tools, arrowheads, and other artifacts that were part
of an extensive native trade network have been discovered.
In addition, obsidian, flint, and other minerals were mined,
worked, and traded.[22] Early French explorers who
encountered the sites made no use of the metals due to the
difficulties of transporting them,[22] but the copper was
eventually traded throughout the continent along major river
routes.
Miners at the Tamarack Mine in Copper Country, Michigan, U.S. in 1905.

In the early colonial history of the Americas, "native gold

and silver was quickly expropriated and sent back to Spain
in fleets of gold- and silver-laden galleons,"[24] the gold and
silver originating mostly from mines in Central and South
America. Turquoise dated at 700 AD was mined in pre-
Columbian America; in the Cerillos Mining District in New
Mexico, estimates are that "about 15,000 tons of rock had
been removed from Mt. Chalchihuitl using stone tools
before 1700."[25][26]

In 1727, Louis Denys (Denis) (1675–1741), sieur de La

Ronde – brother of Simon-Pierre Denys de Bonaventure and
the son-in-law of René Chartier – took command of Fort La
Pointe at Chequamegon Bay; where natives informed him of
an island of copper. La Ronde obtained permission from the
French crown to operate mines in 1733, becoming "the first
practical miner on Lake Superior"; seven years later, mining
was halted by an outbreak between Sioux and Chippewa
tribes.[27]

Mining in the United States became prevalent in the 19th

century, and the General Mining Act of 1872 was passed to
encourage mining of federal lands.[28] As with the California
Gold Rush in the mid-19th century, mining for minerals and
precious metals, along with ranching, was a driving factor in
the Westward Expansion to the Pacific coast. With the
exploration of the West, mining camps were established
and "expressed a distinctive spirit, an enduring legacy to the
new nation;" Gold Rushers would experience the same
problems as the Land Rushers of the transient West that
preceded them.[29] Aided by railroads, many traveled West
for work opportunities in mining. Western cities such as
Denver and Sacramento originated as mining towns.

When new areas were explored, it was usually the gold

(placer and then lode) and then silver that were taken into
possession and extracted first. Other metals would often
wait for railroads or canals, as coarse gold dust and
nuggets do not require smelting and are easy to identify and
transport.[23]

Modern period

View showing miners' clothes suspended by pulleys, also wash basins and
ventilation system, Kirkland Lake, Ontario, 1936.
In the early 20th century, the gold and silver rush to the
western United States also stimulated mining for coal as
well as base metals such as copper, lead, and iron. Areas in
modern Montana, Utah, Arizona, and later Alaska became
predominate suppliers of copper to the world, which was
increasingly demanding copper for electrical and
households goods.[30] Canada's mining industry grew more
slowly than did the United States' due to limitations in
transportation, capital, and U.S. competition; Ontario was
the major producer of the early 20th century with nickel,
copper, and gold.[30]

Meanwhile, Australia experienced the Australian gold

rushes and by the 1850s was producing 40% of the world's
gold, followed by the establishment of large mines such as
the Mount Morgan Mine, which ran for nearly a hundred
years, Broken Hill ore deposit (one of the largest zinc-lead
ore deposits), and the iron ore mines at Iron Knob. After
declines in production, another boom in mining occurred in
the 1960s. Now, in the early 21st century, Australia remains
a major world mineral producer.[31]

As the 21st century begins, a globalized mining industry of

large multinational corporations has arisen. Peak minerals
and environmental impacts have also become a concern.
Different elements, particularly rare earth minerals, have
begun to increase in demand as a result of new
technologies.
Mine development and life cycle
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Schematic of a cut and fill mining operation in hard rock.

The process of mining from discovery of an ore body

through extraction of minerals and finally to returning the
land to its natural state consists of several distinct steps.
The first is discovery of the ore body, which is carried out
through prospecting or exploration to find and then define
the extent, location and value of the ore body. This leads to
a mathematical resource estimation to estimate the size
and grade of the deposit.

This estimation is used to conduct a pre-feasibility study to

determine the theoretical economics of the ore deposit.
This identifies, early on, whether further investment in
estimation and engineering studies is warranted and
identifies key risks and areas for further work. The next step
is to conduct a feasibility study to evaluate the financial
viability, the technical and financial risks, and the
robustness of the project.

This is when the mining company makes the decision

whether to develop the mine or to walk away from the
project. This includes mine planning to evaluate the
economically recoverable portion of the deposit, the
metallurgy and ore recoverability, marketability and
payability of the ore concentrates, engineering concerns,
milling and infrastructure costs, finance and equity
requirements, and an analysis of the proposed mine from
the initial excavation all the way through to reclamation. The
proportion of a deposit that is economically recoverable is
dependent on the enrichment factor of the ore in the area.

To gain access to the mineral deposit within an area it is

often necessary to mine through or remove waste material
which is not of immediate interest to the miner. The total
movement of ore and waste constitutes the mining process.
Often more waste than ore is mined during the life of a
mine, depending on the nature and location of the ore body.
Waste removal and placement is a major cost to the mining
operator, so a detailed characterization of the waste
material forms an essential part of the geological
exploration program for a mining operation.

Once the analysis determines a given ore body is worth

recovering, development begins to create access to the ore
body. The mine buildings and processing plants are built,
and any necessary equipment is obtained. The operation of
the mine to recover the ore begins and continues as long as
the company operating the mine finds it economical to do
so. Once all the ore that the mine can produce profitably is
recovered, reclamation begins to make the land used by the
mine suitable for future use.

Mining techniques

Underground longwall mining.

Mining techniques can be divided into two common

excavation types: surface mining and sub-surface
(underground) mining. Today, surface mining is much more
common, and produces, for example, 85% of minerals
(excluding petroleum and natural gas) in the United States,
including 98% of metallic ores.[32]

Targets are divided into two general categories of materials:

placer deposits, consisting of valuable minerals contained
within river gravels, beach sands, and other unconsolidated
materials; and lode deposits, where valuable minerals are
found in veins, in layers, or in mineral grains generally
distributed throughout a mass of actual rock. Both types of
ore deposit, placer or lode, are mined by both surface and
underground methods.

Some mining, including much of the rare earth elements

and uranium mining, is done by less-common methods,
such as in-situ leaching: this technique involves digging
neither at the surface nor underground. The extraction of
target minerals by this technique requires that they be
soluble, e.g., potash, potassium chloride, sodium chloride,
sodium sulfate, which dissolve in water. Some minerals,
such as copper minerals and uranium oxide, require acid or
carbonate solutions to dissolve.[33][34]

Surface mining

Surface mining is done by removing (stripping) surface

vegetation, dirt, and, if necessary, layers of bedrock in order
to reach buried ore deposits. Techniques of surface mining
include: open-pit mining, which is the recovery of materials
from an open pit in the ground, quarrying, identical to open-
pit mining except that it refers to sand, stone and clay;[35]
strip mining, which consists of stripping surface layers off
to reveal ore/seams underneath; and mountaintop removal,
commonly associated with coal mining, which involves
taking the top of a mountain off to reach ore deposits at
depth. Most (but not all) placer deposits, because of their
shallowly buried nature, are mined by surface methods.
Finally, landfill mining involves sites where landfills are
excavated and processed.[36] Landfill mining has been
thought of as a solution to dealing with long-term methane
emissions and local pollution[37]
Garzweiler surface mine, Germany

High-Wall Mining

High wall mining is another form of surface mining that

evolved from auger mining. In high wall mining, the coal
seam is penetrated by a continuous miner propelled by a
hydraulic Push-beam Transfer Mechanism (PTM). A typical
cycle includes sumping (launch-pushing forward) and
shearing (raising and lowering the cutter-head boom to cut
the entire height of the coal seam). As the coal recovery
cycle continues, the cutter-head is progressively launched
into the coal seam for 19.72 feet (6.01 m). Then, the Push-
beam Transfer Mechanism (PTM) automatically inserts a
19.72-foot (6.01 m) long rectangular Push-beam (Screw-
Conveyor Segment) into the center section of the machine
between the Powerhead and the cutter-head. The Push-
beam system can penetrate nearly 1,000 feet (300 m) into
the coal seam. One patented high wall mining system uses
augers enclosed inside the Push-beam that prevent the
mined coal from being contaminated by rock debris during
the conveyance process. Using a video imaging and/or a
gamma ray sensor and/or other Geo-Radar systems like a
coal-rock interface detection sensor (CID), the operator can
see ahead projection of the seam-rock interface and guide
the continuous miner's progress. High wall mining can
produce thousands of tons of coal in contour-strip
operations with narrow benches, previously mined areas,
trench mine applications and steep-dip seams with
controlled water-inflow pump system and/or a gas (inert)
venting system.

Underground mining

Mantrip used for transporting miners within an underground mine

Sub-surface mining consists of digging tunnels or shafts

into the earth to reach buried ore deposits. Ore, for
processing, and waste rock, for disposal, are brought to the
surface through the tunnels and shafts. Sub-surface mining
can be classified by the type of access shafts used, the
extraction method or the technique used to reach the
mineral deposit. Drift mining utilizes horizontal access
tunnels, slope mining uses diagonally sloping access
shafts, and shaft mining utilizes vertical access shafts.
Mining in hard and soft rock formations require different
techniques.
Other methods include shrinkage stope mining, which is
mining upward, creating a sloping underground room, long
wall mining, which is grinding a long ore surface
underground, and room and pillar mining, which is removing
ore from rooms while leaving pillars in place to support the
roof of the room. Room and pillar mining often leads to
retreat mining, in which supporting pillars are removed as
miners retreat, allowing the room to cave in, thereby
loosening more ore. Additional sub-surface mining methods
include hard rock mining, which is mining of hard rock
(igneous, metamorphic or sedimentary) materials, bore hole
mining, drift and fill mining, long hole slope mining, sub level
caving, and block caving.

Caterpillar Highwall Miner HW300 – Technology Bridging Underground and

Open Pit Mining

Machines

The Bagger 288 is a bucket-wheel excavator used in strip mining. It is also

one of the largest land vehicles of all time.
A Bucyrus Erie 2570 dragline and CAT 797 haul truck at the North Antelope
Rochelle opencut coal mine

Heavy machinery is used in mining to explore and develop

sites, to remove and stockpile overburden, to break and
remove rocks of various hardness and toughness, to
process the ore, and to carry out reclamation projects after
the mine is closed. Bulldozers, drills, explosives and trucks
are all necessary for excavating the land. In the case of
placer mining, unconsolidated gravel, or alluvium, is fed into
machinery consisting of a hopper and a shaking screen or
trommel which frees the desired minerals from the waste
gravel. The minerals are then concentrated using sluices or
jigs.

Large drills are used to sink shafts, excavate stopes, and

obtain samples for analysis. Trams are used to transport
miners, minerals and waste. Lifts carry miners into and out
of mines, and move rock and ore out, and machinery in and
out, of underground mines. Huge trucks, shovels and cranes
are employed in surface mining to move large quantities of
overburden and ore. Processing plants utilize large
crushers, mills, reactors, roasters and other equipment to
consolidate the mineral-rich material and extract the desired
compounds and metals from the ore.

Processing
Once the mineral is extracted, it is often then processed.
The science of extractive metallurgy is a specialized area in
the science of metallurgy that studies the extraction of
valuable metals from their ores, especially through chemical
or mechanical means.

Mineral processing (or mineral dressing) is a specialized

area in the science of metallurgy that studies the
mechanical means of crushing, grinding, and washing that
enable the separation (extractive metallurgy) of valuable
metals or minerals from their gangue (waste material).
Processing of placer ore material consists of gravity-
dependent methods of separation, such as sluice boxes.
Only minor shaking or washing may be necessary to
disaggregate (unclump) the sands or gravels before
processing. Processing of ore from a lode mine, whether it
is a surface or subsurface mine, requires that the rock ore
be crushed and pulverized before extraction of the valuable
minerals begins. After lode ore is crushed, recovery of the
valuable minerals is done by one, or a combination of
several, mechanical and chemical techniques.

Since most metals are present in ores as oxides or sulfides,

the metal needs to be reduced to its metallic form. This can
be accomplished through chemical means such as smelting
or through electrolytic reduction, as in the case of
aluminium. Geometallurgy combines the geologic sciences
with extractive metallurgy and mining.

In 2018, led by Chemistry and Biochemistry professor

Bradley D. Smith, University of Notre Dame researchers
"invented a new class of molecules whose shape and size
enable them to capture and contain precious metal ions,"
reported in a study published by the Journal of the
American Chemical Society. The new method "converts
gold-containing ore into chloroauric acid and extracts it
using an industrial solvent. The container molecules are
able to selectively separate the gold from the solvent
without the use of water stripping." The newly developed
molecules can eliminate water stripping, whereas mining
traditionally "relies on a 125-year-old method that treats
gold-containing ore with large quantities of poisonous
sodium cyanide... this new process has a milder
environmental impact and that, besides gold, it can be used
for capturing other metals such as platinum and palladium,"
and could also be used in urban mining processes that
remove precious metals from wastewater streams.[38]

Environmental e�ects
 Iron h
surfac

Environmental issues can include erosion, formation of

sinkholes, loss of biodiversity, and contamination of soil,
groundwater and surface water by chemicals from mining
processes. In some cases, additional forest logging is done
in the vicinity of mines to create space for the storage of the
created debris and soil.[39] Contamination resulting from
leakage of chemicals can also affect the health of the local
population if not properly controlled.[40] Extreme examples
of pollution from mining activities include coal fires, which
can last for years or even decades, producing massive
amounts of environmental damage.

Mining companies in most countries are required to follow

stringent environmental and rehabilitation codes in order to
minimize environmental impact and avoid impacting human
health. These codes and regulations all require the common
steps of environmental impact assessment, development of
environmental management plans, mine closure planning
(which must be done before the start of mining operations),
and environmental monitoring during operation and after
closure. However, in some areas, particularly in the
developing world, government regulations may not be well
enforced.

For major mining companies and any company seeking

international financing, there are a number of other
mechanisms to enforce environmental standards. These
generally relate to financing standards such as the Equator
Principles, IFC environmental standards, and criteria for
Socially responsible investing. Mining companies have used
this oversight from the financial sector to argue for some
level of industry self-regulation.[41] In 1992, a Draft Code of
Conduct for Transnational Corporations was proposed at
the Rio Earth Summit by the UN Centre for Transnational
Corporations (UNCTC), but the Business Council for
Sustainable Development (BCSD) together with the
International Chamber of Commerce (ICC) argued
successfully for self-regulation instead.[42]

This was followed by the Global Mining Initiative which was

begun by nine of the largest metals and mining companies
and which led to the formation of the International Council
on Mining and Metals, whose purpose was to "act as a
catalyst" in an effort to improve social and environmental
performance in the mining and metals industry
internationally.[41] The mining industry has provided funding
to various conservation groups, some of which have been
working with conservation agendas that are at odds with an
emerging acceptance of the rights of indigenous people –
particularly the right to make land-use decisions.[43]

Certification of mines with good practices occurs through

the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). For
example, ISO 9000 and ISO 14001, which certify an
"auditable environmental management system", involve
short inspections, although they have been accused of
lacking rigor.[41]:183–84 Certification is also available through
Ceres' Global Reporting Initiative, but these reports are
voluntary and unverified. Miscellaneous other certification
programs exist for various projects, typically through
nonprofit groups.[41]:185–86

The purpose of a 2012 EPS PEAKS paper[44] was to provide

evidence on policies managing ecological costs and
maximise socio-economic benefits of mining using host
country regulatory initiatives. It found existing literature
suggesting donors encourage developing countries to:

Make the environment-poverty link and introduce cutting-

edge wealth measures and natural capital accounts.
Reform old taxes in line with more recent financial
innovation, engage directly with the companies, enacting
land use and impact assessments, and incorporate
specialised support and standards agencies.
Set in play transparency and community participation
initiatives using the wealth accrued.

Waste
Ore mills generate large amounts of waste, called tailings.
For example, 99 tons of waste are generated per ton of
copper, with even higher ratios in gold mining – because
only 5.3 g of gold is extracted per ton of ore, a ton of gold
produces 200,000 tons of tailings.[45] (As time goes on and
richer deposits are exhausted – and technology improves to
permit – this number is going down to .5 g and less.) These
tailings can be toxic. Tailings, which are usually produced as
a slurry, are most commonly dumped into ponds made from
naturally existing valleys.[46] These ponds are secured by
impoundments (dams or embankment dams).[46] In 2000 it
was estimated that 3,500 tailings impoundments existed,
and that every year, 2 to 5 major failures and 35 minor
failures occurred;[47] for example, in the Marcopper mining
disaster at least 2 million tons of tailings were released into
a local river.[47] In 2015, Barrick Gold spilled over 1 million
liters of cyanide into a total of five rivers in Argentina near
their Veladero mine.[48] In central Finland, Talvivaara
Terrafame polymetal mine waste effluent since 2008 and
numerous leaks of saline mine water has resulted in
ecological collapse of nearby lake.[49] Subaqueous tailings
disposal is another option.[46] The mining industry has
argued that submarine tailings disposal (STD), which
disposes of tailings in the sea, is ideal because it avoids the
risks of tailings ponds; although the practice is illegal in the
United States and Canada, it is used in the developing
world.[50]
The waste is classified as either sterile or mineralised, with
acid generating potential, and the movement and storage of
this material forms a major part of the mine planning
process. When the mineralised package is determined by an
economic cut-off, the near-grade mineralised waste is
usually dumped separately with view to later treatment
should market conditions change and it becomes
economically viable. Civil engineering design parameters
are used in the design of the waste dumps, and special
conditions apply to high-rainfall areas and to seismically
active areas. Waste dump designs must meet all regulatory
requirements of the country in whose jurisdiction the mine
is located. It is also common practice to rehabilitate dumps
to an internationally acceptable standard, which in some
cases means that higher standards than the local regulatory
standard are applied.[47]

Renewable energy and mining

Many mining sites are remote and not connected to the

grid. Electricity is typically generated with diesel generators.
Due to high transportation cost and theft during
transportation the cost for generating electricity is normally
high. Renewable energy applications are becoming an
alternative or amendment. Both solar and wind power
plants can contribute in saving diesel costs at mining sites.
Renewable energy applications have been built at mining
sites.[51] Cost savings can reach up to 70%.[52]

Mining industry
Mining exists in many countries. London is known as the
capital of global "mining houses" such as Rio Tinto Group,
BHP Billiton, and Anglo American PLC.[53] The US mining
industry is also large, but it is dominated by the coal and
other nonmetal minerals (e.g., rock and sand), and various
regulations have worked to reduce the significance of
mining in the United States.[53] In 2007 the total market
capitalization of mining companies was reported at
US$962 billion, which compares to a total global market cap
of publicly traded companies of about US$50 trillion in
2007.[54] In 2002, Chile and Peru were reportedly the major
mining countries of South America.[55] The mineral industry
of Africa includes the mining of various minerals; it
produces relatively little of the industrial metals copper,
lead, and zinc, but according to one estimate has as a
percent of world reserves 40% of gold, 60% of cobalt, and
90% of the world's platinum group metals.[56] Mining in India
is a significant part of that country's economy. In the
developed world, mining in Australia, with BHP Billiton
founded and headquartered in the country, and mining in
Canada are particularly significant. For rare earth minerals
mining, China reportedly controlled 95% of production in
2013.[57]
The Bingham Canyon Mine of Rio Tinto's subsidiary, Kennecott Utah Copper.

While exploration and mining can be conducted by

individual entrepreneurs or small businesses, most modern-
day mines are large enterprises requiring large amounts of
capital to establish. Consequently, the mining sector of the
industry is dominated by large, often multinational,
companies, most of them publicly listed. It can be argued
that what is referred to as the 'mining industry' is actually
two sectors, one specializing in exploration for new
resources and the other in mining those resources. The
exploration sector is typically made up of individuals and
small mineral resource companies, called "juniors", which
are dependent on venture capital. The mining sector is
made up of large multinational companies that are
sustained by production from their mining operations.
Various other industries such as equipment manufacture,
environmental testing, and metallurgy analysis rely on, and
support, the mining industry throughout the world. Canadian
stock exchanges have a particular focus on mining
companies, particularly junior exploration companies
through Toronto's TSX Venture Exchange; Canadian
companies raise capital on these exchanges and then
invest the money in exploration globally.[53] Some have
argued that below juniors there exists a substantial sector
of illegitimate companies primarily focused on manipulating
stock prices.[53]

Mining operations can be grouped into five major

categories in terms of their respective resources. These are
oil and gas extraction, coal mining, metal ore mining,
nonmetallic mineral mining and quarrying, and mining
support activities.[58] Of all of these categories, oil and gas
extraction remains one of the largest in terms of its global
economic importance. Prospecting potential mining sites, a
vital area of concern for the mining industry, is now done
using sophisticated new technologies such as seismic
prospecting and remote-sensing satellites. Mining is heavily
affected by the prices of the commodity minerals, which are
often volatile. The 2000s commodities boom ("commodities
supercycle") increased the prices of commodities, driving
aggressive mining. In addition, the price of gold increased
dramatically in the 2000s, which increased gold mining; for
example, one study found that conversion of forest in the
Amazon increased six-fold from the period 2003–2006 (292
ha/yr) to the period 2006–2009 (1,915 ha/yr), largely due to
artisanal mining.[59]

Corporate classifications

Mining companies can be classified based on their size and

financial capabilities:

Major companies are considered to have an adjusted

annual mining-related revenue of more than US$500
million, with the financial capability to develop a major
mine on its own.
Intermediate companies have at least $50 million in
annual revenue but less than $500 million.
Junior companies rely on equity financing as their
principal means of funding exploration. Juniors are
mainly pure exploration companies, but may also produce
minimally, and do not have a revenue exceeding
US$50 million.[60]

Regulation and governance

New regulations and a process of legislative reforms aim to

improve the harmonization and stability of the mining
sector in mineral-rich countries.[61] New legislation for
mining industry in African countries still appears to be an
issue, but has the potential to be solved, when a consensus
is reached on the best approach.[62] By the beginning of the
21st century the booming and increasingly complex mining
sector in mineral-rich countries was providing only slight
benefits to local communities, especially in given the
sustainability issues. Increasing debate and influence by
NGOs and local communities called for a new approaches
which would also include disadvantaged communities, and
work towards sustainable development even after mine
closure (including transparency and revenue management).
By the early 2000s, community development issues and
resettlements became mainstream concerns in World Bank
mining projects.[62] Mining-industry expansion after mineral
prices increased in 2003 and also potential fiscal revenues
in those countries created an omission in the other
economic sectors in terms of finances and development.
Furthermore, this highlighted regional and local demand for
mining revenues and an inability of sub-national
governments to effectively use the revenues. The Fraser
Institute (a Canadian think tank) has highlighted the
environmental protection laws in developing countries, as
well as voluntary efforts by mining companies to improve
their environmental impact.[63]

In 2007 the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative

(EITI) was mainstreamed in all countries cooperating with
the World Bank in mining industry reform.[62] The EITI
operates and was implemented with the support of the EITI
multi-donor trust fund, managed by the World Bank.[64] The
EITI aims to increase transparency in transactions between
governments and companies in extractive industries[65] by
monitoring the revenues and benefits between industries
and recipient governments. The entrance process is
voluntary for each country and is monitored by multiple
stakeholders including governments, private companies and
civil society representatives, responsible for disclosure and
dissemination of the reconciliation report;[62] however, the
competitive disadvantage of company-by company public
report is for some of the businesses in Ghana at least, the
main constraint.[66] Therefore, the outcome assessment in
terms of failure or success of the new EITI regulation does
not only "rest on the government's shoulders" but also on
civil society and companies.[67]

On the other hand, implementation has issues; inclusion or

exclusion of artisanal mining and small-scale mining (ASM)
from the EITI and how to deal with "non-cash" payments
made by companies to subnational governments.
Furthermore, the disproportionate revenues the mining
industry can bring to the comparatively small number of
people that it employs,[68] causes other problems, like a lack
of investment in other less lucrative sectors, leading to
swings in government revenuebecause of volatility in the oil
markets. Artisanal mining is clearly an issue in EITI
Countries such as the Central African Republic, D.R. Congo,
Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone – i.e. almost half of the
mining countries implementing the EITI.[68] Among other
things, limited scope of the EITI involving disparity in terms
of knowledge of the industry and negotiation skills, thus far
flexibility of the policy (e.g. liberty of the countries to
expand beyond the minimum requirements and adapt it to
their needs), creates another risk of unsuccessful
implementation. Public awareness increase, where
government should act as a bridge between public and
initiative for a successful outcome of the policy is an
important element to be considered.[69]

World Bank

The World Bank has been involved in mining since 1955,

mainly through grants from its International Bank for
Reconstruction and Development, with the Bank's
Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency offering political
risk insurance.[70] Between 1955 and 1990 it provided about
$2 billion to fifty mining projects, broadly categorized as
reform and rehabilitation, greenfield mine construction,
mineral processing, technical assistance, and engineering.
These projects have been criticized, particularly the Ferro
Carajas project of Brazil, begun in 1981.[71] The World Bank
established mining codes intended to increase foreign
investment; in 1988 it solicited feedback from 45 mining
companies on how to increase their involvement.[41]:20

In 1992 the World Bank began to push for privatization of

government-owned mining companies with a new set of
codes, beginning with its report The Strategy for African
Mining. In 1997, Latin America's largest miner Companhia
Vale do Rio Doce (CVRD) was privatized. These and other
developments such as the Philippines 1995 Mining Act led
the bank to publish a third report (Assistance for Minerals
Sector Development and Reform in Member Countries) which
endorsed mandatory environment impact assessments and
attention to the concerns of the local population. The codes
based on this report are influential in the legislation of
developing nations. The new codes are intended to
encourage development through tax holidays, zero custom
duties, reduced income taxes, and related measures.[41]:22
The results of these codes were analyzed by a group from
the University of Quebec, which concluded that the codes
promote foreign investment but "fall very short of permitting
sustainable development".[72] The observed negative
correlation between natural resources and economic
development is known as the resource curse.

Safety

Mining transport in Devnya, Bulgaria.

Safety has long been a concern in the mining business,

especially in sub-surface mining. The Courrières mine
disaster, Europe's worst mining accident, involved the death
of 1,099 miners in Northern France on March 10, 1906. This
disaster was surpassed only by the Benxihu Colliery
accident in China on April 26, 1942, which killed 1,549
miners.[73] While mining today is substantially safer than it
was in previous decades, mining accidents still occur.
Government figures indicate that 5,000 Chinese miners die
in accidents each year, while other reports have suggested a
figure as high as 20,000.[74] Mining accidents continue
worldwide, including accidents causing dozens of fatalities
at a time such as the 2007 Ulyanovskaya Mine disaster in
Russia, the 2009 Heilongjiang mine explosion in China, and
the 2010 Upper Big Branch Mine disaster in the United
States. Mining has been identified by the National Institute
for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) as a priority
industry sector in the National Occupational Research
Agenda (NORA) to identify and provide intervention
strategies regarding occupational health and safety
issues.[75] The Mining Safety and Health Administration
(MSHA) was established in 1978 to "work to prevent death,
illness, and injury from mining and promote safe and
healthful workplaces for US miners."[76] Since its
implementation in 1978, the number of miner fatalities has
decreased from 242 miners in 1978 to 28 miners in 2015.

There are numerous occupational hazards associated with

mining, including exposure to rockdust which can lead to
diseases such as silicosis, asbestosis, and
pneumoconiosis. Gases in the mine can lead to
asphyxiation and could also be ignited. Mining equipment
can generate considerable noise, putting workers at risk for
hearing loss. Cave-ins, rock falls, and exposure to excess
heat are also known hazards. The current NIOSH
Recommended Exposure Limit (REL) of noise is 85 dBA
with a 3 dBA exchange rate and the MSHA Permissible
Exposure Limit (PEL) is 90 dBA with a 5 dBA exchange rate
as an 8-hour time-weighted average. NIOSH has found that
25% of noise-exposed workers in Mining, Quarrying, and Oil
and Gas Extraction have hearing impairment.[77] The
prevalence of hearing loss increased by 1% from 1991-2001
within these workers.

Noise studies have been conducted in several mining

environments. Stageloaders (84-102 dBA), shearers (85-99
dBA), auxiliary fans (84–120 dBA), continuous mining
machines (78–109 dBA), and roof bolters (92–103 dBA)
represent some of the noisiest equipment in underground
coal mines.[78] Dragline oilers, dozer operators, and welders
using air arcing were occupations with the highest noise
exposures among surface coal miners.[79] Coal mines had
the highest hearing loss injury likelihood.[80]

Proper ventilation, hearing protection, and spraying

equipment with water are important safety practices in
mines.

Records

Chuqu
open
As of 2008, the deepest mine in the world is TauTona in
Carletonville, South Africa, at 3.9 kilometres (2.4 mi),[81]
replacing the neighboring Savuka Mine in the North West
Province of South Africa at 3,774 metres (12,382 ft).[82] East
Rand Mine in Boksburg, South Africa briefly held the record
at 3,585 metres (11,762 ft), and the first mine declared the
deepest in the world was also TauTona when it was at 3,581
metres (11,749 ft).

The Moab Khutsong gold mine in North West Province

(South Africa) has the world's longest winding steel wire
rope, which is able to lower workers to 3,054 metres
(10,020 ft) in one uninterrupted four-minute journey.[83]

The deepest mine in Europe is the 16th shaft of the uranium

mines in Příbram, Czech Republic, at 1,838 metres
(6,030 ft),[84] second is Bergwerk Saar in Saarland, Germany,
at 1,750 metres (5,740 ft).

The deepest open-pit mine in the world is Bingham Canyon

Mine in Bingham Canyon, Utah, United States, at over 1,200
metres (3,900 ft). The largest and second deepest open-pit
copper mine in the world is Chuquicamata in northern Chile
at 900 metres (3,000 ft), which annually produces 443,000
tons of copper and 20,000 tons of molybdenum.[85][86][87]

The deepest open-pit mine with respect to sea level is

Tagebau Hambach in Germany, where the base of the pit is
293 metres (961 ft) below sea level.
The largest underground mine is Kiirunavaara Mine in
Kiruna, Sweden. With 450 kilometres (280 mi) of roads, 40
million tonnes of annually produced ore, and a depth of
1,270 metres (4,170 ft), it is also one of the most modern
underground mines. The deepest borehole in the world is
Kola Superdeep Borehole at 12,262 metres (40,230 ft), but
this is connected to scientific drilling, not mining.

Metal reserves and recycling

During the 20th century, the variety of metals used in
society grew rapidly. Today, the development of major
nations such as China and India and advances in
technologies are fueling an ever-greater demand. The result
is that metal mining activities are expanding and more and
more of the world's metal stocks are above ground in use
rather than below ground as unused reserves. An example
is the in-use stock of copper. Between 1932 and 1999,
copper in use in the US rose from 73 kilograms (161 lb) to
238 kilograms (525 lb) per person.[88]

95% of the energy used to make aluminium from bauxite ore

is saved by using recycled material.[89] However, levels of
metals recycling are generally low. In 2010, the International
Resource Panel, hosted by the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP), published reports on metal stocks that
exist within society[90] and their recycling rates.[88]

The report's authors observed that the metal stocks in

society can serve as huge mines above ground. However,
they warned that the recycling rates of some rare metals
used in applications such as mobile phones, battery packs
for hybrid cars, and fuel cells are so low that unless future
end-of-life recycling rates are dramatically stepped up these
critical metals will become unavailable for use in modern
technology.

As recycling rates are low and so much metal has already

been extracted, some landfills now contain a higher
concentrations of metal than mines themselves.[91] This is
especially true of aluminium, used in cans, and precious
metals, found in discarded electronics.[92] Furthermore,
waste after 15 years has still not broken down, so less
processing would be required when compared to mining
ores. A study undertaken by Cranfield University has found
£360 million of metals could be mined from just 4 landfill
sites.[93] There is also up to 20MJ/kg of energy in waste,
potentially making the re-extraction more profitable.[94]
However, although the first landfill mine opened in Tel Aviv,
Israel in 1953, little work has followed due to the abundance
of accessible ores.[95]

See also
Mining engineering – Engineering discipline that involves
the practice, the theory, the science, the technology, and
applicatIon of extracting and processing minerals from a
 naturally occurring environment
Outline of mining – 1=Overview of and topical guide to
mining
Asteroid mining
Automated mining
Environmental impact of mining
Peak minerals – Point in time of largest mineral
production
Stone industry
Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative
Kimberley Process Certification Scheme
Conflict resource
Dutch disease – The apparent causal relationship
between the increase in the economic development of a
specific sector and a decline in other sectors
List of critical mineral raw materials
List of mining companies
Blood diamond
Resource extraction
Resource Curse

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Further reading
Woytinsky, W.S., and E.S. Woytinsky. World Population and
Production Trends and Outlooks (1953) pp. 749–881; with
many tables and maps on the worldwide mining industry
in 1950, including coal, metals and minerals
Ali, Saleem H. (2003). Mining, the Environment and
Indigenous Development Conflicts. Tucson AZ: University
of Arizona Press.
Ali, Saleem H. (2009). Treasures of the Earth: need, greed
and a sustainable future. New Haven and London: Yale
University Press
Even-Zohar, Chaim (2002). From Mine to Mistress:
Corporate Strategies and Government Policies in the
International Diamond Industry. Mining Journal Books.
p. 555. ISBN 978-0-9537336-1-3.
Geobacter Project: Gold mines may owe their origins to
bacteria (in PDF format)
Garrett, Dennis. Alaska Placer Mining
Jayanta, Bhattacharya (2007). Principles of Mine Planning
(2nd ed.). Wide Publishing. p. 505.
ISBN 978-81-7764-480-7.
Morrison, Tom (1992). Hardrock Gold: a miner's tale.
ISBN 0-8061-2442-3
John Milne. The Miner's Handbook: A Handy Reference on
the subjects of Mineral Deposits (1894) Mining operations
 in the 19th century. [3]
Aryee, B., Ntibery, B., Atorkui, E. (2003). "Trends in the
small-scale mining of precious minerals in Ghana: a
perspective on its environmental impact", Journal of
Cleaner Production 11: 131–40
The Oil, gas and Mining Sustainable Community
Development Fund (2009) Social Mine Closure Strategy,
Mali (in [4] )

External links

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First chapter of Introductory Mining Engineering

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