Soils are materials derive from rocks through physical and chemical weathering.

a. Fined-grained soil (silt, clay) b. Coursed-grained soil (sand, gravel)

Soil Phase and Composition:

air Va
VV V = Vs + V w + V a = V s + V V
Ww water Vw V
W
Ws soil Vs W = Ws + Ww

Actual soil Idealized soil note: weight of air is neglected

distribution distribution soil

where:
Vs = volume of soil solids Ws = weight of soil solids
Va = volume of air Ww = weight of air
Vw = volume of water W = total weight of soil
VV = volume of voids V = total volume of soil

Soil Properties:
1. Void Ratio (e) is the ratio of 3. Moisture/Water Content (w) is
volume of voids to the volume of soil the ratio of weight of water to the
solids. weight of soil solids.

VV Ww
e=
Vs w= (100%)
Ws
2. Porosity (n) is the ratio of volume
of voids to the total volume of soil. 4. Degree of Saturation (S) is the
ratio of volume of water to the volume
VV of voids.
n=
V Vw
S= (100%)
VV
note: Relationship of and
.
5. Air Void Ratio (ea) is the ratio of
e volume of air to the total volume of soil.
n=
1+e
ea = n(1 S)
Proof: Proof:
n = VV/V = [VV/(VV + Vs)][(1/Vs)/(1/Vs)] ea = Va/V = VV - Vw/V = VV SVV/V
n= (VV/Vs)/[(VV/Vs) + (Vs/Vs)] = e/(1+e) ea = VV(1 S)/V = (VV/V)(1 S) = n(1-S)
6. Specific Gravity (Gs) is the ratio Proof:
of weight of soil to the weight of equal + Ww)/V = (Ws+ wWs)/V
s
volume of water. s(1 + w)/V = (Ws/V)(1 + w)

Ws note: Relationship of ,
Gs =
wVs
, , and
.
note: Relationship of
Gs w(1+w)
,
and 1+e

wGs Proof:
S=
e s/V)(1+w) = [Ws/(Vs+VV)](1+w)
s wVs)/(Vs + eVs)](1+w)
Proof: s w(1 + w)/(1 + e)
S = Vw/VV = (Ww w)/VV = (wWs w)/VV
S = (wGs wVs w)/eVs = wGs/e note: Relationship of ,
,
For (S = 100% = 1), the and .
formula becomes:
(Gs w
e = wGs
1+e
note: Relationship of , Proof:
, , and s w(1 + w)/(1 + e)
s w[1 + (Se/Gs)]/(1 + e)

e - wGs s w[(Gs + Se)/Gs](1 + e)

ea = s w/(1 + e)
1+e
Proof: d) is the ratio
ea = n(1 S) = [e/(1+e)][1 (wGs/e)] of weight of soil solids per unit volume.
ea = [e/(1+e)][(e wGs)/e]
ea = (e wGs)/(1 + e) Ws
V
is the ratio
of total weight of soil per unit volume. note: Relationship of
and .
W
V d(1+ w)
note: Relationship of and Proof:
. + Ww)/V = (Ws+wWs)/V
s
s(1 + w)/V = (Ws/V)(1 + w)
Ws (1 + w)
(1 + w) d
V
note: Relationship of ,
, and . emax - e
Dr = (100%)
emax - emin
Gs w
d = where:
1+e
emax = void ratio in the loosest state
Proof: emin = void ratio in the densest state
d = Ws/V = Ws/(Vs + VV) e = in-situ void ratio (natural state)
d = Gs wVs/(Vs+ eVs) = Gs w/(1 + e)
note: Relative density in terms of unit
sat) is weight.
the ratio of saturated weight of soil per
unit volume. dmin) d)
Dr =
(Gs w dmin) dmax)
sat =
1+e where:
dmax = dry unit wt. in densest state
Proof: dmin = dry unit weight in loosest state
s w/(1 + e) d = dry unit weight in-situ
note: for saturated soil, S = 1
sat = (Gs w/(1 + e) 12. Shrinkage Limit (S.L.) is the
value of water content which represents
10 sub) the boundary between the semi-solid
is the ratio of saturated weight of soil, and solid state of fined-grained soil in
surrounded by water, per unit volume. the remolded state.

sub sat - w (m1- m2) (V1- V2 w

S.L.= 100
m2 m2
note: Relationship of
, , and .
where:
(Gs w m1 = initial mass (saturated state)
sub = m2 = final mass (dry state)
1+e
V1 = initial volume (saturated state)
Proof: V2 = final volume (dry state)
sub sat w= [(Gs w/(1+e)] - w w = density of water
sub w/(1+e)][(Gs +e) (1+e)]
sub = (Gs w/(1 + e) note: Relationship of ,
, and .
11. Relative Density (D R) is an
index that quantifies the degree of 100e
packing between the loosest and S.L. =
Gs
densest possible state of course-grained
 PHYSICAL STATE AND INDEX PROPERTIES OF FINE-GRAINED SOIL

Index Properties
- refers to those properties of soil that indicate its type and condition, and provide a
relationship to structural properties such as , or tendency to
, and .
A
B
V
O
C
L
U
D
M
E
Solid Semi-solid Plastic Liquid
Vs State State State State

SL PL LL
WATER CONTENT (%)
Definition of Terms:
a. Liquid Limit (LL) is the water content w/c represents the boundary between
the liquid and plastic state of soil.

b. Plastic Limit (PL) is the water content w/c represents the boundary between
the plastic and semi-solid state.

c. Shrinkage Limit (SL) is the water content w/c represents the boundary
between the semi-solid and solid state.

d. Plasticity Index (PI) the range of water contents over w/c the soil deforms
plastically. It is the difference between the liquid and plastic limit.

PI = LL - PL note: LL and PL are known as .

e. Liquidity Index (LI) it is a measure of strength or consistency of soils.

w - PL Value of LI: LI < 0 0 < LI < 1 LI > 1

LI = Description: Semisolid State Plastic State Liquid State
PI
f. Activity is an index for identifying the swelling potential of clay soils.

Activity < 0.75 0.75 1.25 > 1.25

Classification Inactive Normal Active
FOUNDATIONS
- These are structures that transmit loads to the underlying soils.

Two Major Types:

1. Shallow Foundation
2. Deep Foundation

Shallow Foundation
- Are those that transmit structural loads to the near soil surface. It is normally in
the form of a .

Spread Footing
- An enlargement at the bottom of the column or bearing wall that spreads the
applied structural loads over a sufficiently large soil area.

Common Types of Spread Footing:

it normally supports a single centrally loaded column.
these are useful when obstruction prevents
construction of a square footing with a sufficient large area and when large
moment loads are present.
these are commonly used for light standards, transmission
lines, and flagpoles.
these are used to support bearing walls.
these are useful when columns are located close together
for each to have its own footing.

Mat Foundation
When the total area of the footing will cover more than ½ of the entire floor area,
mat foundation is normally found to be economical. It is a type of shallow foundation
that connects or supports all the column loads into a single footing (or normally known
as mat).

Advantages of Mat Foundation

1. Spreads the structural loads over a larger area thus reducing the bearing/contact
pressure.
2. Provides much more structural rigidity and thus reduces the potential for excessive
differential settlement.
3. Is easier to waterproof.
4. Has a greater weight and thus is able to resist greater uplift loads.
5. Distributes lateral loads into the soil more evenly and efficiently.

General Criteria in Designing Foundation

1. It must be located properly (both horizontal and vertical orientation) so as not to be
adversely affected by outside influences.
2. It must be safe from bearing capacity failure or collapse.
3. It must be safe from excessive settlement.

Procedures in Designing Footing

1. Calculate loads acting on the footing.
2. Obtain a soil profile(s) along with pertinent field and laboratory measurements and
testing results.
3. Determine the depth and location of footings.
4. Determine the bearing capacity of the supporting soil.
5. Determine the size of the footing.
6. Compute the footing contact pressure and check stability against sliding and
overturning.
7. Estimate the total and differential settlement.
8. Design the structural aspect of the footing.

Loads on Foundations
Common load acting on the foundations includes

Factors that will affect the locations of Foundations

1. Frost action (3 4 ft. minimum depth from the ground surface).
2. Significant soil volume changes.
3. Adjacent structures and property lines (subtends 45 O unless sheet piles is to be
constructed in property lines).
4. Effect of ground water table.

BEARING CAPACITY OF A SPREAD FOOTING

Bearing Pressure is the contact force per unit area along the bottom of the footing.

Gross Bearing Pressure (q) the actual contact pressure between the bottom of the
footing and the soil below.

is the difference between the gross bearing pressure

and the effective/overburden pressure.

For axially loaded footing:

Where:
P = applied normal/axial load
q = (P + Wf)/A q' = P /A Wf = wt . of footing (includes wt. of soil above footing
A = base area of footing
e = eccentricity = M/P
For eccentrically loaded footing:
Note:
If e = B/6; triangular pressure distribution
q' = (P /A)[1 ± (6e/B)] If e < B/6; trapezoidal pressure distribution
If e> B/6 tension occurs (to be avoided in footing design)

BEARING CAPACITY FAILURES

General Shear
It occurs in soils that are relatively incompressible and reasonably strong, or in
saturated normally consolidated clays, or dense cohesion less soils. This is the most
common mode of shear failure in footings.

Local Shear
Intermediate case between a general and punching shear failure. It normally occurs
in soft clay and in loose cohesion less soil.

Punching Shear
Occurs in a very loose sand in a thin crust of strong soil underlain by a very weak
soil or in weak clays.

Guidelines for Selecting Modes of Bearing Capacity Failures

1. Footing on clays is governed by general shear case.
2. Footing in dense sands is governed by general shear case.
3. Footings on loose to medium dense sand (w/ relative density, D R ranges between
30% - 67%) are probably govern by local shear failures.
4. Footings on very loose sand (D R less than 30%) are probably govern by punching
shear failure).

Assumptions f
1. The depth of the footing is less than or at least equal to its width (Df
2. The soil beneath the footing is homogeneous semi-infinite mass.
3. The shear strength of the soil follows the formula = c ø.
4. The general shear mode of failure governs.
5. No consolidation of the soils occurs.
6. The footing is very rigid compared to the supporting soil.

Ultimate Bearing Capacity Equations for General Shear Failure:

qU = 1.3CNC + qNq + 0.4 BN (For Square footings)

 qU = CNC + qNq + 0.5 BN (For Strip/Continuous footings)

qU = 1.3CNC + qNq + 0.3 BN (For Circular footings)

Where:
qu = gross ultimate bearing capacity
C = cohesion of soil
q = Df = effective stress/surcharge w/n footing depth
= unit weight of soil
Df = depth of footing below the ground surface
B = width of footing (or diameter for circular footing)
NC, Nq, N = bearing capacity factors w/c are function of angle of friction

Bearing Capacity Factors

In the absence of tables/graphs, bearing capacity factors can be computed from the
formula given below:

NC = (Nq 1) cot ø N = (Nq + 1)tan(1.4 ø) Nq = tan2[45O+(ø/2)]e tan

Where: ø = angle of internal friction or angle of shearing resistance of soil

Effects of Water Table on Bearing Capacity

(Water table at or above the base of the footing)

(Water table is below the base of the footing such that D<B)

= (1/B)[ 1D + -D)], 1 is the unit

weight of soil above water table

(Water table
 Qa=allowable load

g.s.

Df
1
B
D
w.s.

sat

Gross and Net Allowable Bearing Capacity

qa = qU/FS (Gross allowable bearing capacity)

qa(net)= (qU q)/FS (Net allowable bearing capacity)

Where: q = effective surcharge w/n footing depth; FS = factor of safety

For y equation for will

be used with the following modifications:

1. Change c to , where (2/3)(c)

2. Change ø to ø
3. Change notation of bearing capacity factors to Nc q N
Sample Problem #3:
Compute the net ultimate bearing capacity of a 1.0 m square footing founded at a
depth of 0.50 m below the ground surface. The ground water table is at a depth of 0.80
m below the ground surface and the soil is clayey sand with C = 5.0 kPa. Used
3
.
Solution:
B = 1.0 m, D = 0.50 m, DW = 0.80 m; (D + B) = 1.50 m; (D < DW < D + B) case II
O
(NC = 18.9, Nq = 8.3, N = 5.1 from table)
H2O{1 [(DW D)/B]} = 18.5 9.81{1 [(0.80 0.50)/1.0]} = 11.63 kN/m3

qu 1) + 0.4(11.63)(5.10)
qu

NET ALLOWABLE BEARING CAPACITY (q a

The net allowable bearing capacity is equal to the net gross ultimate bearing
capacity divided by a certain factor of safety. This value is the one being used in the
actual design of footing structures and not the ultimate gross capacity of the soil. The
selection of the factor of safety to be applied will depend on the type of structure the
footing will support as well as the experience of geotechnical engineer.

qa' = qu where: F.S. = factor of safety

Guidelines for Selecting Factor of Safety for Spread Footings

Design Factor of Safety
Category Type of Structures
Thorough and Complete Limited Soil
Soil Exploration Exploration
 Railway bridges, Warehouses, Blast furnishes,
A 3.0 4.0
Hydraulic, Retaining walls, and Silos

Highway Bridges, Light Houses, Industrial and

B 2.5 3.5
Public Buildings

C Apartment and Office Buildings 2.0 3.0

Sample Problem #4
A square footing rests on a uniform thick deposit of stiff clay with unconfined
compressive strength of 2.4 ksf. The footing is located 4 ft below the ground surface
and is to carry a total load of 250 kips. Determine the required square footing
dimensions if unit weight of soil is 125 pcf. Assume that water table is at a great depth
and used factor of safety of 3.
Solution:
C = ½ (2.4) = 1.2 ksf = 1200 psf; NC = 5.7, Nq = 1.0, N
qu' = 1.3(1200)(5.7) + 125(4)(1 1) + 0.4(125)(B)(0) = 8,892 psf
pacity)

Solving for square footing dimension:

qa' = P/A 2,964 = 250,000/B2 B = 9.18 ft, say 9.25 ft

Therefore: Used 9.25 ft x 9.25 ft square footing.

DEEP FOUNDATION
- a foundation, usually of some type of pile or caisson, generally extends more than
3 m below the ground surface.

Piles are long, slender, pre-fabricated structural members driven into the ground to
form a foundation.

Deep foundations are used when:

1. The upper soils are so weak and/or the structural loads are so high.
2. The upper soils are subjected to scour or undermining.
3. The foundation will penetrate through the water.
4. A large uplift capacity is required (since the uplift capacity of a shallow foundation is
limited to its dead weight.
5. A large lateral load capacity is required.
6. There will be a future excavation adjacent to the foundation and this excavation will
undermined shallow foundation.

Classification of Deep Foundation

Deep Foundation

Piles Drilled Shafts Other Types

Timber Pile Mandrel Driven Shells

Concrete Pile Auger Cast Piles

Steel Pile Anchors

Composite Pile Pressure Injected Footings

Concrete Piles
There are several types of concrete piles that are commonly used. These include cast-
in-place concrete piles, pre-cast concrete piles, and drilled shafts. Cast-in-place concrete
piles are form by driving a cylindrical steel shell into the ground to the desired depth
and then filing the cavity of the shell with fluid concrete. The steel shell is for
construction convenience and does not contribute to the load transfer capacity of the
pile. Its purpose is to open a hole in the ground and keep it open to facilitate the
construction of the concrete pile. Plain concrete is used when the structural load is only
compressive. If moments and lateral loads are to be transferred, then a steel
reinforcement cage is used in the upper part of the pile. Vigilant quality control and
good construction practice are necessary to ensure the integrity of cast-in-place piles.
Pre-cast concrete piles usually have or or cross-sections
and are fabricated in a construction yard from reinforced or prestressed concrete. They
are preferred when the pile length is known in advance. The disadvantages of precast
piles are problem in transporting long piles, cutting, and lengthening.

Steel Piles
Steel piles come in various shapes and sizes and include cylindrical, tapered, and H-
piles. Steel H-piles are rolled steel sections. Steel pipe piles are seamless pipes that can
be welded to yield lengths up to 70 m. They are usually driven with open ends into the
soil. A conical tip is used where the piles have to penetrate boulders and rocks. To
increase the load capacity of steel pipe piles, the soil plug is excavated and replaced by
concrete. These piles are called concrete filled steel piles.

Timber Piles
Timber piles have been used since ancient times. The length of timber piles depend on
the types of trees used to harvest the piles, but common lengths are about 12 m.
Longer lengths can be obtained by splicing several piles. Timber piles are susceptible to
termites, marine organisms, and rot within zones exposed to seasonal changes.

CONSTRUCTION METHODS AND EQUIPMENTS

Pile Driving Rigs
- Is a major piece of equipment used to install pile. Its function is to raised and
temporarily support the pile while it is being driven and to support the pile hammer.

Pile Hammer
- Is a device that provides the impacts necessary to drive the piles. Repeated blows
are necessary so the hammer must be capable of cycling quickly. It also must deliver
sufficient energy to advance the pile, while not being powerful enough to break it.

Types of Pile Hammer

1. Drop Hammer 2. Steam hammer
3. Pneumatic Hammer 4. Hydraulic Hammer
5. Diesel Hammer 6. Vibratory Hammer

Pre-drilling
- A process of drilling the soil strata before the pile is to be driven. The hole to be
pre-drilled must be smaller than the dimension of the pile to be driven to maintain
adequate friction between the soil and surface of pile.

Jetting
- A process of pumping high pressure water through a pipe to a nozzle located at
the pile tip. These loosens the soils in front of the piles, thus allowing it to advance with
very few or no hammer blows.

Spudding
- Consist of driving hard metal points into the ground and then removing them and
driving the pile into the resulting hole.
Selection of Factor of Safety
The selection of factor of safety to be used in determining the capacity of pile will
depend on the following several factors:
1. The type and importance of the structure.
2. The variability of the soil.
3. The thoroughness of the sub-surface exploration program.
4. The type and number of soil test perform.
5. The availability of on-site/nearby full scale load test results.
6. The anticipated level of construction inspection and quality control.
7. The probability of design loads actually occurring during the life of the structures.

1. Monumental it has a design life exceeding 100 years (such as large bridges).

2. Permanent have a design life between 25 100 years (such as ordinary railways.

3. Temporary it has a design life less than 25 years (such as temporary industrial
buildings).

Factors for Assessment of Control

1. Good Control

Sample Problem #1:

A 5 ft-square footing supports a column load of 100 kips. The bottom of the footing is
at a deep of 2 ft below the ground surface. Compute the gross and net bearing
pressures. Assume concrete weighs 150 lb/ft 3.
Solution:
q = (P + Wf)/A P = 100 kips Wf = CVC = 150(5)(5)(2)/1000 = 7.5 kips
A = 5(5) = 25 ft2
q = (100 + 7.5)/25 = 4.3 kips/ft 2 = 4,300 lb/ft2 (gross bearing pressure)

2
= 4,000 lb/ft2 (net bearing pressure)

Sample Problem #2:

A 5 ft-wide continuous footing is subjected to a concentric vertical load of 12 k/ft and a
moment load of 8 k-ft/ft acting laterally across the footing. Determine whether the
resultant force on the base of the footing acts within the middle third and compute the
maximum and minimum net bearing pressure.
Solution:
e = M/P = 8/12 = 0.67 ft. B/6 = 5/6 = 0.83 ft
since e < B/6, therefore resultant acts w/in the middle third (trapezoidal pressure
distribution)

qmax = (P/A)[1 (6e/B)] = (12/5 x 1.0)[1 +(6 x 0.67/5)] = 4.33 kips/ft2 (max pressure)

qmin = (P/A)[1 (6e/B)] = (12/5 x 1.0)[1 (6 x 0.67/5)] = 0.47 kips/ft 2 (min pressure)

Sample Problem #1:

-
O
, a
ground surface. The ground water table is at a great depth. Compute the gross and net
ultimate bearing capacity and net ultimate load.
Solution:
O
, NC = 37.2, Nq = 22.5, N = 20.1 (from table)

qu=1.3CNC D q = 1.3(150)(37.2) + 121(2)(22.5) + 0.4(121)(20.1)(3.25)

qu = 15,861 psf (gross ultimate bearing capacity)

qu C D q
= 1.3(150)(37.2) + 121(2)(22.5 1) + 0.4(121)(20.1)(3.25)
qu

Pu = qu 2
= 141,850 lb = 141.85 kips (ultimate column load)

Sample Problem #2:

A continuous footing is 0.70 m wide and 0.40 m deep. The soil beneath this footing is
an undrained clay with undrained shear strength, S U = 120 kPa. Compute the net
ultimate bearing capacity and the ultimate wall load.
Solution:
C = ½ SU = 120/2 = 60 kPa; for O
, NC = 5.7, Nq = 1, N = 0

qu' = CNC D = 60(5.7) + 0 + 0 = 684 kPa (net ultimate bearing

capacity)

Pu = qu