Academic writing

What is academic writing?

https://library.leeds.ac.uk/info/14011/writing/106/academic_writing/7

CONTENTS

1. What is academic writing?

2. Define your purpose and reader
3. Structure your work
4. How to incorporate evidence

5. Use clear and concise language

6. Demonstrate balance in your writing
7. Choose the correct tense and voice
8. Build your argument

Academic writing is clear, concise, focused, structured and backed up by

evidence. Its purpose is to aid the reader’s understanding.

It has a formal tone and style, but it is not complex and does not require the
use of long sentences and complicated vocabulary.

Each subject discipline will have certain writing conventions, vocabulary and
types of discourse that you will become familiar with over the course of your
degree. However, there are some general characteristics of academic writing
that are relevant across all disciplines.

Characteristics of academic writing

Academic writing is:
 Planned and focused: answers the question and demonstrates an
understanding of the subject.
 Structured: is coherent, written in a logical order, and brings together
related points and material.
 Evidenced: demonstrates knowledge of the subject area, supports
opinions and arguments with evidence, and is referenced accurately.
 Formal in tone and style: uses appropriate language and tenses, and is
clear, concise and balanced.
The following pages will look at all these characteristics in detail.
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The first step to writing academically is to clearly define the purpose of the
writing and the audience.

Most formal academic writing at university is set by, and written for, an
academic tutor or assessor, and there should be clear criteria against which
they will mark your work.

You will need to spend some time interpreting your question and deciding how
to tackle your assignment. See our Interpreting your assignment tutorial
(activity) for more details about how to do this.

If you are writing for yourself – for example making notes to record or make
sense of something – then you can set your own criteria such as clarity,
brevity, and relevance. See our Note taking and note making tutorial
(activity) for further help.

Once you have a plan for your writing, you can use this plan to create the
structure of your writing. Structured writing has a beginning, middle and an
end, and uses focused paragraphs to develop the argument.
Create the overall structure
Some academic writing, such as lab or business reports, will have a fairly rigid
structure, with headings and content for each section. For more details see
our Report writing pages.

In other formats, writing usually follows the same overall structure:

introduction, main body and conclusion.

The introduction outlines the main direction the writing will take, and gives any
necessary background information and context.

In the main body each point is presented, explored and developed. These
points must be set out in a logical order, to make it easier for the reader to
follow and understand.

The conclusion brings together the main points, and will highlight the key
message or argument you want the reader to take away. It may also identify
any gaps or weaknesses in the arguments or ideas presented, and
recommend further research or investigation where appropriate.

Arrange your points in a logical order

When you start writing you should have a clear idea of what you want to say.
Create a list of your main points and think about what the reader needs to
know and in what order they will need to know it. To select the main points
you want to include, ask yourself whether each point you have considered
really contributes to answering the question. Is the point relevant to your
overall argument?
Select appropriate evidence that you will use to support each main point.
Think carefully about which evidence to use, you must evaluate that
information as not everything you find will be of high quality.

See our searching for information page for advice on how to find high quality,
academic information.

Grouping your points may help you create a logical order. These groups will
broadly fit into an overall pattern, such as for and against, thematic,
chronological or by different schools of thought or approach.

You can then put these groups into a sequence that the reader can follow and
use to make sense of the topic or argument. It may be helpful to talk through
your argument with someone.

Write in structured paragraphs

Use paragraphs to build and structure your argument, and separate each of
your points into a different paragraph.

Make your point clear in the first or second sentence of the paragraph to help
the reader to follow the line of reasoning.

The rest of the paragraph should explain the point in greater detail, and
provide relevant evidence and examples where necessary or useful. Your
interpretation of this evidence will help to substantiate your thinking and can
lend weight to your argument.

At the end of the paragraph you should show how the point you have made is
significant to the overall argument or link to the next paragraph.
See constructing focused paragraphs for an example.

Use signalling words when writing

Using signalling words will help the reader to understand the structure of your
work and where you might be taking your argument.

Use signalling words to:

 add more information –eg furthermore, moreover, additionally

 compare two similar points –eg similarly, in comparison
 show contrasting viewpoints –eg however, in contrast, yet
 show effect or conclusion – eg therefore, consequently, as a result
 emphasise – eg significantly, particularly
 reflect sequence – eg first, second, finally.
(Adapted from Signal words from Clark College, Vancouver)

The Manchester Academic Phrasebank at has more examples of signalling

words to use in your work.

Words like these help make the structure of your writing more effective and
can clarify the flow and logic of your argument.

Here are some examples in practice:

“Using a laboratory method was beneficial as a causal relationship could be

established between cognitive load and generating attributes. However, this
method creates an artificial setting which reduces the study's ecological
validity.”
In this example the use of the word however at the beginning of the second
sentence indicates that a contrasting point of view is about to be made. It also
suggests that the writer may have more sympathy with the second opinion.

“Firstly, the concepts and person centred care will be defined.... Next,
communication will be discussed... Finally, the relationship between loss and
communication will be examined.” [Taken from a Healthcare essay]

In this example the writer has used signalling words to demonstrate the
sequence of their argument by using Firstly, next, finally making the structure
of the essay very clear.

“Employee satisfaction is justifiable to employees because it causes an

improvement on their well being (Grandley, 2003). Moreover, employees that
are in a good mood at work are less likely to act because their true feelings
are in accordance with the needed display of emotions (Grandley, 2003).”
[Taken from a Business School essay]

The use of the word moreover tells the reader that the next sentence will
provide further evidence or information to support the statement made in the
first sentence. It also suggest that the writer strongly agrees with the first
statement.

Revise, edit and proofread your work

Most writing will require several drafts and revisions in order to improve the
clarity and structure. It is rare that a writer will make the very best decisions in
the first draft. See our editing and proofreading pages for more details.

Academic writing must be supported by evidence such as data, facts,

quotations, arguments, statistics, research, and theories.
This evidence will:

 add substance to your own ideas

 allow the reader to see what has informed your thinking and how your ideas
fit in with, and differ from, others' in your field
 demonstrate your understanding of the general concepts and theories on
the topic
 show you have researched widely, and know about specialist/niche areas
of interest.
There are several methods that you can use to incorporate other people's
work into your own written work. These are:

 paraphrasing
 summarising
 synthesising
 quoting.
You are likely to use a combination of these throughout your writing,
depending on the purpose that you are trying to achieve.

The main characteristics of the different methods you can use to incorporate
others' work into your own writing are shown in our comparison table (PDF).

Be aware that your writing should not just be a patchwork of other people's
ideas made up of quotes, paraphrases and summaries of other people's work.

You need to show how the information you found has helped you to develop
your own arguments, ideas and opinions. See Critical thinking pages for
advice about writing critically.
How to paraphrase others’ work
Paraphrasing is using your own words to express someone else’s ideas.
When paraphrasing, make sure that you:

 identify a relevant theme or point, depending on your purpose

 write the point in your own words
 focus on the meaning of an idea or argument
 include a reference to the original author.
Common pitfalls include:

 describing an author's idea/argument but not explaining the significance to

your own argument, or the point that you are trying to make
 using too many of the original author's words, this includes using the same
structure
 not distinguishing between the author's point and your own viewpoint
 providing too much detail.
For further advice and examples of paraphrasing, see this tutorial from RMIT
university.

See more examples of successful and unsuccessful paraphrases.

How to summarise others’ work

Summarising is providing a condensed version of someone else’s key points.
When summarising other people’s work, make sure that you:

 identify the relevant points of the idea or argument,depending on your

purpose
 write a shortened version, in your own words, to show your understanding
 include an in-text citation and reference to the original author.
Common pitfalls include:

 describing an author's idea/argument but not explaining the significance to

your own argument or point you are trying to make
 providing too much detail such as examples, anecdotes, unnecessary
background information rather than being selective and applying the
information to the question you are trying to answer.
For further advice and examples of summarising, see this tutorial from RMIT
university.

How to synthesise others’ work

Synthesising involves combining different information and ideas to develop
your own argument. When synthesising others’ work, make sure that you:

 Group sources into relevant categories, for example, authors with similar
viewpoints or research that reveals the same results
 Write about these in your own words. Do not discuss each author
separately; you must identify the overall points you want to make
 Include references to all the original authors.
Common pitfalls include:

 Not distinguishing clearly which viewpoint/s belong to which author/s

 Listing authors separately or one by one, thus not grouping relevant authors
or points together
 Giving too much detail about different perspectives rather than being
selective of the key features relevant to your line of argument
 Describing the idea/argument but not explaining the significance to your
own argument or point you are trying to make.
For further advice and examples of synthesis, see this tutorial on synthesising
from RMIT University.

View our advice about referencing.

How to quote from others’ work

Quoting is where you copy an author's text word for word, place quotation
marks around the words and add a citation at the end of the quote. When
quoting others’ work, make sure that you:

 copy the quote exactly from the original, as the author has written it, taking
care to include quotation marks
 show where you have made any changes to the text (see citing quotations
using Harvard and citing quotations using Numeric for more guidance on
this)
 include an in-text citation and reference to the original author.
Common pitfalls include:

 Using too many quotes throughout your work

 Incorporating a quote without explaining the significance to your own
argument or point you are trying to make.
https://writing.wisc.edu/Handbook/QPA_paraphrase.html

Academic writing is concise, clear, formal and active. It does not need to be
complex or use long sentences and obscure vocabulary.

Be concise
In formal academic writing it is important to be concise. This helps your reader
to understand the points you are making.

Here are some tips to help you:

 Only include one main idea per sentence.

 Keep your sentences to a reasonable length (generally not more than 25
words). Long sentences can be difficult to follow and this may distract from
your point.
 Avoid repetition.
Avoid using redundant words. For example:

 Use “because” instead of “due to the fact that”.

 Use “alternatives” instead of “alternative choices”.
 Use “fundamentals” and not “basic fundamentals”.
 Use “concisely” instead of “in as few words as possible”.
Reading your work aloud may help you to identify any repetition or redundant
words.

Use formal language

In academic writing you are expected to use formal language.:

Avoid using colloquialisms or slang terms such as 'sort of' or 'basically'.

Instead you could use 'somewhat' or 'fundamentally'.

Write words out in full rather than shortening them. For example, instead of
writing “don't” or “isn't” you would be expected to write “do not” or “is not”
The use of clichés is not appropriate in academic writing. These are phrases
such as “at the end of the day” or “in the nick of time.” Instead of this you
might write finally or at the critical moment.

Use a blend of active and passive verbs

Most verbs can be used in either an active or passive form. It is usually
appropriate to use a mixture of passive and active forms within academic
writing. Always check with your department to see what form of writing would
be most appropriate for your subject area.

The active voice places the subject of the sentence in charge of the action.

For example: “The research assistant designed the survey.” Here the
research assistant (the subject) designed (the verb) the survey (the object).

It is usually more direct and easier to read than the passive voice.

However, sometimes you may want to emphasise what is happening rather

than who is doing it. To do this you can use the passive voice.

The passive voice places the subject at the end, or may leave it out
completely.

For example: “The survey was designed by the research assistant.” Here the
survey (the object) was designed (the verb) by the research assistant (the
subject).

The passive voice is more formal than the active voice. It is often used in
academic writing as it is seen as more impersonal and therefore more
objective. However, it is not always easy to read and it may add unnecessary
words.

Adapted from Writing with Style by Stott and Avery, 2001, p.54.

In your university assessments, there is rarely one answer to a question or

assignment. Research, ideas and arguments should always be open to being
challenged, so it is important that the language you use acknowledges this.

In your academic work, you should not present something as a fact that might
not be. In academic writing, you can use language that we often refer to
as hedges or boosters to show how confident you are about an argument or
claim you are discussing.

Hedges
When writing, be careful of using words such as "definitely" or "proves". Ask
yourself whether your statement is a fact or whether there may be some doubt
either now or in the future.

Some useful hedging words and phrases to use in your work are:

 “This suggests...”
 “It is possible that...”
 “A possible explanation...”
 “Usually...”
 “Sometimes...”
 “Somewhat...”
Read the following two sentences:
1. “Research proves that drinking a large volume of fizzy drinks containing
sugar leads to the development of type II diabetes.”
2. “Research suggests that high consumption of fizzy drinks containing sugar
may contribute to the development of type II diabetes.”
In sentence 1, the statement is presented as proven fact: that a high volume
of sugary fizzy drinks will definitely lead to type II diabetes. This leaves no
room for doubt or criticism or the fact that some people may drink large
volumes of fizzy drinks and never develop type II diabetes.

In sentence 2, the writer has used 'hedging language' – 'suggests' and 'may
contribute' – to show that while there is evidence to link sugary drinks and
type II diabetes, this may not be true for every person and may be proven to
be incorrect in the future.

Boosters
You might want to express a measure of certainty or conviction in your writing
and this is when 'booster' language can help.

Some useful booster words and phrases to use in your work are:

 “Clearly” (only use if you are certain it is clear)

 “There is a strong correlation...”
 “Results indicate...”
Take the same sentence as used in the previous section:

1. “Research suggests that high consumption of fizzy drinks containing sugar

may contribute to the development of type II diabetes.”
2. “Research indicates a clear link between the high consumption of a large
volume of fizzy drinks containing sugar and the development of type II
diabetes.”
In sentence 1, the writer has used the hedging language 'suggested' and 'may
contribute', to show that while there is evidence to link sugary drinks and type
II diabetes this may not be true for every person and may be proven to be
incorrect in the future.

In sentence 2, the writer still uses language to allow for doubt and argument
but it is clear that this writer is more convinced by the research.

The Manchester Academic Phrasebank u can use in your written work.

provides many more examples that yoIt is important to use the correct tense
and voice in your written work. You will probably need to use different tenses
throughout depending upon the context.

Only use first person voice in reflective writing

Academic arguments are not usually presented in the first person (using I),
but use more objective language, logic and reasoning to persuade (rather
than emotional or personal perspectives).

This may not apply, however, if you are asked to write a reflective report
based on your own thoughts and experiences.

Use past tense to speak about your method

If you are writing about an experiment you carried out or a method you used
then use the past tense. For example: "Our experiment showed wide
variations in results where the variable was altered even slightly."

Use present tense to conclude or discuss established

knowledge
If you are writing about established knowledge then use the present tense.
For example: "Diabetes is a condition where the amount of glucose in the
blood is too high because the body cannot use it properly." (Diabetes UK,
2015)

When you are reporting on the findings or research of others then you should
use the present tense. For example, you might write: "Smith's research from
2012 finds that regular exercise may contribute to good cardiovascular
health."

When you are writing about your conclusions or what you have found then
use the present tense. For example: "In this case there is not a large
difference between the two diameter values (from Feret's diameter and
calculated equation), which again is probably due to the fact that the average
circularity ratio is on the high end of the scale, 0.88, and therefore infers near
circular pores."

If you are writing about figures that you have presented in a table or chart then
use the present tense. For example: "These figures show that the number of
birds visiting the hide increase every year in May..."

The most important voice to get across in your writing is your own; it is how
you can show the reader (usually your tutor) what you are thinking, what your
views are and how you have engaged critically with the topic being discussed.
You can do this by building an effective and persuasive argument for your
reader.

Make an argument
Your argument is how you express your viewpoint and answer the question
you have been set, using evidence.

Your argument can help you plan the structure of your work and guide you to
find the evidence you need to support it.

Make sure that your argument runs throughout your writing and that
everything you include is relevant to it. Try to sum up your argument in a few
words before you start writing and keep checking that it remains the focus as
you research and write your work.

Structure your argument

Guide your reader through your argument in a logical way. Think about what
questions your reader might have. If you can answer these questions through
your argument, it will seem more convincing.

Present both sides of the debate, along with your thoughts, linking together
the different elements.

You can then work towards a conclusion by weighing the evidence and
showing how certain ideas are accepted and others are rejected. Your
conclusion should make clear where you stand.

Develop your argument

Develop your argument by considering the evidence and drawing your own
conclusion.

If you are considering a range of opinions, try to group them together under
different headings.

Look at the strengths and weaknesses of the different sets of evidence and
present these clearly and in a critical way. This will help to show you
understand what you have read.

Take the evidence into account in developing your own argument and make
clear what your viewpoint is. Perhaps your argument has strengths and
weaknesses as well – it is fine to acknowledge these.

Include your own voice in your writing

Your voice will emerge through your discussion, interpretation, and evaluation
of the sources.

Here are some ways you can establish your voice in your writing:

1. Make your unattributed (not referenced) assertion at the start of paragraphs

followed by evidence, findings, arguments from your sources.
Example:

“To date there is no well-established tool to measure divided attention in

children. Current methods used to assess divided attention usually involve a
variation of the CPT with an additional task included e.g. counting or listening
to auditory stimuli (Salthouse, 2003).”

2. Explicitly tell your reader what the connections are between sources.
Example:

“Smith (2009), however takes a different approach...”

3. Explicitly tell your reader what the connections are between those sources
and your main assertion.
Example:

“Netzer's argument challenges the term 'renaissance', as it displays

repeatedly the use of classical imagery during the medieval period, therefore
illustrating that canonising a chronological period can be disadvantageous as
characteristics of the term.”

4. Use language to show your strong agreement/disagreement/cautious

agreement with sources.
Example:

“Smith's (2009) findings show a clear...A serious weakness with this argument
is...The research suggests...”

5. Include “so what” summary sentences (evaluative sentences) at the end of

paragraphs.
Example:

“This shows that it is detrimental to strictly categorise chronological periods

with artistic genres, as many art historians suggest different movements were
taking place in separate geographical locations at the same time.”

Using different verbs in your writing will show your understanding of the
sources, for example:
 “Stevenson (2015) explains that...”
 “Stevenson (2015) argues...”
 “Stevenson (2015) describes how...”
You can also use verbs to show your agreement or disagreement with other
author's arguments. For example:

 “Stevenson (2015) correctly identifies...”

 “Stevenson (2015) fails to consider...”
 “Stevenson (2015) reveals... “
The Manchester Academic Phrasebank provides many more examples that
you can use in your written work.