What is preheating?

Preheating is the process applied to raise the temperature of the parent steel before welding.
preheating helps ensure that the weld has the mechanical properties it was designed to achieve.
Essentially three methods commonly are used to preheat joints propane (gas) torch, induction heating,
and electrical resistance heating. It is used for the following main reasons

 The slower cooling rate encourages hydrogen diffusion from the weld area by extending the time
period over which it is at elevated temperature (particularly the time at temperatures above
approximately 100°C) at which temperatures hydrogen diffusion rates are significantly higher than
at ambient temperature. The reduction in hydrogen reduces the risk of cracking.

 To slow the cooling rate of the weld and the base material, potentially resulting in softer
weld metal and heat affected zone microstructures with a greater resistance to fabrication
hydrogen cracking.

What is interpass temperature?

Interpass temperature is the temperature at which subsequent weld runs are deposited. Procedures can
specify a maximum interpass temperature, which is done to control weld metal microstructural development,
and also ensures that the weld is similar to the welds made in the procedure qualification. Minimum interpass
temperatures are maintained to control hydrogen cracking, and in most cases are similar to the preheat
temperature. All the weld runs in a joint will have the same hydrogen input, cooling capacity and composition,
and therefore similar preheat (minimum interpass) requirements, dependent on heat input, to avoid hydrogen
cracking. A possible exception to this would be the root pass, which may have a higher stress concentration
than the remainder of the joint, and so the root region may require a higher preheat than the minimum
interpass temperature of the filling passes.

What is PWHT?
Post weld heat treatment  is a controlled process in which a material that has been welded is reheated to a
temperature below its lower critical transformation temperature, and then it is held at that temperature for a specified
amount of time. The need for PWHT is mostly due to the residual stresses and micro-structural changes that occur
after welding has been completed. During the welding process, a high temperature gradient is experienced between
the weld metal and the parent material. As the weld cools, residual stress is formed. For thicker materials, these
stresses can reach an unacceptable level and exceed design stresses. Therefore, the part is heated to a specified
temperature for a given amount of time to reduce these stresses to an acceptable level. In addition to residual
stresses, microstructural changes occur due to the high temperatures induced by the welding process. These
changes can increase hardness of the material and reduce toughness and ductility. The use of PWHT can help
reduce any increased hardness levels and improve toughness and ductility to levels acceptable for design.

What is welding?
Welding is a process through which two or more parts are united by means of heat or pressure or both in such
a way so that fusion occurs in their mating parts.

Welding Defects
Any irregularity (discontinuity or flaw) in the weld metal, which exceeds the applicable code limit, is termed as
a WELD DEFECT (or Welding Defect). Please note that a discontinuity can be termed as a defect only when, if
it exceeds the specified code limit, hence we can say that every defect present in a weld metal is a
discontinuity but every discontinuity present in the weld metal may not necessarily be a defect. A defect can be
macroscopic or microscopic.

Defects may occur due to the following reasons;

1. Incorrect welding parameters
2. Inappropriate welding procedures
3. Poor process condition
4. Inappropriate selection of filler metal and parent metal
5. Unskilled welder or welding operator
6. Incorrect job preparations

Classification of Defects:
Defects can be classified as external defect (also known as visual defect or surface defect)
and internal defect (also known as hidden defect or subsurface defect). External defects are
those which are found on the surface itself. Internal defects are those which exist in the material
at some depth. We can say that defects which are not present on the surface are internal defects.

1. CRACKS: It is the most dangerous of all defects. Cracks may be of any size or shape; it can be either
microscopic or macroscopic. Cracks may appear anywhere i.e. on the surface, subsurface, at any
depth or at the root. Crack occurs when the localized stress exceeds the ultimate Tensile Stress
(UTS) of the material. It may propagate within the material.

Cracks are of two types;

 Hot Crack
 Cold Crack

HOT CRACK: Hot cracks occurs during welding or soon after completion of welding, It is most
likely to occur during the solidification of the molten weld pool. Hot cracks mostly occur in the
weld metal but it may occur at the Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) region too. When hot crack occurs
on the weld metal then it is termed as Solidification Crackand if it occurs in the HAZ then called
as Liquation crack.

Causes of Hot Crack:

1. High concentration of residual stress
2. Rapid cooling of weld pool
3. High thickness of base material
4. Poor ductility of welded material
5. High welding current
6. Inadequate heat treatment

Prevention:
1. Preheating and post heating to avoid rapid cooling
2. Using right filler metal

COLD CRACK: Cold cracks occur after the solidification of weld metal; it can even develop
several days after completion of welding. Most of the time it develops in the HAZ but may occur
on the weld metal too. It is often associated with non-metallic inclusion.
Causes of Cold Crack:

1. Diffusion of Hydrogen atoms: Hydrogen atoms cause cold cracking. These hydrogen atoms
may be induced in the weld metal from the surrounding, electrode, base metal or any
contamination present on the root face.
2. Lack of Preheating: Due to inadequate preheating, microstructural changes may take place.
Microstructural crystals may re-structure itself to form martensite. Matensite is very prone to
cracks. Preheating also helps in reducing diffusion of hydrogen atoms and ensures no moisture
on the joint before welding.
Prevention:
1. Preheating and post welding the weld metal
2. Using low Hydrogen electrode
STAR CRACK (CRATER CRACK): Star crack is a type of hot crack and it develops at the crater
on the weld metal. A crater is a depression formed on the weld bead where arc gets broken or
when electrode is changed. It develops when centre of the weld pool solidifies before its
surrounding and due to this the centre pulls the outer weld and thus star cracks are formed.

2. POROSITY/BLOW HOLES: Porosity is a small pore or void whereas blowholes are

comparatively larger hole or cavity. It may be present on the surface or inside the weld metal.
Porosity can occur individually or it may occur in groups also (mostly), group of porosity is known
as cluster porosity.
Causes of Porosity:
Porosity occurs due to the entrapment of gases in the molten weld pool, these entrapped gases
doesn’t get a chance to release and hence causes porosity or blowhole. Gases which are
entrapped are mostly Hydrogen, Carbon mono oxide, Carbon dioxide, Nitrogen and Oxygen.
Source of these gases are fluxes present on the welding electrode, Moisture, Oil, Grease other
foreign contaminants present on the joint etc.
Prevention:

1. Use low Hydrogen electrode

2. Baking of electrodes before welding as per the recommended procedure
3. Through cleaning of joint surface and adjacent area before welding
4. Preheat the joint before welding
5. Ensure sufficient flow of shielding gases if using TIG or MIG welding

3. UNDERCUT: Undercut appears as a narrow groove on the base metal adjacent to the weld
metal along the edge. Undercut always runs parallel to the weld metal. It acts as a stress raiser
during fatigue loading.
Causes of Undercut:
1. High welding current and arc voltage
2. Large electrode diameter
3. Incorrect electrode angle
4. Longer arc length
4. UNDERFILL: When the weld metal surface remains below the adjacent surface of the base
metal then it is called as an underfill. Underfill is an undersized welding.
5. LACK OF PENETRATION: When the weld metal doesn’t completely penetrate the joint, then it is called
as Lack of Penetration of Incomplete Penetration. It is one of the most dangerous defects, since it acts as
a stress raiser and hence crack may originate or propagate from here.
Causes of Lack of Penetration:
1. Root gap too small
2. Fast travel speed
3. Low heat input
4. Too large an electrode diameter
Prevention:
1. Proper joint preparation i.e. providing a suitable root gap.
2. Proper heat input
3. Correct travel speed
Lack of penetration can be repaired by proper back gouging.
6. LACK OF FUSION: It is the lack of proper melting (or proper fusion) either between the weld
metal with the base metal or one layer of the weld with the other layer. Lack of fusion is also
called as Cold lapping or cold shuts. One of the most prominent reasons for the cause of lack
of fusion is poor welding technique. Lack of fusion is an internal defect, but it can occur on the
external surface too, if the sidewall of parent metal doesn’t get properly fused with the base
metal, as shown in the below figure and for this case lack of fusion can also be called as ‘lack of
sidewall fusion’.
Causes of Lack of Fusion:
1. Low welding current
2. Travel speed to high or too low
3. Unfavorable heat input
7. SPATTERS: Spatters are small globular metal droplets (of weld metal) splashed out on the
base metal during welding. Spatters stick on the base metal hence can be removed by wire brush
or buffing.
Causes of Spatters:
1. Excessive arc current
2. Excessive long arc
3. Improper shielding gases
4. Electrode with improper flux
5. Damp electrodes
8. OVERLAP: Overlap occurs due to the overflow of weld metal on the surface of base metal.
During welding, molten metal overflows on the base metal without fusing with the base metal.
Causes of Overlap:
1. Current too low
2. Large deposition in a single run
3. Longer arc
4. Slow arc travel speed
9. EXCESSIVE PENETRATION: When the penetration of weld metal is too high through the
joints then it is called as excessive penetration. It acts as notch where stress concentration takes
place. In addition to this it results in economical wastage.
Causes of Excessive Penetration:
1. Too wide a root gap
2. High welding current
3. Slow travel Speed
10. INCLUSION: Entrapment of any foreign material (either metallic or non metallic) in the weld
metal is called as inclusion. If slag doesn’t get a chance to float over the surface of molten weld
pool, then it gets entrapped within the weld metal such inclusion is called as slag inclusion.
Similarly, sometimes droplets of tungsten get entrapped within the weld metal resulting in
tungsten inclusion (in TIG welding). Sulphides, oxides and silicates also get entrapped resulting
in inclusion. Inclusion acts as a stress raiser hence should be avoided.
11. WAGON TRACKS: Linear slag inclusion along the axis of the weld is called as wagon tracks.
During root pass a groove is formed at the toe, due to wrong welding techniques, and that groove is filled
by slag (especially Hydrogen which has been trapped by the solidified slag) and thus wagon tracks are
formed. It is also known as worm tracking.
12. ARC STRIKE: When the electrode or the electrode holder, unintentionally or accidentally
strikes with the work piece, an unwanted arc is generated causing arc strike. Arc strikes may
initiate failure in bending and cyclic loading. In addition to this is affects the aesthetics of the work
piece.
13. SHRINKAGE CAVITY: During solidification of the molten weld pool, metal shrinkage occurs.
Due to the shrinkage of weld metal a cavity is formed known as shrinkage cavity.