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VARIOUS ILLUMINATION METHODS

GASEOUS DISCHARGE LAMPS:

Incandescent lamp suffers from two disadvantages –low efficiency and coloured
light. The gaseous discharge lamps have been developed to overcome these draw-
backs.

The basic principle of a gas discharge lamp is illustrated in the following fig.
Gases are normally poor conductors , specially at atmospheric and higher pressure
,but application of suitable voltage , called the ignition voltage , across the two
electrodes can result in a discharge through gas, which is accompanied by electro –
magnetic radiation . The wave length of this radiation depends upon gas, its pressure
and the metal power used in lamp. Argon gas and sodium and mercury vapours are
commonly employed in the manufacture of gaseous discharge lamps.

Once the ionization has commenced in the gas, it has the tendency to increase
continuously accompanied by a fall in the circuit resistance i.e. gaseous discharge
lamp possesses a negative resistance characteristics. In order to limit the current to a
safe value use of a choke or ballast is made. The choke performs the dual functions of
providing the ignition voltage initially and limiting the current subsequentially. Since
due to use of choke the power factor becomes poor (0.3-0.4) , therefore in order to
improve the power factor of the gaseous discharge lamp use of a condenser is made.
The light spectrum obtained is, however discontinuous (i.e. it consists of one or more
coloured lines). The colour of the light obtained depends upon the nature of the gas or
vapour used

Discharge lamps are of two types:

i. Those which give the light of the same colour as produced by the discharge
through the gas or vapour such as sodium vapour , mercury vapour and neon gas
lamps.
ii. Those which are the phenomenon of fluorescence and are known as fluorescent
lamps. In these lamps the discharge through the vapour produces ultra violet
waves which cause fluorescence in certain materials called as phosphor . The
inside of the fluorescent lamps is coated with a phosphor which absorbs
invisible ultra- violet rays and visible rays . example is fluorescent mercury
vapour –tube.

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The gaseous discharge lamps are in general , considered superior to metal

filament lamps. However, they suffer from the following draw backs.
a. High initial cost and poor power factor.
b. Starting is somewhat complicated requiring starters in some
cases and transformer in others.
c. These take time to attain full brilliancy.
d. Ballasts are necessary for stabilizing the current since such
lamps have negative resistance characteristic.
e. Light output fluctuates at twice the supply frequency. The
flicker causes stroboscopic effect.
f. These lamps can be used only in particular position.
1) Sodium vapour lamp (SV LAMPS) : scientists have long been familiar with
the fact that high luminous efficiencies could be obtained by the use of sodium
vapour as a source of light . The development of a practical lamp of this type,
however, was delayed since ordinary glass cannot withstand the chemical action of
hot sodium. with the development of special resistant glass, the sodium vapour lamp
has now reached the practical stage.

Principally the sodium vapour consists of a bulb

containing a small amount of metallic sodium, neon gas, and two sets of electrodes
connected to a pin type base. The presence of neon gas serves to start the discharge
and to develop enough heat to vapourize the sodium. Since long discharge paths are
necessary, therefore the discharge envelope is usually bent into ‘U’ shape. The lamp
operates at a temperature like 3000 in order to conserve the heat generated and assure
the lamp operating at normal air temperature the discharge envelope is enclosed in a
special vaccum envelope designed for this purpose. The lamp must be operated
horizontally, or nearly so, to keep the sodium well spread out along the tube,
although some special lamps may be operated vertically, lamp cap up. Care should be
taken in handling these lamps, particularly when replacing inner U-tube , for if it is
broken and sodium comes in contact with moisture fire will result.
The sodium lamp is only suitable for alternating
current, and therefore requires choke control. This requirement is met by operating
the lamp for a stray field step-up –tapped transformer with an open circuit secondary

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voltage of 470 to 480 volts. The uncorrected power factor is very low, about 0.3 , and
a capacitor must be used to improve the power factor .
When the lamp is not in operation , the sodium is
usually in the form of solid deposited on the side walls of the tube, therefore at first
when it is connected across the supply mains the discharge takes place in the neon
gas and gives red-orange glow. The metallic sodium gradually vapourizes and then
ionizes, thereby producing the characteristic mono-chromatic yellow light, which
makes object appear as grey. The lamp will come up to its rated light output is
approximately 15 minutes. It will restart immediately should the power supply be
momentarily interrupted since the presence of vapour is quite low and the voltage
sufficient to restrike the arc.
The efficiency of a sodium vapour lamp under practical conditions is about 40-50
lumnes/watt . The major application of type of lamp is for high way and general out
door lighting where colour discrimination is not required, such as street lighting,
parks, railyards, storage yards etc. Such lamps are manufactured in 45, 60, 85, and
140watt ratings. The average life is about 3000 hours and is not affected by voltage
variations. At the end of this period the light output will be reduced by 15% due to
ageing.
The lamp fails to operate when
(i) The filament breaks or burns out.
(ii)The cathode stops to emit electrons,
(iii)The sodium particles mat concentrate on one side of the tube,
(IV)The lamp tube is blackened owing to sodium vapour action on
the glass, in which case the output will be reduced.

HIGH PRESSURE MERCURY VAPOUR LAMP(MV LAMPS):

The extension use of the mercury vapour lamp depends

entirely upon the versatility of the mercury vapour as regards pressure, temperature,
voltage and other characteristics, each change resulting in a lamp of different spectral
quality and efficiency.
The mercury vapour lamp is similar in construction to
the sodium vapour lamp. It consists of a discharge envelope enclosesd in an outer
bulb of ordinary glass. The discharge envelope may be of hard glass or quartz. The
space between the bulb is partially or completely evacuated to prevent heat losss by
convection from the inner bulb. The outer bulb absorbs harmful ultra-violet rays. The
inner bulb contains argon and a certain quantity of mercury. In addition to two main
electrodes a starting electrode is connected through a high resistance is also provided.
The main electrodes are made of tungsten wire in the shape of helices. In this case no
separate heater is required for the cathode which is heated by the constant
bombardment of the heavy mercury ions.
The lamp has to heavy auxiliary equipment for use
with standard mains voltage, and the necessary connections are shown in following fig.
The choke is provided to limit the current for a safe value. This choke lowers the
power factor, so a capacitor is connected across circuit to improve the power factor.
These lamps must be operated vertically, since if they horizontally
convection will cause the discharge to touch the glass bulb, which will fail. Lamps

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which are intended to operate horizontally are fitted with a magnetic device which will
hold the luminous column central.

When the supply is switched on, full mains voltage is applied between the auxiliary
electrode and neighbouring main electrode; this breaks down the gap and a discharge
through the argon takes place. This enables the main discharge to commence. As the
lamp warms up, mercury is vapourised, increasing, the vapour pressure and the
luminous column becomes brighter and narrower . The lamp requires 4 or 5 minutes to
attain full brilliancy. If the supply is interrupted, the lamp must cool down and the
vapour pressure be reduced before it will start. This takes 3 or r4 minutes. The
temperature of operation inside the inner bulb is about 6000c. It gives greenish blue
colour light, which causes colour distortion. The efficiency is about 30-40 lumens/watt.
These lamps are manufactured in 250 and 400 watt ratings for use on 200-250 volts
a.c. supply mains. The pressure of vapour in lamps is 2-3 atmosphere. lamps of this
type are used for general industrial lighting, railway yards, ports, work areas , shopping
centers ,etc, where greenish blue colour light is not objectionable.
The lamp described above is M.A. type. Another type,
which is manufactured in 300 and 500 watt rating for use on a.c. as well as d.c.
supply mains, is M.A.T type. This is similar to M.A. type except that choke is not
used as a blast. Space between two tubes instead of being evacuated contains a
tungsten filament in series with a discharge tube which acts as a blast. When the
supply is switched on, it operates a s filament lamp, its full output being given by the
outer tube. . At the same time the discharge or inner tube beings warming up and at a
particular temperature a thermal switch operates cutting a part of the filament and
there by increasing the voltage across the discharge tube. The filament contributes a
considerable portion of red rays. The combination of red rays from the filament and
the blue radiations from the discharge tube produce a useful colour. As the filament
acts as a resistance, the overall power factor of the lamp is about 0.95 and therefore
capacitor is not required.
Lower wattage lamps, such as 80 and 125 watts, are
manufactured in a different design and using high vapour pressure of about 5-10
atmosphere. These are known as M.B. types. These operate in a manner similar to
M.A. type except that resistance in series with starting electrode is large and outer

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bulb is of quartz, in order to withstand high temperature so that these lamps can be
used in any position.

MERCURY IODIDE LAMP:

These lamps are similar in construction to high temperature
mercury vapour lamps but in addition to mercury, a number of iodides are added
which fill the gaps in the light spectrum, and thus improve the colour characteristics
of the light. Their efficiency is also higher (75-90 lumens/watt). A separate ignition
device, in addition to the choke, is required for the mercury iodided lamp. Such
lamps are suitable for application in the fields of flood lighting, industrial lighting
and public lighting.
NEON LAMPS:
It is cold cathode lamp and consists of a gas bulb filled with a neon
gas with a small percentage of helium. These lamps give to orange pink coloured
light. Electrodes are of pure iron and are spaced only few mm apart so that lamp can
be made for voltages as low as 110 volts a.c. or 150 volts d.c. For use on a.c. the
electrodes are of equal size. On d.c. the gas glows near the negative electrode,
therefore negative electrode is larger in size. The efficiency of neon lamp lies
between 15-40 lumens/watt. Owing to discharge of gas between the electrodes in the
form of an arc, it may cause the current drawn by the lamp to increase indefinitely.
This is prevented by connecting a high resistance of few thousand ohms in series and
mounting it in the cap. The lamp of this type is of the size of an ordinary
incandescent lamp. The power consumption is of the order of 5watts.
Neon lamps are used as indicator lamps, night lamps, for determination of
polarity of d.c. mains in larger size as neon tubes for the purpose of advertising.
NEON TUBES:
The popularity of high voltage neon lighting arose almost entirely
from its use in adversiting, for signs, or in decorative treatment of buildings, but later
the lighting field become important. The neon tube, which is used in varying lengths
upto about 8 meters, may be bent almost any desired shape during manufacture . It
consists of a length of glass tubing containing two electrodes, normally cylindrical in
shape, of iron , steel, or copper.
The true neon tube contains neon, but the term is now
used also for tubes with fillings of other rare gases. By varying the composition of
glass and adding different substances to neon gas different colours such as orange,
red, yellow and green etc. are obtained. The diameters of tube vary and common
sizes of 10,15, 20, and 30mm carry currents of 25, 35,60,150mA respectively.
Voltage required may vary from 300v to 1000v per meter of tube length for starting
and discharge a striking voltage, about 1 times this value is required. Such voltage
is obtained by making use of step up transformer having a high leakage reactance so
that it gives a dropping characteristics. The usual operating voltage is 6000 volts.
The tubes are mounted either on a wooden frame or a
metal base. These are matched with step –up transformers by connecting suitable
transformers by connecting suitable tappings for the rated current. Connections
between letters are made by nickel wires, the glass tubings being slipped over them.

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The power factor of neon tubes is quite low and is improved by using capacitors. The
capacitors can, however, be placed only on the low voltage side of the transformer

FLUORESCENT TUBES:
Fluorescent lighting has a great advantage over other light
sources in many applications. The tubes can be obtained in a variety of length, with
illumination in a variety of colours. It is possible to achieve quite high lighting
intensities without excessive temperature rise and owing to the nature of light
sources, the danger of glare is minimized. The efficiency of the fluorescent tube is
about 40 lumens per watt, about three times the efficiency of an equivalent tungsten
filament lamp. The fluorescent tube consists of a glass tube 25m.m in diameter and
0.38m-1.52m in length. The inside surface of the tube is coated with the thin layer of
fluorescent material in the form of a powder.
The coating materials used depend on the colour
effect desired and may consists of a zinc silicate, cadmium, silicate or calcium
tungstate. These organic chemicals are known as phosphorus which powder
transforms short wave invisible radiation into visible light. By mixing the various
powders light of any desired colour including day light can be obtained. The tube
contains small quantity of argon gas at a pressure of 2.5mm of mercury and one or
two drops of mercury. It is provided with two electrodes coated with electron
emissive material. A starting switch is provided in the circuit, which puts the
electrodes directly across the supply mains at the time of starting, so that electrodes
may get heated and emit sufficient electrons. A stabilizing choke is connected in
series with it, which acts as a ballast.
Fluorescent tubes are available in the fallowing sizes
Length wattage
38 cm 14W
46 cm 15W
61 cm 20W
100 cm 25W
122 cm 40W
152 cm 65W

The starting switches are of two types, namely thermal type and glow type.

Thermal starter type:

The thermal starter is a current operating device and

consists of two metallic strips and a heater coli. The bimetallic strips are in contact
with each other when the lamp is not in operation. When the supply is switched on,
the two electrodes get connected in series through the thermal switch the relatively
large current raising them to incandesence. The current also flows through the heater
element as a result of which bimetallic strips break contact. This causes interruption
in the current flowing through the circuit, which further results in a high voltage
surge across the electrodes of the tube, which is enough to strike the arc between the
electrodes. This arc is then maintained by the normal lamp voltage. The thermal
switch is now generally obsolete because of its more complicated construction,
greater cost and greater power loss.

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GLOW STARTER TYPE:

The connections of the fluorescent tune incorporating a

glow type starter are shown in the above figure. The glow type starter is a voltage
operated device and consists of two bimetallic electrodes enclosed in a glass bulb
filled with a mixture of helium and hydrogen. Normally the contacts are open. When
the supply is switched on, the potential across the bimetallic electrodes cause a
similar glow discharge at a small current not enough to heat up the tube electrodes.
This discharge is enough, however, to heat the bimetallic strips of the causing them to
bend and make contact. The result is a large current through the electrodes, their
temperature being raised to incandescence and the gas in the immediate
neighborhood is ionized. After one or two seconds the bimetallic strips cool down
and the contacts are open. This opening of contacts in series with the choke causes a
momentary high voltage, which is sufficient to start the discharge in the main tube.
The starter starts to glow as the voltage is now too low. A small capacitor is placed
inside the starter to suppress arcing and radio interference.

Now a days starter less circuits are there for instant start or rapid start.

FLUORESCENT LAMPS FOR DC SUPPLY:

In the foregoing discussions it has been assumed
that the supply to the fluorescent lamps is a.c. if however, the available supply is d.c.
some special accessories and circuit modification will be required.

(i) The choke coil has a low impedance in d.c. and therefore, a ballast
resistance is connected in series with the choke in order to limit the
current.
(ii) On systems below 220v,starting becomes less certain on d.c. only
thermal type starters should be used.
(iii) The positive end becomes relatively dark on account of the tendency
of mercury vapour to migrate towards the negative end of the tube. In
order to avoid this problem a reversing switch in included in the
circuit between the supply and the fitting like as shown in the
fallowing figure.

In d.c. operation of fluorescent tube there is no problem of power factor

correction and no stroboscopic effect. Its disadvantages are low efficiency due to loss
in ballast resistance, increased cost of the ballast resistance and reversing switch and
less life of the tube.

Basic Principles of light control:

When light falls on a surface, depending upon the nature of the
surface, some portion of light energy is reflected, some portion is transmitted through
the medium of the surface and the rest is absorbed. The ratio of reflected light energy
to the incident light energy is known as reflection factor.
There are two basic types if reflection (i) mirror or specular reflection
and (ii) Diffuse reflection.

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In case of specular reflection a beam of light is reflected but not

scattered, and unless the eye is placed in the path of the reflected beam, the viewer is
unaware of the existence of light. Moreover, if his eye is placed in the path of the
reflected reflection are silvered mirrors, highly polish metals etc. with diffuse
reflection the reflected light is scattered in all directions, and the viewer sees the
illuminated surface, not the light source. Surfaces causing diffuse reflection are
paper, frosted glass, chalk, dry earth, plaster etc. If a surface that is uniformly
illuminated by a beam of light appears to be equally bright when viewed from all
possible angles the reflection is said to be perfectly diffuse, perfect mirror surfaces
and perfect diffusing surfaces are ideals that do not exist in mature. The reflection
from any actual surface is partly secular and partly diffuse, the proportional varying
widely. A surface that is almost free from mirror reflection is called a mat surface.
TYPES OF LIGHTING SCHEMES:
The distribution of the light emitted by lamps is usually controlled
to some extent by means of reflectors and translucent diffusing screens, or even
lenses.
The interior lighting schemes may be classified as (i) direct lighting (ii) semi-
direct lighting (iii) semi-indirect lighting (iv) indirect lighting and (v) general
lighting.

Direct lighting : It is most commonly used type of lighting scheme. In this lighting
scheme more than 90 % of total light flux Is made to fall directly on the working
plane with the help of deep reflectors. Though it is most efficient but causes hard
shadows and glare. It is mainly used for industrial and general out door lighting.

Semi-direct lighting : In this lighting scheme 60-90 % if the total light flux is made
to fall down wards directly with the help of semi-direct reflectors, remaining light is
used to illuminate the ceiling and walls. Such a lighting system is best suited to
rooms with high ceiling where a high level of uniformly distributed illumination is
desirable. Glare in such units is avoided by employing diffusing globes which not
only improve the brightness towards the eye level but improve the efficiency of the
system with reference to the working plane.

Semi-indirect lighting : In the lighting scheme 60-90 % of total light flux is thrown
upwards to the ceiling for defuse reflection and the rest reaches the working. Plane
directly except for some absorption by the bowl. This lighting scheme is with soft
shadows and glare free. It is mainly used for indoor light decoration purposes.
Indirect lighting : In this light scheme more than 90% if total light flux is thrown
upwards to the ceiling for diffuse reflection by using inverted or bowl reflectors. In
such a system the ceiling acts as the light source, and the glare is reduced to
minimum. The resulting illumination is softer and more diffused, the shadows are
less prominent and the appearance of the room is much improved over that which
results from direct lighting. It is used for decoration purposes in cinemas, theatres and
hotels etc. and in work shops where ‘large machines and other obstructions would
cause troublesome shadows if direct lighting is employed.
General lighting : In this scheme lamps of diffusing glass are used which give
nearly equal illumination in all directions.

Design of lighting schemes:

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The lighting scheme should be such that it may,

1. Provide adequate illumination,

2. Provide light distribution all over the working plane as uniform as possible,
3. Provide light of suitable colour and
4. Avoid glare and hard shadows as far as possible.

The following factors are required to be considered while designing the

lighting schemes.

I. Illumination Level : This is the most vital factor because a sufficient illumination
is the basic means where by we are able to see our surroundings, unless they are
themselves light sources, since only when illuminated do the objects take on the
necessary brightness. It is the task of illumination to give objects a distributed
brightness. Body colours have property of reflection light in different degrees. It is
this differential brightness which gives essential perception of details. For each
type of work there is a range of brightness most favorable to output i.e which
causes minimum fatigue and gives maximum output in terms of quality and
quantity. Degree of illumination, to be seen and its distance from the observer-
greater the distance of the object from observer and smaller the size of the object,
greater will be the illumination required for its proper perception and Contrast b/n
the object and back ground—greater the contrast b/n the colour of the object and
its back ground, greater will be the illumination required to distinguish the object
properly. Objects which are seen for longer duration of time require more
illumination than those for casual work. Similarly moving objects require more
illumination than those for stationary object.

Illumination level required, as per ISI, in various parts of a building is given

below
Games or recteation room 100
Kitchen 200
Kitchen sink 300
Laundry 200
Bathroom 100
Bathroom mirror 300
sewing 700
workshop 200
stairs 100
Garage 70
Illumination level required, as per ISI, for various types of traffic routes is
given below

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Average level of
Classification of
Type of road illuminatuion on
lighting Installation
road surface
important traffic routes
Group A1
carrying fast traffic 30

mixed traffic like main

Group A2
city streets, arterial
roads, through ways etc. 15
secondary roads with
considerable traffic like
Group B1 princijpal local traffic
routes, shopping streets
etc. 8
secondary roads with
Group B2
light traffic 4

(ii) Uniformity of illumination : The human eye adjusts itself automatically to the
brightness within the field of vision. If there is a lack of uniformity, pupil or iris of
the eye has to adjust more frequently and thus fatigue is caused to the eye and
productivity is reduced. It has been found that visual performance is best if the range
of brightness within reduced. It has been found that visual performance is best if the
range of brightness within the field of vision is not greater than 3:1, which can be
achieved by employing general lighting in addition to localized lighting. A part from
the consideration of causing fatigue, local lighting without using matching general
lighting creates psychological feeling of loneliness, gloom and unfriendliness. The
modern trend is thus towards ‘localized lighting plus general lighting’ and towards
the adoption of ― general lighting oriented towards the working surface ‘ especially
in mass production factories, offices, drawing offices, shops etc.

(iii) colour of light : The appearance of the body colour entirely depends upon the
colour of the incident light. In general the composition of the light should be such
that the colour appears natural i. e . its appeareance by artificial light is not
appreciable different from that by day light. Day- light fluorescent tubes now a-days
make it possible to illuminate economically even large spaces with artificial day
light giving good colour rendering and at sufficiently high level. For certain
applications such as street lighting, colout of light does not matter much if different
components have not to be distinguished from each other by their colours, highly
efficient discharge lamps, which cause colour distortion, can be used.

iv. Shadows: In lighting installations, Formation of long and hard shadows causes
faigue of eyes and therore is considered to be a short-coming. Complete absence of
shadows altogether again does not necessarily mean an ideal condition of lighting
installations. contrary, perhaps to popular opinion, a certain amount of shadow is
desirable in artificial lighting as it helps to five shape to the solid objects and makes
them easily recognized. Objects illuminated by shadow less light appear flat and un-
interesting, contours are lost, and it is difficult for the eye to form a correct judgment
of the shape of an object. How’re, there is one exception to this i.e. in drawing
offices, where we are to see flat surfaces, shadow less light is essential otherwise
shadows will hinder the work. Hard and long shadows can be avoided by (i) using
large no of small luminaries mounted at height not less than 2.5 meters and (ii) by

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using wide surface sources of light using globes over filament lamps or by using
indirect lighting system.
v. Glare : It may be direct or reflected i.e it may come directly from the light source
or it may be reflected brightness such as from a desk top, nickeled machine parts , or
calendred paper. Direct glare from a source of light is the more common, and is more
often a hindrance to vision. A glance at the sun proves that an extremely bright light
source causes acute eye discomfort. Light sources of far less brilliancy than the sun,
such as the filament of an incandescent lamp, or the incandescent metal of a gas
lamp, also cause discomfort by a direct glare. Reflected glare is which comes to the
eyes as glint or reflection of the light source in some polished surface.
vi. Mounting height: The mounting height will largely be governed by the type of
the building and type of lighting scheme employed. In the case of direct lighting, in
rooms of large floor area, the luminaries should be mounted as close to the ceiling as
possible. Lowering them not only will make the illumination less uniform, but will
also bring them more into the field of vision, thus increasing the flare, without
causing an appreciable increase in the coefficient of utilization. In the unusual case
of small rooms with high ceilings, there is something to be gained by lowering the
luminaires, but even here a better solution might be to use filament lamps with
focusing reflectors and to mount them high. In
the case of indirect and semi-indirect lighting, it would of course be desirable to
suspend the luminaries far enough down from the ceiling in order to give reasonably
uniform illumination on the ceiling. In practice this is usually taken to mean that the
length of the suspension tubes should be one-quarter to one-third the horizontal
spacing b/n ween tows of luminaries.
vii. Spacing of luminaires: correct spacing is of great importance to provide
uniform illumination over the whole area and thus do away with comparatively dark
areas which are so often found when the fittings are badly spaced.
In case of direct and semi-direct luminaires the ration of the horizontal spacing
b/n rows to the height of the luminaires aboue the working plane depends to quite an
extent on the candle power-distribution curve of the luminaire. In the
case of tungsten lamps combined with focusing reflectots, the ratio of spacing to
height should be about 0.6. In the case of
indirect and semi-indirect luminaries. It is good practice to aim at a horizontal
spacing b/n rows approximately equal to a height of the ceiling above the working
plane, and in no case should the horizontal spacing exceed
1 1/2 times this height.
In case of fluorescent luminaries, it is common practice to join two are more
summaries end to end so that they can share a common outlet. In fact it often works
out well to use continuous tows of luminaries, especially when the specified
illuminating is fairly high.
viii.Cooler of surrounding walls : The illumination in any room depends upon the
light reflected from the walls and ceilings. White walls and ceiling reflect more
light as compared to colored ones.

Factory Lighting :

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Adequate lighting of factories is of very importance, as it provides improved

amenities for the employees, increased production and has a definite economic value
in reducing accidents with their consequent loss of time and compensation payments.

General Requirements and Types of installations : A factory lighting installation,

in common with other indoor equipments should provide and adequate illumination
on the working plane and give a god distribution of light, employ simple and easily
cleaned fittings and avoid glare. It is essential not only to avoid glare from the lamp
itself but also reflected glare from any polished surface, which may be within the line
of vision.

General lighting : The usual scheme in factories and workshops is to mount a

number of lamps at a sufficient height so that uniform distribution of light over the
working plane is obtained. In large machine shops the height is governed by the
necessity of keeping the lamps above the travelling crane. In such cases it is often
desirable to supplement the main lighting by side lighting in order to five additional
illumination on a vertical plane. Since light coloured walls and ceiling add to the
effectiveness of an installation, therefore it is necessary to get white washing or
painting done,

Local Lighting : On some points fairly intense illumination is required for thus
jpurpose local lighting can ve provided by means of adjustable fittings attached to the
machine or bench in question or mounted on portable floor standard. Such lamps
should be mounted in deep reflectors so that glare Is avoided.

Emergency lighting : Some lights, such as for (i) internal pilot lighting required for
safe and speedy evacuation of personnel after main lighting circuit is off (ii) cxternal
pilot lighting, provided with careful shades leading to shelters required for evacuation
of personnel (iii) for control posts, first aid centres etc. (iv) dials and gauges in
important plants required to be watched regularly are required during an air raid
when all the factory lights are off as a matter of air raid precaution. The circuit
supplying the above emergency light should be independently controlled. It is very
desirable to provide auxiliary lighting from the source other than the main electric
supply preferably from batteries or from small petrol driven generator ser. If
however, emergench light circuits are operated from main electric supply, these
shoukd be completely separated from main lighting circuit.

Industrial lighting fittings: Reflectors for industrial purpose must be sinple in

design and easily cleaned. The requirements of most of the installations can be met
by one of the following types of fittings.

Standard Reflectors: These reflectors are made to accommodate lamps of ratings

from 40 to 1,500 watts and designed so that they give adequate and uniform
illumination when they are mounted at a spacing equal to about 1.5 times their
mounting height above the working plane.

Diffusing Fittings: When more diffused light is required than that given by the
standard reflector a diffusing glass screen may be fixed across a standard type of
reflector. Such fittings are used where highly polished articles are dealt with.

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Concentrating Reflectors: A refliector with a concentrated beam is employed in

large machine shops and foundaries, where the fittings are to be mounted on a
considerable height above the working plane. In such places and ordinary reflector
would have too wide angle of divergence and would waste a great deal of light on the
walls

Enclosed Diffyusing fittings: An opal globe completely enclosing the lamp giving a
very enen and well diffused light is used when light coloured walls and ceiling are
there.

Angle Reflectors: Angle reflectors are used to provide illumination in a vertical

plane when concentrating type reflectors are used. These can be mounted on suitable
stanchions or the walls.

Maintenance: In order to maintain the fittings in a condition of reasonable efficiency

it is necessary to clean the light fittings periodically. The frequency of cleaning
depends on the conditions in the particular factory under consideration and varies
from once or twice a week for very dirty surroundings to every four or six weeks
under the best conditions.

Types of Lamps : The discharge lamps have been used in where colour rendring is
not important, The fluorescent lamps are widely employed on account of its natural
day light colour, its even illumination and absence of glare and in some cases, the
fact that it gives rise to considerably less than filament lamps of the same light
output.

STREET LIGHTING:
The main objectives of street lighting are

(i) To make the traffic and obstructions on the road clearly visible in order to
promote safety and convenience.
(ii) To make the street more attractive.
(iii) To increase the community value of the street.

The principle employed for street lighting is different from that of interior
lighting. There are no walls and ceiling which reflect or diffuse light, hence only
direct lighting scheme can be employed and hard shadows and high contrast can not
be avoided.

Two general principles are employed in the design of street lighting installations,
namely (i) diffusion principle (ii) specular reflection principle

Two general principles are usually employed in the design of street lighting
installations ,namely

Diffusion and specular reflection principle

Diffusion principle: In this case the lamps fitted with suitable reflectors are used.
The reflectors are so designed that they may direct the light downwards and spread as
uniformly as possible over the road surface. in order to avoid glare the reflectors are
made to have a cut-off between 300 to 450 so that the filament is not visible except
from underneath it. The diffusion nature of the road surface causes the reflection of a

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certain proportion of the incident light in the direction of the observer. The
illumination at any point on the road surface is calculated by applying point to point
or inverse-square law method. Over certain properties of the road the surface is
illuminated from two lamps and the resultant illumination is the sum of the
illuminations due to each lamp.

Specular Reflection principle: in this case the reflectors are curved upwards so that
the light is thrown on the road at a very large of incidence. It is observed that a
motorist requires to see objects about 30 meters away. Thus in figure the observer is
shown about 30 meters from the object. Much of the light from the lamps L3 is not
reflected towards the observer, whereas most of the light from the lamps L1 and L2 is
reflected towards him. Thus the object will appear silhouetted against the bright road
surface due to lamps at along distance. the requirements of a pedestarian, who
requires to see objects in his immediate neighbourhood, is also fulfilled in this
method as some light from the lamps falls directly downwards. The method of street
lighting is only suitable for straight sections of load. This method is more economical
also as compared to the diffusion method of lighting but it suffers from the dis
advantages that it produces glare for the motorists.

Illumination level for street lighting and Mounting-height of lamps:

The illumination depends upon the class street light installation in

class A installation ,i.e in important shopping centres and road junctions, illumination
level of 30 lumens/m2 is required in poorly lighted suburban streets, illumination
level of 4 lumens/m2 is sufficient. When the distance apart is not more than 8 times
than the height of illuminate. they should be spaced not more than 64 meters.

Types of lamps for street lighting:

Mercury vapour and sodium discharge lamps have been found

to have certain particular advantages for street lighting purposes. The most important
of these low power consumption for a given amount of light. The colour and
monochromatic nature of the light produced by the discharge lamps does not matter
much in street lighting installation.

FLOOD LIGHTING:
Flood light means flooding of large surfaces with light from powerful
projectors. It is employed to serve one or more of the following purposes.

(A) Aesthetic Flood-lighting: For enhancing beauty of building at night such as

public places, ancient buildings and monuments, religious buildings on
important festive occasions.
(B) Industrial and commercial flood-lighting: for illuminating railway yards, sports
stadiums, car parks, constructions sites, quarries etc.
(C) Advertising: For illumination advertisement boards and show-cases. For flood
lighting it is necessary to concentrate the light from the light source into a
narrow beam. The particular type of reflector and its housing used for
concentrating the light into narrow beam is known as flood light projection. The

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reflecting surface is the most important part in a projector. This may b made of
the silvered glass or chromium plate or stainless steel, the efficiency of silver
glass is about 90% while that of polished metal is only about 70%. Metal
reflectors being more robustare usually preferred. The casing and its mounting
are arranged so that the inclination of the beam can be varied in both a vertical
and horizontal direction on site. For permanent installations use of cast metal
cases is made to achieve robustness and protection against weather for
temporary installations or those in sheltered situations, use of sheet-metal
casing is made. The front of the projector is usually of clear glass, often bowed
outwards to protect it from the heat of the lamp, use of diffusing glass is made
when a diffuse beam is required. As far as possible the projectors should not be
visible to the passers by. In some cases the projectors may be housed in
ornamental stand standards.

Projects are classified according to the beam standards.

(i) Narrow beam projectors with beam spread between 12 0-250. These are
used for distance beyond 70 meters.
(ii) Medium angle projectors-projectors with spread between 25-400. These
are used for distance between 30-70 meters.
(iii) Wide angle projectors- projectors with beam spread between 40-900 these
are used for distance below 30 meters.
For economic reasons use of wide angle projector with high
wattage lamp is encouraged over narrow beam projector with low wattage lamp is
more efficient than low power used in narrow projectors. Standard gas-filled tungsten
filament lamps of 250,500,1000 watts are used in medium and wide angle projectors
which require accurate control of light, special lamps having bunched filaments and
known as projector lamps are required.
Location and mounting of projectors: one of the most important factor which affects
the choice of projector is the location of the projector. There are two possible
locations of projectors in practice. here figure indicates symmetric projector kept 20
to 35 meters away from the surface to be flooded and providing approximating
parallel beam having beam spread of 25 to 300.
And the next figure indicates when the projector cannot be located away from the
building. In such a case, an unsymmetrical reflector mounted in a basement area or
on a bracket attached to the building is used which directs more intense light towards
the top of the building.
Flood lighting calculations: The problem of flood-lighting calculations may be
roughly separated into three

First step: Illumination level required: the illumination level required depends upon
the type of building, the purpose of the flood lighting the amount of conflicting light
in the vicinity.

Second step: Type of projector : two considerations enter into the choice of a
projector .,viz, beam size and light output. The former determines the area covered by
the beam and latter the illuminations provided. Beam angle of the projector is
decided keeping in view the of projector from the surface

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Third step: Number of projectors: For any desired intensity over a definite surface
the number of projectors required is obtained from the following relation

N=(A *E* depreciation factor*waste light factor)/(utilisation

factor*wattage of lamp*luminous efficiency of lamp)

Here N= number of projectors

A= area of surface to be illuminated in square meters

E=illuminates level required in lumens/m2.

COMPARISON BETWEEN TUNGSTEN FILAMENT LAMPS AND

FLUORESCENT TUBES:

Tungsten Filament Lamp Fluorescent Tubes

1. Voltage fluctuation has 1. Voltage fluctuation has

comparatively more effect on the light comparatively low effect on light
output. output as the variations in voltage are
absorbed in the choke.

2. Luminous efficiency increases with 2. Luminous efficiency increases with

the increase in the voltage of the lamp. the increase in wattage and increase in
length of tube.

3. It gives light close to natural light. 3. It does not give light close to natural
Therefore objects are properly seen. light, therefore, colour rendering is
defective.

4. Luminous efficiency of coloured 4. Different colour light can be

filament lamps is poor because obtained by using different
coloured glass is used for this purpose. composition of fluorescent powder.
Hence efficiency is high and better
colours are obtained.

5. Due to comparatively high working 5. Due to low working temperature

temperature heat radiations are also heat radiation is low.
present.

6. Its brightness is more. 6. Its brightness is less.

7. With the time light output is 7. With the time light output is
reduced. gradually reduced.

8. Though the life of the lamps varies 8. Life of fluorescent tubes is not
with the working voltage, however, its effected so much by variations in
normal life is 1000 working hours. voltage but it depends on the frequncy

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of starting. The life of the tube is about

7500 working hours.

9. The initial cost per lamp is quite 9. The initial cost per tube is more.
low.

10. For same lumens output more 10. For same lumens output lesser
lamps are required and working cost is number of tubes are required and
more. Life of the lamp is also low. wiring cost is more. Life of the tube is
Hence overall cost of maintenance is comparatively more, therefore
more. replacement cost is low. Hence overall
cost of maintenance is low.

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