SOIL MECHANICS & FOUNDATION ENGINEERING ECA

SOIL MECHANICS & FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

2016
1. A sample of normally consolidated clay was subjected to a consolidated undrained triaxial
compression test that was carried out until the specimen failed at a deviator stress of 50 kN/m2. The
pore water pressure at failure was recorded to be 20 kN/m2 and confining pressure of 50 kN/m2 was
used in the test. Determine the consolidated undrained friction angle. (15 marks)
2 2
Deviator stress = 50 kN/m , Pore water pressure(σu ) = 20 kN⁄m , Confining Pressure
(σ3 )failure = 50 kN/m2

Since the given test is consolidated undrained triaxial compression test

(σ
�3 )failure = (σ3 )failure − σu
= 50 − 20 = 30 kN/m2

∴ (σ1 )failure = (σ
�3 )failure + deviator stress
(σ1 )failure = 30 + 50 = 80 kN/m2

Using the formula:

(σ ) − (σ
� 3 )failure
Sin ϕ = (σ 1 )failure
1 failure + (σ
� 3 )failure
80−30
Sin ϕ = 80+30
50
ϕ = sin−1 � �
110
ϕ = 270 2′

2. State and discuss different factors influencing compaction of soil in the field. (20 marks)

Factors influencing compaction of soil in the field are as follows:

(a) Moisture content: At low water content, soil is stiff and offers more resistance to compaction. As
moisture content increases, a film of water surrounds the soil particles which tends to lubricate the
particles and make them easier to be worked around, hence they come more closer and become dense.
This phenomena occurs upto OMC beyond which water starts occupying the space previously occupied
by soil solids. As γw < γsolids ; dry unit weight decreases.

(b) Compactive Effort: For a given type of compaction, higher the compactive effort, higher is the
maximum dry unit weight and lower is the OMC. As shown in the figure, the compaction curve shifts to
the top and to he left when compactive effort is increased.

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(c) Type of Soil:

 Coarse grained soil if well graded is compacted to high 𝛾𝛾𝑑𝑑 especially if they contain some fines.
However, if the quantity of fines is excessive, 𝛾𝛾𝑑𝑑 decreases.
 Poorly graded or uniformly graded sand lead to lowest dry unit weight values.
 In clay soil, maximum dry unit weight tends to decrease as plasticity increases.
 Heavy clay with high plasticity has very low dry unit weight and very high OMC.

(d) Method of compaction used in the field: Several methods are used for compaction of soil in field.
The choice of method will depend upon the soil type, the maximum dry density required and economic
consideration. Some of the commonly used compaction methods are as follows:
 Tampers
 Rollers
Rollers may be of following types:
• Smooth wheel rollers
• Sheep foot roller
• Pneumatic tyred rollers
• Vibratory compactors
 Some other methods of compactions are also listed below:
• Vibro Floatation method
• Tera Probe method
• Compaction by Pounding
• Compaction Piles
• Compaction by explosives

3. A retaining wall with a smooth vertical back is 9 m high and retains a two layer sand backfill with
the following properties
0 – 3 m depth: c’ = 0.0, ф = 30°, 𝛄𝛄 = 18 kN/m3
3 – 9 m depth: c’ = 0.0, ф = 35°, 𝛄𝛄 = 20 kN/m3

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Show the active earth pressure distribution and determine the total active thrust on the wall. Assume
that the water table is well below the base of the wall. (20 marks)

ACTIVE EARTH PRESSURE

1
pa 1 = k a 1 γ1 H1 = � × 18 × 3� = 18 kN/m2
3
pa 2 = k a 2 γ1 H1 = (0.271 × 18 × 3) = 14.634 kN/m2
pa 3 = k a 2 γ2 H2 = (0.271 × 20 × 6) = 32.52 kN/m2

ACTIVE THRUST ON THE WALL

1
k a 1 γ 1 H 21 × 18 × 32
Pa 1 = 2
= 3
2
= 27 kN/m
ka 2 γ1 H1 H2 0.271 × 18 × 3 × 6
Pa 2 = 2
= = 87.804 kN/m
2
1
k a 2 γ 2 H 22 × 18 × 32
Pa 3 = 2
=3 2
= 97.56 kN/m

TOTAL ACTIVE THRUST ON THE WALL

Pa = Pa 1 + Pa 2 + Pa 3
= 27 + 87.904 + 97.56
= 212.364 kN/m

4. A layer of sand 6.0 m thick lies above a layer of clay soil. The water table is at a depth of 2.0 m
below the ground surface. The void ratio of the sand layer is 0.6 and the degree of saturation of the
sand layer above the water table is 40%. The void ratio of the clay layer is 0.7. Determine the total
stress, neutral stress and effective stress at a point 10 m below the ground surface. Assume specific
gravity of the sand and clay soil respectively as 2.65 and 2.7. (20 marks)
Given: For sand layer e = 0.6, for clay layer e = 0.7, G (sand) = 2.65, G (clay) = 2.70.
Let γw = 9.81 kN/m3

Let us divide the layers in 3 sections:

For 1 section:
(G+Se )γ w
γbulk =
1+e

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(2.65+ 0.4 × 0.6)9.81

γbulk = (1+0.6)
= 17.72 kN/m3

For 2 Section:
(2.65+ 0.6)9.81
γsat = (1+0.6)
= 19.93 kN/m3

For 3 section i.e for clay:

(2.70+ 0.7)9.81
γsat = (1+0.7)
= 19.62 kN/m3

�)
Total pressure (𝝈𝝈), Pore Water pressure (𝝈𝝈𝐮𝐮 ) and Effective stress (𝝈𝝈
At A:
σ = γbulk × 0 = 0
σu = 0
� = σ − σu = 0
σ
At B:
σ = γbulk × 2 = 17.72 × 2 = 35.44 kN/m2
σu = 0
� = σ − σu = 35.44 kN/m2
σ
At C:
σ = (γbulk × 2) + (γsat . × 6)
= (17.72 × 2) + (19.93 × 6)
= 155.02 kN/m2
σu = 9.81 × 6
= 58.86 kN/m2
� = σ − σu = 155.02 − 58.86
σ
= 96.16 kN/m2
At D:
σ = (γbulk × 2) + (γsat . × 6) +(γsat )clay × 2
= (17.72 × 2) + (19.93 × 6) + (19.62 × 2)
= 194.26 kN/m2
σu = 9.81 × 8
= 78.48 kN/m2
� = σ − σu = 194.26 − 78.48
σ
= 115.78 kN/m2

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Points Total Pressure (𝛔𝛔) Pore water Pressure �)

Effective stress(𝛔𝛔
(𝛔𝛔𝐮𝐮 ) � = 𝛔𝛔 − 𝛔𝛔𝐮𝐮
𝛔𝛔
A 𝜎𝜎 = 0 0 0
B 𝜎𝜎 = 35.44 0 35.44
C 𝜎𝜎 = 155.02 58.86 96.16
D 𝜎𝜎 = 194.26 78.48 115.78

2015
5. The soil from a borrow area having an average in-situ unit weight of 15.5 kN/m3 and water content
of 10%, was used for the construction of an embankment (total finished volume 6000 m3). In half of
the embankment due to improper rolling, the dry unit weight achieved was slightly lower. If the dry
unit weights are in the two parts are 16.5 kN/m3 and 16.0 kN/m3, find the volume of borrow area soil
used in each part and the amount of soil used. (15 marks)

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Borrow Pit Embankment

Total volume = 6000 m3
2 Half Embankment Half Embankment
γbulk = 15.5 kN/m
3
w = 10 % (V )
Volume 1 = 3000 m Volume 2 ) = 3000m3
(V
Total volume = 𝑥𝑥 m3 γbulk = 16 kN/m3 γbulk = 16.5 kN/m3
Let weight of the soil in Weight of the soil = 16 × 3000 Weight of the soil = 16. 5 × 3000
borrow pit be W 1 = 48000 kN = 49500 kN
Combined weight of the soil(W 2 ) = 97500 kN

NOTE: Weight of the soil does not changes so W1 = W2

For the borrow pit, W2 = γbulk x volume of borrow pit

W2
Volume of Borrow Pit =
γ bulk
97500
=
15.5

Volume of Borrow Pit = 6290.32 m3

6. A 6.0 m high retaining wall is to support a soil with unit weight 17.4 kN/m3, ϕ = 26° and c’ = 14.36
kN/m2. Determine the Rankine active force per unit length of the wall before the tensile crack occurs.
Find the critical depth. (15 marks)

Given: Height of retaining wall = 6 m, γbulk = 17.4 kN/m3 , ϕ = 26° , c’ = 14.36 kN/m2
ϕ
k a = cot 2 �45 + 2 �
26
k a = cot 2 �45 + 2
�

∴ k a = 0.39
k a γH 2
Rankine’s active earth pressure on unit length, Pa = 2
− 2cH�k a
0.39 × 17.4 × 62
Pa = 2
− 2 × 14.36 × 6 √0.39
Pa = 122.148 − 107.61

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Pa = 14.538 kN/m

Total net vertical pressure at the depth of 2𝑧𝑧0 in cohesive soil is 0, hence these cohesive soils can stand
with their vertical face up. This depth is known as critical depth of unsupported cut
2c ′ 2 × 14.36
z0 = = 17.4
γ�k a √0.39

z0 = 2.643 m
2z0 = 2 × 2.643 = 5.286 m

2014
7. A soil sample in its natural state has, when fully saturated, a water content of 32.5%. Determine
the void ratio, dry and total unit weights. Calculate the total weight of water required to saturate a
soil mass of volume 10 m3. Assume G S = 2.69. (15 marks)

𝑤𝑤G s
Void ratio: From S =
𝑒𝑒
𝑤𝑤G s 32.5 × 2.69
∴ 𝑒𝑒 = S
= (1) × 100
= 0.874
Total unit length: From
G s γ w (1+w)
𝛾𝛾𝑡𝑡 =
1+𝑒𝑒
2.69(9.81)(1 + 0.325)
= 1+0.874

= 18.7 kN/m3
Dry unit weight: From
γw Gs
𝛾𝛾𝑑𝑑 = 1+𝑒𝑒
2.69 × 9.81
= 1+0.874

= 14.08 kN/m3

From, W = 𝛾𝛾𝑡𝑡 V = 18.66 × 10 = 186.6 kN

From, W S = 𝛾𝛾𝑑𝑑 V = 14.08 × 10 = 140.8 kN
Weight of water = W – W S
= 186.6 – 140.8
= 45.8 kN

2013
8. Find out the time required for 50 % consolidation in a soil having thickness of 800 cm and pervious
strata at top and bottom. What will be the value of coefficient of consolidation if coefficient of
permeability = 0.0000001 cm/sec?
Void ratio = 1.8, 𝐦𝐦𝐯𝐯 = 0.0008 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝟐𝟐 /𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠, Time factor (𝐓𝐓𝐯𝐯 ) = 0.3, 𝜸𝜸𝒘𝒘 = 1 gm/cc
R (15 marks)

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Time required for 50% consolidation

k = 0.0000001 cm/sec
Void ratio, e = 1.8
mv = 0.0008 cm2 /gm
Time factor (Tv ) = 0.3
ρwater = 1 gm/cm3
R

Coefficient of consolidation, Cv
k
Cv =
mv γw
0.0000001
Cv = (.0008 ) × 1

Cv = 1.25 × 10−4 cm2 /sec

CV . t
Tv = d2
T V .d 2 800
∴ t= CV
�d = 2
= 400 cm�

0.3 × (400)2
t = 1.25 × 10 −4 (two way drainage)

t = 384 × 106 sec

t = 12.1766 years

9. Calculate the ultimate bearing capacity per unit area of: (15 marks)
(i) A strip footing 1 m wide; (ii) A square footing 3 m × 3 m; (iii) A circular footing of diameter 3 m

Given: Unit weight of the soil is 1.8 t/m3, cohesion = 2 t/m2 and ϕ = 200. N c = 17.5, N q = 7.5 and N r = 5
(i) A strip footing 1 m wide
A strip footing is 1 m wide.
1
qu = CNc + γDf Nq + 2 γBNr
1
qu = (2 × 17.5) + (1.8 × 0 × 0.75) + � × 1.8 × 1 × 5�
2
qu = 39.5 t/m2

(ii) A square footing 3 m × 3 m

qu = 1.3 CNc + γDf Nq + 0.4 γBNr
qu = (1.3 × 2 × 17.5) + (0.4 × 1.8 × 3 × 5)
qu = 56.3 t/m2

(iii) A circular footing of diameter 3 m

qu = 1.3 CNc + γDf Nq + 0.3 γDNr
qu = 1.3 CNc + 0.3 γDNr
= (1.3 × 2 × 17.5) + (0.3 × 1.8 × 3 × 5)

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qu = 53.6 t/m2

2012
10. A sand deposit is 10 m thick and overlies a bed of soft clay. The ground water table is 3 m below
the surface. If the sand above the ground water table has a degree of saturation of 45%, plot the
diagram showing the variation of the total stress, pore water pressure and the effective stress.
The void of the sand is 0.70. Take G = 2.65. (20 marks)

G + Se
γt sand = γ
1+e w
2.65 + 0.45 × 0.7
= × 10 = 17.44 kN/m3
1+0.7

Unit wt. of saturated sand γsat (sand )

G+Se
= 1+e
γw
2.65+ 0.7
= 1+0.7
x 10 = 19.71 kN/m3

At elevation – 3 m
𝜎𝜎 = 𝑧𝑧γtt = 3 × 17.44
= 19.71 kN/m2

At elevation – 10 m
𝜎𝜎 = 3γt + 7 γsat
= 3 × 17.44 + 7 × 19.71 = 190.29 kN/m2
V = 7 × γw = 70 kN/m2
𝜎𝜎 = 190.29 − 70
= 120.29 kN/m2

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2011
11. In a consolidation test on a soil, the void ratio of the sample decreases from 1.24 to 1.12 when
the pressure is increased from 20 to 40 tonnes/sq. m. Calculate the co-efficient of permeability of the
soil during this pressure increment is 8.5 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟑𝟑 cm/sec. (15 marks)
Given ρ0 = 1.24, ρ1 = 1.12,
σ1 = 20 t/m2 , σ2 = 40 t/m2
Coefficient of permeability
= 8.5 × 10−3 cm/sec
k a
Cv = γ m , mv = 1+vρ
w v 0
When mv = coefficient of volume change
av = coefficient of compressibility
Cv = ?
1.24−1.12
av = 40−20 = 6 × 10−3 m2 /tonne
av 6 × 10 −3
mv = 1+ ρ 0
= 1+1.24
= 2.68 × 10−3 m2 /tonne
8.5 × 10 −3 cm /sec
Cv =
9.81 kN /m 2 × 2.68 × 10 −3 m 2 /tonne

8.5 x 10 −3
m/year × 365 × 24 × 60 × 60
= 100
m2
9.81 kN /m 2 × 2.68 × 10 −3 1000 ×9.81 kN
� �
1000

8.5 × 10 −3 × 365 × 24 × 60 × 60 × 9.81

= 100 × 9.81 × 2.68 × 10 −3

Cv = 1000208.95 m2 /year

12. In a plate bearing test on pure clayey soil failure occurred at a load of 12.2 tonnes. The size of the
plate was 45 cm × 45 cm and the test was done at the depth of 1.0 m below ground level. Find out the
ultimate bearing capacity for a 1.5 m wide continuous wall footing with its base at a depth of 2 m
below the ground level. The unit weight of clay may be taken as 1.9 gm/cc and N c = 5.7 and N q = 1 and
N r = 0. (20 marks)

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Plate bearing capacity of plate

P 12.2 × 9.81
Q up = A = 0.45 2
p

Q up = 591.02 kN/m2
In clay Q up = Q uf
Hence, the ultimate bearing capacity of foundation
Q uf = 591.02 kN/m2
1
Q u = cNc + γDf Nq + 2
γBNr
Nr = 0
591.02 = C × 5.7 + 1.9 × 9.81 × 2 × 1
⇒ C = 97.148 kN/m2

13. Write a short note on significant properties of soil. (10 marks)

Significant properties of soil are:
(a) Texture: It refers to the relative proportions of particles of various sizes such as sand, silt and clay in
the soil.
(b) Structure: It refers to the aggregation of primary soil particles (sand, silt and clay) into compound
particles or cluster of primary particles which are separated by the adjoining aggregates by surfaces
of weakness. Structure modifies the effect of texture in regard to moisture and air relationships,
availability of nutrients, action of microorganisms and root growth.
(c) Particle density: Particle density of soil is the mass per unit volume of soil particles (soil solid phase)
expressed in gm/cc. Most soils have particle density of about 2.6 g/cc. Presence of organic matter
decreases the density and iron compounds increase the density.
(d) Bulk density: Bulk density of soil is the mass of soil per unit volume of soil (Volume of soil includes
both soil solids and pores).
(e) Soil Colour: Soil colour gives an indication of the various processes going on in the soil as well as the
type of minerals in the soil. For example, the red colour in the soil is due to the abundance of iron
oxide under oxidized conditions whereas dark colour is generally due to the accumulation of highly
decayed organic matter.
(f) Soil Permeability: It is the ability of the soil to transmit water and air. An impermeable soil is good
for aquaculture as the water loss through seepage or infiltration is low. As the soil layers or horizon s
vary in their characteristics, the permeability also differs from one layer to another.
(g) Particle size distribution: It is a method of separation of soil into different fraction based on the
particle size.
(h) Grain Shape: Soil grains are called bulky incase of sand and gravel which are further classified as :
angular, subangular, subrounded, rounded, well rounded.
Higher angularity of soil grain leads to higher shearing strength.
(i) Relative density or Density Index (I D ) : It represents degree of denseness or coarseness of natural
deposits of coarse grained soil. Higher relative density means higher shear strength and low
compressibility and vice –versa.
e max − e natural
ID = × 100
e max − e min
(j) Atterberg’s Limit and Consistency: Consistency represents the relative ease with which a soil can be
deformed.

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Consistency is related to water content i.e., how with change in water content, the consistency of
the soil changes.
Atterberg classified the consistency in four stages. The behavior of the soils different indifferent
stages:
• Solid stage
• Semi solid stage
• Plastic stage
• Liquid stage

2010
14. The following properties of the soil were determined by performing tests on clay sample:
− Natural moisture content = 25%
− Liquid limit = 32%
− Plastic limit = 14%
− Diameter of 60% size = 0.006 mm
− Diameter of 10% size = 0.006 mm
Calculate the (i) liquidity coefficient, (ii) uniformity coefficient and (iii) relative consistency. (15 marks)
Given, Natural moisture content w = 25%
LL or WL = 32, W P = 34,
D 60 = 0.006 mm, D 10 = 0.006 mm
(i) Liquid consistency
w− W p
IL = WL − WP
× 100
0.25−0.24
IL = 0.32−0.24
× 100

IL = 12.5%

(ii) Uniformity coefficient

D 0.006
Cu = D 60 = 0.006
10
Cu = 1

(iii) Relative consistency

W −w
IC = W L− W × 100
L P

0.32−0.25
IL = 0.32−0.24
× 100

IL = 87.5%

15. A sample of soil 10 cm diameter, 15 cm length was tested in a variable head permeameter. The
initial head of water in the burette was found was found to be 45 cm and it was observed to drop to
30 cm in 195 seconds. The diameter of the burette was 1.9 cm. Calculate the coefficient of
permeability in meter/day. (15 marks)

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Given, D = 10 cm, L = 15 cm,

π π
A = × D2 = × 102 = 78.53 cm2
4 4
Initial head of water in burette h 1 = 45 cm
Drop in head = 30 cm
Final head h 2 = 45 – 30 = 15 cm
Time observed to drop = 195 sec
Dia. of burette = 1.9 cm
π
Area of burette A = 4 × 1.92 = 2.835 cm2
So the coefficient of permeability by variable head permeability test is
45
2.303 log10 �15� × 2.835 × 15
K =
78.53 × 195

= 3.05 x 10−3 cm/sec

3.05 x 10 −3
= × 24 × 60 × 60 m/day
100

= 2.636 m/day

16. Explain standard penetration test for measuring the penetration resistance of soil. (12 marks)
 Standard Penetration Test (SPT) is suitable for dense sand. In loose saturated liquefaction may occur
& in clays remoulding may occur or pore pressure resistance may develop.
 Test is performed either at 2 – 2.5 m depth interval or at change of stratum
 A bore hole is made at the test level and split spoon sampler is placed on the bore hole.
 The test is performed in 3 stages, 150 mm penetration in each stage
 The SPT no. is taken as number of blows required for last 300 mm penetration; i.e. numbers of
blows for first 150 mm penetration are ignored.
 Standard weight of hammer is 65 kg and standard height of fall is 75 cm.

Important: The observed value of SPT no. is subjected to following two corrections applied in sequence:

(a) Overburden pressure correction: If No is observed reading of SPT, then corrected value of SPT for
overburden pressure is given by
350
N1 = N0 × �
σ +70
𝜎𝜎� is effective overburden pressure at test level in kN/m2
� ≤ 280 kN/m2
σ
� ≥ 280 kN/m2, then overburden pressure correction is not required, i.e. N1 = No
If σ

(b) Water Table correction or Dilatancy correction: The corrected value for overburden pressure is
further corrected for presence of water table. In case of fine sands and silts the pore pressure may have
apparent resistance therefore correction is required. This correction is required only when water table is
at or above test level
If N2 is corrected value for dilatenccy, then
1
N2 = 15 + 2 (N1 − 15)
And, if N1 < 15; no correction is required.

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17. An earthen embankment is compacted to a dry density of 1.82 gm/cc at moisture content of 12%.
The bulk density and moisture content are 1.72 gm/cc and 6% at the site is borrowed and transported
at the site of construction. How much excavation should be carried out in the pit of borrowed area for
each cu-m of the embankment? (18 marks)

At site from where soil is borrowed

Vt = 1.72 gm/cc or 1720 kg/m3 , m/c = 6%
Vd = 1.82 gm/cc, m/c = 12%
Volume of embankment soil = 1 m3

W
Dry density Vd = s
V
Given, Vd = 1.82 gm/cc
1.82
= × 106 kg/m3
1000
= 1820 kg/m2
Wt. of solids from each cu-m of embankment
Ws = 1820 × 1 = 1820 kg
As we know, while coring soil from borrow pit to earthen embankment wt. of solids remain same,
hence, wt. of solids at site = 1820 kg

W
Unit wt. of soil at site Vt = V
WW
Also W= WS
W/C or m/c = 6% given
WW
0.06 = 1820
6
⇒ WW = 1820 × 100
= 109.2 kg
Total wt. of soil at site
W = WW + Ws
= 109.2 + 1820
= 1929.2 kg
1929.2
Vt = 1720 =
V
1929.2
Volume of soil to be excavated from borrow pit V = 1720
= 1.212 m3

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2009
18. A sample of soil has a porosity of 35 percent and specific gravity of solids is 2.67. Calculate void
ratio, dry density and unit weight, if
(i) the soil is 50% saturated
(ii) the soil is 100% saturated = 1 (15 marks)

(i) the soil is 50% saturated

Given,
n = 0.35, G = 2.67, e = ?, ρd = ?, γ = ?, w = 0.5
G + Se 2.67+ 0.5 × 2.67
γ = � 1 + e � 𝛾𝛾𝑤𝑤 = � 1+ 0.2593 � × 1
γ = 3.18
n 0.35
void ratio e = 1−n = 1−0.35 = 0.54
Gρ 2.67× x 9.8
dry density ρd = �1+e � = 1+0.54

= 17 KN/m3

If the soil is 50% saturated

Sr = 50% = 0.50
𝑤𝑤G 𝑒𝑒s r
e= ⇒ 𝑤𝑤 =
Sr G
0.54 × 0.5
= 2.67
= 0.101

γ = γd (1 + w) = 17 × (1 + 0.101)
= 18.72

(ii) the soil is 100% saturated = 1

G+Se (2.67+ 0.54 × 1.0) × 9.81
γ = � 1+e � 𝛾𝛾𝑤𝑤 = � 1+0.54
�
3
= 20.45 kN/m

19. A sample of soil is 5 cm high and 8 cm in diameter. It was tested in a constant head permeameter.
Water perlocates through the soil under a constant head of 45 cm for 8 m. The water was collected
and weighed. Its weight was recorded as 500 gm. On oven drying the sample of soil, the weight was
recorded as 450 gm. If G is 2.65, calculate
(i) coefficient of permeability
(ii) seepage velocity of water when the water was under operation. (15 marks)

(i) coefficient of permeability

Given,
Height of soil sample L = 5 cm, dia D = 8 cm
π
then, A = 4 × 82 = 50.26 cm2
head of water, h = 45 cm, volume of soil sample = A × L = 50.26 × L
= 50.26 × 5 = 251.33 cm3
Wt. of water recorded = 500 gm

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Vol. of water = wt. of water/unit wt. of water

500
= 9.81 = 50.968 m3

Permeability of soil by constant head permeability method

QL qL 50.968 × 5
K= = =
A𝑡𝑡ℎ Aℎ 50.26 × 45
Q
= 0.11 cm/sec … � 𝑡𝑡 = 50.968 m3 �

(ii) seepage velocity of water when the water was under operation.
Seepage velocity (vs ) = k p i
i = head of water/length of soil sample
45
= 5 =9
k
kp = n
Dry unit weight = dry wt. of soil sample/vol. of soil sample
450
= 3 = 1.79 gm/cc
251.33cm
Gγ w 2.65 × 1
yd = 1+e
= 1+e

e = 0.48
e 0.48
n = 1+e = 1.48
= 0.32
k 0.48
kp = = = 0.34
n 1.48

vs = k p × i = 0.34 × 9 = 3.05 m/sec

20. An embankment was compacted at moisture content of 15%. Its density was determined with
the help of a core cutter and the following data was collected.
− Empty weight of the cutter = 1200 m
− Weight of cutter when it is full of soil = 3200 gm
− Volume of the cutter = 1000 cc
Calculate bulk density and saturation percentage of the embankment becomes fully saturated due to
rains, the, determine its moisture content and saturated density. Take G = 2.70. (20 marks)
Given,
Mass of soil in cutter = 3200 – 1200 = 2000 g
Bulk density ρ = M/V
= 2000/1000 = 2 g/cm3
Bulk unit weight γ = 9.81 × ρ
= 9.81 × 2
= 19.62 kN/m3
γ 19.62
γd = 1+𝑤𝑤 = 1+0.15
= 17.06 kN/m3
Gγ w
e = γd
− 1
2.7 × 9.81
= 17.06
− 1

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= 0.553
𝑤𝑤 .G 0.15 × 2.7
Sr = 𝑒𝑒
= 0.553
= 0.732 = 73.2%
At saturation:
Since the volume remains the same, the voids ratio also remains unchanged.
e = 𝑤𝑤sat . G
𝑤𝑤sat . = e/G = 0.553/2.7
= 0.2048 = 20.48%
(G+e)γ w
γsat . = 1+e
(2.7+0.553)9.81
= 1+0.533

= 20.55 kN/m3

21. Explain the factors which affect the bearing capacity of soils. (10 marks)
The bearing capacity of foundation is the maximum load per unit area which the soil can support
without failure. It depends upon the shear strength of soil as well as shape, size, depth and type of
foundation.
All civil engineering structures whether they are buildings, dams, bridges etc. are built on soils. A
foundation is required to transmit the load of the structure on a large area of soil. The foundation of the
structure should be so designed that the soil below does not fail in shear nor there is excessive
settlement of the structure. The conventional method of foundation design is based on the concept of
bearing capacity.

Factors affecting Bearing capacity of Soils:

(a) Type of soil: The bearing capacity of soils depends upon the type of soil. Terzaghi bearing capacity
equation for strip footing:
qu = CNc + qNq + 0.5γBNγ
For cohesionless soil like sands qu = qNq + 0.5γBNγ
For clay, qu = CNc + qNq

(b) Physical characteristics of foundation: Physical characteristics like width, shape and depth of
foundation affects the bearing capacity of soils. The bearing capacity of soils depends upon the width B
and depth D of foundation. The shape of the foundation also affects the bearing capacity.
(a) For square footings:
qu = 1.3CNc + qNq + 0.4γBNγ
(b) For circular footings:
qu = 1.3CNc + qNq + 0.3γDNγ

(c) Soil Properties: Soil preoperties like shear strength, density, permeability etc., affect the bearing
capacity of soil. Dense sand will have more bearing capacity than loose sand as unit weight of dense
sand is more than loose sand.

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(d) Type of foundations: The type of foundation selected also affects the bearing capacity of soils.
Raft or mat foundation adopted supports the load of structure safely by spreading the load to a wider
area, even if the soil is having low bearing capacity

(e) Water table: When the water is above the base of the footing, the submerged unit weight of the soil
is used to calculate the overburden pressure and the bearing capacity of the soil is reduced.

(f) Amount of Settlement: The amount of settlement of the structure also affects the bearing capacity
of soil. If the settlement exceeds the possible settlement, the bearing capacity of soil is reduced.

(g) Eccentricity of Loading: If the load acts eccentrically in a footing the width ‘B’ and length ‘L’ should be
reduced as under
B’ = B – 2e
L’ = L – 2e and
A’= B’ x L’
The ultimate bearing capacity (qu ) of such footings are determined by using B’ and L’ instead of B and L.
Hence qu is less than that corresponds to actual size of footing.

2008
22. A sample of dry soil having specific gravity of 2.74 and having a mass of 133.7 gm is uniformly
dispersed in water to form 1000 cc of suspension.
(i) Determine the density of suspension immediately after it is prepared.
(ii) A 10 cc of the suspension was removed from the depth of 21 cm beneath the top surface after the
suspension was allowed to stand for 2 min 30 sec. The dry mass of the soil in the sample drawn was
found to be 0.046 gm. Determine one point on the grain-size distribution curve corresponding to this
observation.
− Temperature of suspension = 20 ℃
− Viscosity of water at 20 ℃ = 0.0102 poise (15 marks)

𝑒𝑒𝑤𝑤 = 1 g/cc
951.2 + 133.7
Vt = 1000
Vt = 1.0849 g/cc

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Setting velocity according to Stroke’s law

( V s − V w )D 2 g(ρ s − ρ w )D 2
Vs = =
18μ 18μ
gρ w (G s − 1)D 2
=
18μ
g (G s − 1)D 2 μ
Vs = �ρ = ϑ�
18ϑ w
He 10 10
Also, Vs = t = 120+30 = 150 cm/sec

(As std. ht. of sample collection is 10 cm in Apette)

10 9.81 × 100 (2.74 − 1)D 2
150
= 18 × 0.0102
D = 0.00268 cm = 0.0268 mm
(0.406/10)
% finer = (133.7/1000 ) = 0.3036 or 30.36%

23. 60 cm diameter well is being pumped at a rate of 1360 liters/minute. Measurements in a nearby
test well were made at the same time as follows. At a distance of 60 m from the well being pumped,
the drawdown was 6 m and at 15 m, the drawdown was 1.5 m. The bottom of the well is 90 m below
the ground water table.
(i) Find out the coefficient of permeability.
(ii) If all the observed points were on the Dupuit curve, what was the drawdown in the well during
pumping?
(iii) What is the specific capacity of the well?
(iv) What is the rate at which water can be drawn from this well? (15 marks)

(i) Find out the coefficient of permeability.

According to Thiem’s formula for unconfined aquifers,
πK�h 22 − h 21 �
Q= r
2.3log 10 2
r1
Here, r1 = 6 m; r2 = 15 m
s1 = 6 m; s2 = 1.5 m
d = 90 cm
Q = 1360 litres/minute = 1.36 m3/min
h1 = 90 – 6 = 84 m
h2 = 90 – 1.5 = 88.5

πK�88.52 − 842 �
1.36 = 15
2.3log 10
6
1.36 × 2.3 × 0.398
or πK = 172.5 × 4.5

or πK = 1.603 × 10−3
and K = 0.51 × 10−3 m/min

(ii) If all the observed points were on the Dupuit curve, what was the drawdown in the well during
pumping?
Now, rw = 0.3 m; r2 = 15 m

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or h2 = 88.5 m; hw = ?
πK�h 22 − h 2w �
Using Q= r
2.3log 10 2
rw

πK�88.52 − h 2w �
We get, Q = 15
2.3log 10
0.3
But Q = 1.36 m3/min
and πK = 1.603 × 10−3
1.603 x �10 −3 � × �88.52 − h 2w �
∴ 1.36 = 2.3log 10 50
1.36 ×2.3 × 1.69
or 1.603 × 10 −3
= 88.52 − h2w
or 3290 = 7820 – h2w
or h2w = 7820 – 3290 = 4530
or h2w = 67.4 m
∴ Drawdown in the pumped well = 90 – 67.4 = 22.6 m

(iii) What is the specific capacity of the well?

Specific capacity of the well is the discharge for a unit (i.e. 1 m) drawdown in the pumped well.
Let us first find out the value of R
Use Dupuit’s equation for unconfined aquifers, i.e. eq. as
πK�d 2 − h w 2 �
Q=
2.3log 10 R/0.3

πK�902 − 67.42 �
∴ 1.36 =
2.3log 10 R/0.3

1.603 x �10 −3 � × 157.4 x 22.6

or 1.36 = 2.3log 10 R/0.3
1.603 × 157.4 × 22.6
log10 R/0.3 = 2.3 × 1360
R
Taking antilog, we get 0.3 = 66.7
R = 20.01; say R = 20 m
Now, specific capacity = Q unit drawdown
πK�902 − 892 �
= 2.3log 20/0.3
10

1.603 × �10 −3 � × 179 × 1

= 2.3 × 1.824

= 68.3 × 10−3 m3 /min

Hence, the specific capacity
= 68.3 litres/minute

(iv) What is the rate at which water can be drawn from this well?
Maximum discharge will occur when
hw = 0

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πK�902 − 02 �
∴ Q max = 2.3 log 10 20/0.3

1.603 × 10 −3 x 8100
= 2.3 × 1.824

= 3.09 m/min
Hence, the maximum rate of discharge = 3090 l/m.

24. A direct shear box test performed on a remoulded sand sample yielded the following
observations at the time of failure:
− Normal load = 0.36 kN
− Shear load = 0.18 kN
− The sample area was 36 cm2.
Determine:
(i) the angle of internal friction,
(ii) the magnitude and direction of the principal stresses in the zone of failure and
(iii) the magnitude of maximum deviator stress if a sample of the same sand with the same void ratio
were tested in a triaxial test with an all-round pressure of 60 kN/m2. Assume c = 0. (18 marks)

(i) the angle of internal friction,

Direct shear box results
Normal load = 0.36 kN
∴ Normal stress at failure
0.36
𝜎𝜎 = 36 × 10 −4 = 100 kN/m2
0.18
Similarly, 𝜏𝜏 = 36 × 10 −4
= 50 kN/m2

Using Coulomb’s equation

𝜏𝜏 = 𝜎𝜎 . tanф
𝜏𝜏 50
tanф = 𝜎𝜎 = 100 = 0.50
ф = tan−1 0.50 = 26.6°
But, 𝜏𝜏 is also equal to 𝜎𝜎 tan βm
βm = ф = 26.6°

(ii) the magnitude and direction of the principal stresses in the zone of failure
Also using equation, we have
𝜎𝜎 failure
𝜎𝜎1 = 1 at− sin β m

100 100
𝜎𝜎1 = 1 − sin 26.6°
= 1−0.448

= 181 kN/m2
𝜎𝜎 at failure 100
Similarly, 𝜎𝜎3 = 1+ sin β m
= 1+0.448

= 69 kN/m2
The angle made by failure plane with the major principal plane is given as:
βm
α = 45° + 2
= 45° + 13.3°

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= 58.3°
That means the failure plane makes an angle of 58.3° with the major principal plane. Also the failure
plane is horizontal (as is there in a direct shear box test). Hence, the major principal plane makes an
angle of 58.3° with the horizontal and the minor principal plane makes 90° with the major principal
plane, i.e. 90° − 58.3° = 31.7° with the horizontal.
These values and positions etc. can also be worked out graphically by Mohr circle.

(iii) the magnitude of maximum deviator stress if a sample of the same sand with the same void ratio
were tested in a triaxial test with an all-round pressure of 60 kN/m2. Assume c = 0.
In a triaxial testing,
𝜎𝜎3 = 60 kN/m2 , σd = ? , βm = 26.6°
To find σd we must find σ1
So, using relation between σ1 and σ3 , i.e. equation we have
𝜎𝜎1 1+ sin β m 1+ sin ф
𝜎𝜎3
= 1 − sin β m
= 1− sin ф
σ 3 (1+sin 26.6°)
𝜎𝜎1 = 1 − sin 26.6°)
60 × (1+0.448)
= kN/m2
1−0.448
60 × (1.448)
= = 157.4 kN/m2
0.552

Now, 𝜎𝜎1 = 𝜎𝜎d = 𝜎𝜎3

𝜎𝜎d = 𝜎𝜎1 − 𝜎𝜎3 = 157.4 − 60
= 97.4 kN/m2

25. A 2.2 m square footing is located at a depth of 4.4 m in a stiff clay of saturated unit weight 21
kN/m3. The undrained strength of clay at a depth of 4.4 m is given by parameter w = 120 kN/m2 and
𝛗𝛗𝐮𝐮 = 0. For a factor of safety 3, with respect to shear failure, compute
(i) the net value of bearing capacity
(ii) the value of maximum load that could be carried by the footing. (12 marks)

(i) the net value of bearing capacity

Df = 4.4 m; B = 2.2 m
Df 4.4
= =2
B 2.2

Since, it is a deep footing, we shall use Skempton’s equations

qf = cu . Nc′ + 𝑦𝑦. Df for фμ = 0
where, cu = 120 kN/m2 ; 𝑦𝑦sat = 21 kN/m2

Value of Nc′ for a square footing with

Df 4.4
B
= 2.2 = 2
Df
Nc′ = 5 �1 + 0.2 � for strip footing
B
′
Nc(s) = Nc′ × 1.2
for square and circular footing
Df
= 5 �1 + 0.2 B
�× 1.2

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= 6(1 + 0.2 × 2) = 8.4

(To be limited to 1.2 × 7.5 = 9)
qf = 120 × 8.4 + 21 × 4.4
= 1100.4 kN/m2

Now, net ultimate bearing capacity qnf

= ultimate bearing capacity qnf – γD
= 1100.4 − 21 × 4.4 = 1008 kN/m2

(ii) the value of maximum load that could be carried by the footing.
q – γD
Now F = � qnf – γD f �
f

1100 .4−92.4
or 3= 𝑞𝑞 − 92.4
1008
or 𝑞𝑞 − 92.4 = 3
= 336

𝑞𝑞 = 336 + 92.4 = 428.4 kN/m

Hence, the total load that can be taken by the footing of area 2.2 m × 2.2 m
= 428.4 × 2.2 × 2.2
= 2073.5 kN

2007
26. A 12 m thick bed of sand is underlain by a layer of clay 6 m thick. The water table that was
originally at ground level is lowered by drainage to a depth 4 m, whereupon the degree of saturation
above lowered water reduces to 20%. Determine the increase in the effective pressure at mid of clay
layer due to water table lowering. Given saturated densities of sand and clay as 2.05 g/cm3 and 1.85
g/cm3 and the dry density of sand = 1.76 g/cm3.
NOTE: [g/cm3 = 103 kg/m3 x 9.8 m/s2 = 9.81 kN/m2] (20 marks)

CASE 1: When water table is at ground level

The effective pressure at datum A–A (i.e. middle of clay layer) w.r.t. to Fig. is given as:

σ1′ = [γsub for sand × 12 m depth + γsub for clay × 3 m depth]

where,
γsat for sand = ρsat . g = 2.05 x 9.81
= 20.11 kN/m3

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γsat for clay = 1.85 × 9.81

= 18.15 kN/m3
γsub for sand = 20.11 − 9.81
i.e. 𝑦𝑦w = 10.3 kN/m3
And, γsub for clay = 18.15 – 9.81 = 8.34 kN/m3
σ1′ = 10.3 × 12 + 8.34 × 3 = 148.62 kN/m2

CASE 2: When the water table gets lowered bt 4 m; then the effective stress at A–A would be given as:
σ′2 = [γsand × 4 m depth + γsub for sand × 8 m depth + γsub for clay × 3 m depth] ……(i)
Now, γsand for 4 m layer is to be determined, where the water content is reduced to such an extent that
the degree of saturation reduces to 20% of the original.
∴ S = 0.2
ρdry = 1.76 given
γdry = 1.76 × 9.81 kN/m3
= 17.27 kN/m3
γdry= 20.11 kN/m3
γ=?
γ for sand can be determined by using.
γ = γdry + 𝑆𝑆(γsat − γdry )
= 17.27 + 0.2(20.11 − 17.27)
= 17.84 kN/m3
Substituting this value of in (i), we get
σ′2 = [17.84 × 4 + 10.3 × 8 + 8.34 × 3]
= 178.78 kN/m2
∴ Increase in effective pressure
σ′2 − σ1′ = 178.78 − 148.62
= 30.16 kN/m2
NOTE: Lowering of water – table increases the effective stress.

27. An earth embankment is compacted at water content of 17% to a bulk density of 1.9 g/cc. If the
specific gravity of soil grains is 2.65, calculate the void ratio of the compacted embankment.
(10 marks)
Given w = 17% = 0.17
ρ = 1.9 g/cc
G = 2.65, e = ?
(G+Se )
ρ= � 1+e
� ρw
2.65+ 0.17 × 2.65
1.9 = � 1+𝑒𝑒
� x1

1 + e = 1.6318
e = 0.6318
So that the void ratio of the compacted embankment is
e = 0.63

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