Unit Unit Unit UNIT - V V V V: Showing or Feeling Active Opposition)
Unit Unit Unit UNIT - V V V V: Showing or Feeling Active Opposition)
UNIT-v
The family unit – principally a man and a woman living together in
harmony and peace – is and always will be the basic social organization
or unit of any society. This relationship alone provides stability in a
sexual, emotional, intellectual and social way as no other can.
When the families are strong, society is strong, as a rule. When families
are weak, societies begin to break down. This is the important concept of
sociology.
Social class is the group of people within a society who possess the same
socioeconomic status. The term was first widely used in the early 19th
century, following the industrial and political revolutions of the late
18th century. The most influential early theory of class was that
of Karl Marx, who focused on how one class controls and directs the
process of production while other classes are the direct producers and
the providers of services to the dominant class. The relations between
the classes were thus seen as antagonistic (showing or feeling active
opposition). Max Weber emphasized the importance of political power
and social status or prestige in maintaining class distinctions. Despite
controversies over the theory of class, there is general agreement on
the characteristics of the classes in modern capitalist societies. In many
cases the upper class has been distinguished by the possession of
largely inherited wealth, while the working class has consisted mostly
of manual labourers and semiskilled or unskilled workers, often in
service industries, which earn moderate or low wages and have little
access to inherited wealth. The middle class includes the middle and
upper levels of clerical workers, those engaged in technical and
professional occupations, supervisors and managers, and such self-
employed workers as small-scale shopkeepers, businesspeople, and
farmers. There is also often an urban substratum of permanently jobless
and underemployed workers termed the underclass.
UNIT-
UNIT-vi
Social interactions are the acts, actions, or practices of two or more
people mutually oriented towards each other's selves, that is, any
behaviour that tries to affect or take account of each other's subjective
experiences or intentions. This means that the parties to the social
interaction must be aware of each other--have each other's self in mind.
This does not mean being in sight of or directly behaving towards each
other. Friends writing letters are socially interacting, as are enemy
generals preparing opposing war plans.
Marx offered a theory of capitalism based on his idea that human beings
are basically productive - in order to survive, people have to work. He
also believed that people have two relationships to the means of
production: you either own the productive property or you work for
someone who does.
The clash between the owners and workers is at the heart of Marx's
thinking. In an industrial, wealthy, society, how can so many people be
poor? At the heart of Marx's thinking is social conflict,
conflict which is the
struggle between groups in society over scarce resources. Marx primary
concern, however, was class conflict,
conflict which arises from the way society
produces material goods.
Marx further believed that capitalism would lead to feelings of
alienation for the workers. Alienation is the experience of isolation and
misery that results from feelings of powerlessness. The only way to
avoid this is to reorganize society. He imagined a system of economic
production that could provide the needs of all members of society. In
his view, socialism was the answer to the failings of a capitalist system.
SOCIETAL RESPONSIBILITY
A dichotomy (division) characterizes our attitude towards the elderly.
on the one hand, due in part to industrialization and the breakup of the
extended family, the family is no longer willing to assume sole
responsibility for the care of the elderly. on the other hand, however,
it realizes, by its very abnegation, that some other remedy must be
found. the result: family belongingness is being replaced by community
belongingness, the motivation for this stemming almost from a "guilt"
feeling that, instead of the family, social action must be initiated to
help the older generation. one expert, in summing up current thinking,
says that it "stresses societal responsibility to take care of the elderly
with the same energy and responsibility as is exhibited in caring for
infants and young children"
Following is a brief discussion of some major problems commonly
associated with the older generation:
New Trends
From the planner's view, one of the more novel developments in the
housing field is the recent emergence of distinct forms of living
arrangements for the elderly. The retirement villages, the proximate
housing developments and the group housing developments are all
predicated on different assumptions as to what the elderly need in the
way of living accommodations. Up to now, there is no reason to believe
that any of these ventures are suffering from deficient market demand.
Retirement Villages:
Villages: Leisure City, Youngtown, Senior Homes, Twilight
Haven, Sun City; these are some of the made-to-order, euphemistic-
sounding names given to the retirement villages springing up in various
sections of the country. Much has been written about these new
developments,4 but only a handful have been finished so far. The
apparent ease of marketing even the semi-completed retirement villages,
however, marks them as popular and probably permanent forms of
development.
In their simplest attire, retirement villages are nothing more than large
subdivisions with anywhere from one hundred to fifteen hundred small,
dispersed single-family homes (sometimes including duplexes and garden
apartments) located in the suburbs.
UNIT-
NIT- V11
The term "local self-government" originated when the British regime ruled
our country. With the enactment of the Constitution (73rd Amendment)
Act, 1992 and the Constitution (74th Amendment) Act, 1992, local self-
governments, both rural and urban, have been given constitutional
recognition in our country and it is the third stratum of government, the
first two being the Central and the State governments
After independence, the country adopted the five year plan for the
economic growth and prosperity of rural India. To ensure growth and
prosperity in rural India, the Community Development Project was
launched in 1952, which was the biggest rural reconstruction scheme to
fight against rural poverty, hunger, disease and ignorance. The First Five
Year plan envisaged the establishment of 500 community centres.
In 1953, the National Extension Service was also launched, but the
Balwant Rai Mehta Committee (1957) found that people's participation was
not there and the village panchayats were not even involved. The
committee therefore, recommended the devolution of development and
decentralization of machinery of administration with adequate delegation
of power to the Panchayati Raj Institutions. The committee recommended
three-tier system of rural local government namely, the Village
Panchayat at the local level i.e. village, the Panchayat Samiti at the
Block level and Zila Parishad at the District level. Rajasthan was the
first State to introduce the three-tier Panchayats framework. The other
States of the Indian union also gradually launched the system. This
heralded a new phase in India's federal democratic policy. The Panchayati
Raj Institutions particularly, the gram Panchayats known as tiny-
legislatures worked very well till the mid sixties. However, in the wake of
many problems confronting the PRIs including absence of adequate
financial autonomy and holding of irregular elections.
To fine tune the working of these PRIs, the government appointed various
committee from time to time. First to come was the Sadiq Ali Committee in
1964 to oversee the progress in decentralization and grass-root
democracy in Rajasthan. The next major committee constituted was Ashok
Mehta Committee (1978) appointed by the Janata government in 1977 to
assign meaningful role to Panchayati Raj Institutions and revitalized
them. The committee recommended two tier system of panchayati raj
system viz, the Mandal Panchayats and the Zila Parishad. The
recommendations given by the committee evoked mixed response from
different states. Some states were not eager to introduce panchayat
system based on the recommendations made by Ashok Mehta committee,
while States like Kerela, Karnataka, Maharashtra and West Bengal came
forward to establish panchayats at local levels.
(ii) Estimate work at places where the Directorate of Estimates does not
have its offices.
(1) The funding of any work falls under one of the following
categories:2 SECTION 1
1.4.1 Budgeted works: These are works that are undertaken under an
outlay that is provided wholly from the financial estimates and accounts
of the Union of India that are laid before and voted by both the Houses
of Parliament.
1.4.2 Deposit works: These works are undertaken at the discretion of the
department. Outlay for these works is either provided from Government
grants to autonomous or semi-autonomous bodies or institutions through
their Administrative Ministries, or is financed from non-Government
sources wholly or in part from:
STRUCTURE OF DECISION MAKING PROCESSES RELATED TO BUILDING PROJECTS AT
VARIOUS PRIVATE:
The expression public-private partnership is a widely used concept world over but is
often not clearly defined. There is no single accepted international definition of what
a PPP is (World Bank, 2006). The PPP is defined as “the transfer to the private sector
of investment projects that traditionally have been executed or financed by the public
sector” (IMF, 2004). Any arrangement made between a state authority and a private
partner to perform functions within the mandate of the state authority, and involving
different combinations of design, construction, operations and finance is termed as
Ireland’s PPP model. In UK’s Private Finance Initiative (PFI), where the public sector
purchases services from the private sector under long-term contracts is called as PPP
program. However, there are other forms of PPP used in the UK, including where the
private sector is introduced as a strategic partner into a state-owned business that
provides a public service.
When we look at the overall developments of infrastructure under PPP model, only
147 projects in the roads, ports, civil aviation and urban infrastructure have been
materialised under the Government of India scheme. Investment in these projects is
expected to be around Rs.59,793 crore. However, only about 33 projects have been
completed and the remaining projects are in progress. Majority of the PPP projects
are pertaining to the road sector under BOT or BOOT basis. Government has entered
into concession agreement with the private partners for a period of 10 to 30 years in
these road sector projects for construction, maintenance and revenue sharing
arrangements.