SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS

Unit –I

Measurements and Instrumentation of Transducers

Prepared By
Dr.A.Nallathambi
Professor/ECE

Wednesday, February 6, 2019 1

 Course
Outcomes
CO.1 [MC1307.1] Measure various electrical parameters with accuracy,
precision, resolution.
CO.2 [MC1307.2] Explain the use of various electrical/electronic instruments,
their construction, principles of operation, standards and
units of measurements.
CO.3 [MC1307.3] Explain the industrial and laboratory applications of
Electrical/Electronic instruments.

CO.4 [MC1307.5] Understand the concept of AC and DC bridges for the

measurement of Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance.

CO.5 [MC1307.4] Select appropriate passive or active transducers for

measurement of physical phenomenon like temperature,

Wednesday, pressure, flow, liquid level, 2

February 6,
 Course
Syllabus
Basic concepts of measurements: System configuration, calibration - Errors in
measurements, measuring instruments: Permanent magnet moving coil, Moving
iron, Electrodynamometer type and Rectifier type instruments, Applications -
Measurement of Resistance, Inductance & Capacitance: A.C. Bridges.
Temperature Measurement: Temperature and heat, Definitions, temperature
scales, bimetallic thermometers, filled-bulb and glass stem thermometers,
Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD), principle and types, measuring circuits,
Linear and Quadratic approximation Thermistors, Thermocouples, optical
pyrometers, Pressure Measurement: Manometers, Elastic types, Bell gauges,
Electrical types, Differential Pressure transmitters, Dead weight Pressure gauges,
Low Pressure Measurement: Mc. Leod gauge, Knudsen gauge, Pirani gauge,
Thermal conductivity gauges, Ionization gauge. Flow measurement: Classification
of flow meters, orifice meters, Venturi Flow meter, variable area flow meters,
Laser Doppler Anemometer (LDA), ultrasonic flow meters, Doppler flow meters,
V-cone flow meters, purge flow regulators, Measurement of mass flow rate:
Radiation, angular momentum, Displacement measurement (LDR, Photodiode,
LVDT), Vibration measurement, Level Measurement, Angular Velocity
Wednesday, 3
Measurement
February 6,
 Course
Objective
To provide students with a fundamental
understanding of the concepts, principles,
procedures and the computations used by
engineers and technologies to analyse select,
specify design and maintain modern
instrumentation.

Wednesday, 4
February 6,
 Course
Summary
This course is electronics based course dealing with
measurements and instrumentation designed for students
in Physics Electronics, Electrical and Electronics Engineering
and allied disciplines. It is a theory course based on the use
of electrical and electronics instruments for measurements.
The course deals with topics such as Principle of
measurements, Errors, Accuracy, Units of measurements and
electrical standards, , introduction to the design of electronic
equipment’s for temperature, pressure, level, flow
measurement, speed etc.

Wednesday, 5
February 6,
 Books/
References
Text Books:
• A.K. Sawhney, Electrical & Electronic Measurements and
Instrumentation, Dhanpat Rai & Co, New Delhi, 19th
Edition, 2011.
• E. O. Doeblin, Measurement Systems: Application and
Design, McGraw Hill, New York, 6th Edition, 2012.

References:
• D. Patranabis, Principles of Industrial Instrumentation,
Tata McGraw Hill, New Delhi, 3rd Edition, 2010.
• A. K. Sawhney, A course in Mechanical Measurement and
Instrumentation, Dhanpat Rai and Co, New Delhi, 12 th
edition, 2002.
• Bela G. Liptak, Process Measurement and Analysis,
Wednesday, 6
th
Chilton
FebruaryBook
6, Company, Pennsylvania, 4 Edition, 2012
 Marks
Scheme
❑ 30 Marks –Sessional I & 2
❑ 30 Marks Assignment
- Tutorial -5 Marks
- Quiz -10 marks
- Seminar -10 Marks
- Class Performance and Attendance- 5
marks 90 above- 5 marks
85-89- 4 marks
80– 84-3 marks
75-79 -2 marks
< 75 – 0 marks
❑ 40 Marks –End Semester

Wednesday, 7
February 6,
Electrical &
Electronics
❑ Electronics is a subset of electrical where you influence and control
the behaviour of electrons in a circuit by another current, without
mechanical parts (switches, relays ) or electro magnetism (coils,
oscillators)
❑ Electric things are those deal with higher voltages , transformers ,
generators etc. where as electronic are those which uses low
voltages like IC.s of mag (0-15 V)
X1 Y1
Inpu
X2
Electroni Y2
Outpu
ts cs ts
X3 Y3
Introductio
n
Instrumentation : Instrumentation is the use
of measuring instruments to monitor and
control a process. It is the art and science of
measurement and control of process
variables within a production, laboratory, or
manufacturing area.

Wednesday, 9
February 6,
Few
Definitions
Measurement: It is the act, or the result of quantitative comparison
between a predetermined std. and or an unknown magnitude. Since two
quantities are compared and the result are expressed in numerical value.

Measurand: The physical quantity or the characteristic conditions which

is the object of measurement in an instrumentation system is termed as
measurand or measurement variable or process variable.
e.g. Fundamental Quantity: length, mass, time et. Derived Quantity : Speed,
Velocity, Pressure etc.

Measurand (Qty. to be measured)

Std. Unknown Result (Read

Quantity out)
Process of
Comparison

Wednesday, 10
February 6,
Significance of
Measurement
“When you can measure, what you are speaking
and express it in numbers, you know something
about and can express it in numbers, you know
something about it, when you cannot express in it
numbers in knowledge is of meagre and
unsatisfactory kind” – Lord Kelvin

The measurement confirms the validity of a

hypothesis and also add to it the understanding.
This eventually leads to new discoveries that
require new and sophisticated measuring
techniques.

Through measurement a product can be designed

or a Wednesday,
process be operated with max. efficiency , 11
minimum
February 6, cost and with desired degree of
Contd
..
Measured Value: Any value or any reading calculated from
measurement system or measuring instrument.

True value: Any value calculated from rated value known as True
value of Actual Value.
e.g. Motor Actual Speed
Measured Value
True Value Measuring
Instrument

Error : Any deviation of

measured value from
true value Measured
Value-True Value
Wednesday, 1
February 6, 2
Methods of
Measurement
Method of
Measurement

Direct Method Indirect Method

The unknown quantity (measurand) In this method the
is directly compared against a comparison Is done with a
standard. standard through
The result is expressed as a numerical the use of a calibration s/m.
number These methods are used
and a unit. Direct methods are those cases where the
common for the measurement of desire parameter to
physical quantities like length, mass
Wednesday, be measured. E.g. 13
and time 6,
February Acceleration, power
Direct Methods
Classified as:
❑ Deflection methods
Deflection method” includes the deflection of pointer on a
scale due to the quantity to be measured. Example:
Wattmeter, ammeter voltmeter

❑ Comparison methods
“Comparison method” include the comparison of the
quantity under measurement with a pre-defined standard
quantity which gives measurement. Example:
potentiometer

Wednesday, 14
February 6,
Sensor VS
transducer

Wednesday, 15
February 6,
Functional Elements of an
Instruments
❑ Any instrument or measuring can be represented
by block diagram, that indicates necessary
elements and its functions.
❑ The entire operation of the measuring system can
be understand for the bock diagram
Data storage
element
Qty. to
be Primary Variable Variable Data Data
measur sensing conversion manipulatio transmissi presentatio
ed element element n element on n element
element

Data conditioning Observ

element er

Wednesday, 16
February 6,
 Take an
example:
❑ Just take an example of an Analog meter
(Ammeter) which measures current.

Curre Moving Magnets and Forc Mechanical Pointers

nt Coil other e Linkages and scale
components

Primary Data Data Observ

Sensing conditioning Transmission er

BASIC SCHEMATIC OF AN
AMMETER

Wednesday, 17
February 6,
Classification of
Instruments
Measurement involve the use of instruments as a
physical means of determining quantities or variables.

❑ Absolute/ Secondary Instruments

❑ Analog/ Digital Instruments
❑ Mechanical/Electrical or Electronic
Instruments
❑ Active/Passive Instruments
❑ Manual/Automatic Instruments
❑ Self contained /Remote Indicating
Instruments
❑ Deflection/null o/p instruments
Wednesday, 18
February 6,
Active/Passive
Instruments

Wednesday, 19
February 6,
Absolute or Primary/
Secondary Instruments
Absolute Instruments
❑ It gives the magnitude of quantity under measurement in
terms of physical constants of the instrument e.g. Tangent
Galvanometer
❑ In this type of instruments no calibration
or comparison with other instruments is necessary.
❑ They are generally not used in laboratories and
are seldom used in practice by electricians and engineers.

Secondary Instruments
❑ These instruments are so constructed that the quantity being measured
can only be determined by the output indicated by the instrument.
❑ These instruments are calibrated by comparison with an absolute
instrument or another secondary instrument, which has already been
calibrated against an absolute instrument.
e.g. Ammeter, Voltmeter etc.

Wednesday, 20
February 6,
Classification of
Secondary
Instruments
(a) Classification based on the various effects of electric current (or voltage)
upon which their operation depend.
• Magnetic effect: Used in ammeters, voltmeters, watt-meters, integrating
meters etc.
• Heating/thermal effect: Used in ammeters and voltmeters.
• Electromagnetic field of attraction/repulsion
• Electrostatic effect: Used in voltmeters.
• Electromagnetic induction effect: Used in ac ammeters, voltmeters, watt
meters and integrating meters.

(b) Classification based on the Nature of their Operations

• Indicating instruments: Indicating instruments indicate, generally the

quantity to be measured by means of a pointer which moves on a scale.
Examples are ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter etc.
• Recording instruments: These instruments record continuously the
variation of any electrical quantity with respect to time. In principle, these
are indicating instruments but so arranged that a permanent continuous
record of the indication is made on a chart or dial
Wednesday, 21
February 6,
Classification of
Secondary
Instruments
Integrating instruments: These instruments record the consumption of the
total quantity of electricity, energy etc., during a particular period of time. :
Ampere-hour meter: kilowatt thour (kWh) meter, kilovolt-ampere-hour
(kVARh) meter.
(c) Classification based on the Kind of Current that can be Measurand.
• Direct current (dc) instruments
• Alternating current (ac) instruments

(d) Classification based on the method used

Direct measuring instruments: These instruments converts the energy of the
measured quantity directly into energy that actuates the instrument and the
value of the unknown quantity is measured or displayed or recorded directly
Examples are Ammeter, Voltmeter, Watt meter etc.
• Comparison instruments: These instruments measure the unknown
quantity by comparison with a standard. Examples are dc and ac bridges and
potentiometers. They are used when a higher accuracy of measurements is
desired

Wednesday, 22
February 6,
Analog /Digital
Instruments

Analogue Instruments: The signal of an analog unit

vary in a continuous fashion and can take an infinite no.
of values in a given range. E.g. ammeters, voltmeter,
wrist watch , speedometer etc.

Digital instruments: Signals varying in discrete steps

and taking on a finite no. of different values in a given
range are digital signals e.gs timer on a score board,
odometer of an automobile

Wednesday, 23
February 6,
Analog
Instruments
Analog
Instruments

Working Principle
Quantity to be ▪ Magnetic field Representati
▪measured
Current-Ammeter ▪ effect
Electrostatic field on
▪ Voltage-Voltmeter effect
▪ Power-Wattmeter ▪ Electromagnetic
P=V x I Field of
▪ Energy –Energy attraction/repulsion
𝑡
Meter ▪ Induction effect
▪ Heating effect
E= 0 𝑃𝑑𝑡
Indicating Recording Integrating Null
type type type Deflection

Wednesday, 24
February 6,
Deflection /Null o/p
Instruments
Deflection Null
▪ Only one source of input reqd. Require two input- measurand
and balance input
▪ Output reading is based on the Must have feedback operation
deflection from the initial that compares the measurand
condition of the instrument with std. value Most accurate
▪ The measurand value of the qty. and sensitive
depends on the calibration of the
instrument

Wednesday, 2
February 6, 5
Essential Requirements of
Indicating Instruments
1. Deflecting torque (Td) : Deflecting torque causes the moving
system and pointer of the instrument to move from its zero
position. Production of deflecting torque depends upon the type
of indicating instrument and its principle of operation
2. Controlling torque (Tc) : Controlling torque limits the
movement of pointer and ensures that the magnitude of
deflection is unique and is always same for the given value of
electrical quantity to be measured.

Two methods of Controlling Torque

i. Spring Control method

ii. Gravity control method

Wednesday, 2
February 6, 6
Spring Control
Method
❑ Two phosphor bronze hair springs
of spiral shapes are attached to the
spindle of the moving system of
the instrument.
❑ They are wound in opposite
direction
❑ Pointer is attached to the
spindle of the moving system

Wednesday, 27
February 6,
Gravity Control
Method
❑ In gravity control
method, a small weight
is attached to the
spindle of the moving
system
❑ Due to the gravitational
pull, a control torque
(acting in opposite
direction to the
deflecting torque) is
produced whenever the
pointer tends to move
away from its initial
position.

Wednesday, 28
February 6,
Essential Requirements of
Indicating Instruments

Wednesday, February 6, 2 9
2019
Essential Requirements of
Indicating Instruments
3. Damping Torque: Damping torque minimizes the oscillations of the pointer
about the final steady state deflection and makes it steady.. In the absence
of this torque, pointer continues oscillating to its final position after
reaching to its final position. Depending on the magnitude of damping, it
can be classified as underdamped, over damped and critically damped

Wednesday, 30
February 6,
Damping Methods

❑ Air friction Damping

❑ Fluid Friction Damping
❑ Electromagnetic/ Eddy
current Damping

Wednesday, 31
February 6,
Air Friction
Damping

Wednesday, February 6, 32
2019
Fluid Friction
Damping

Wednesday, February 6, 33
2019
Eddy Current
Damping

Wednesday, February 6, 34
201
Types of
Instruments
1. Permanent Magnet Moving Coil
(PMMC) type Instrument.
2. Moving Iron type Instrument
3. Electro Dynamometer type Instrument
4. Hot wire type Instrument
5. Thermocouple type Instrument
6. Induction type Instrument
7. Electrostatic type Instrument
8. Rectifier type Instrument

Wednesday, 3
February 6,
201 5
Permanent Magnet Coil
Instrument (PMMC)

Wednesday, 3
February 6, 6
Permanent Magnet Coil
Instrument (PMMC)- Torque
Equation

Wednesday, February 6, 37
2019
Permanent Magnet Coil
Instrument (PMMC)- Torque
Equation
Controlling Torque: The value of
control torque depends on the
mechanical design of the control
device. For spiral springs and
strip suspensions, the controlling
torque is directly proportional to
the angle of deflection of the coil.

Wednesday, 3
February 6, 8
Permanent Magnet Coil
Instrument (PMMC)- Torque
Equation
It is provided by the induced currents in a metal former or core on which the
coil is wound or in the circuit of the coil itself.

Wednesd February 3
ay,
201 6, 9
Error
s

❑ Frictional Error
❑ Temperature Error
❑ Errors due weakening of
permanent magnet
❑ Error due to ageing of spring
❑ Stray magnetic field error

Wedne ay, February 6, 40

sd
201
Advantages of
PMMC

❑ Low Power consumption

❑ Scales are uniform
❑ No hysteresis loss (iron loss)
❑ High Torque/wt. ratio
❑ They have a very effective and efficient
eddy current damping
❑ Range can be extended with shunts or
multipliers

Wednesday, 41
February 6,
disadvantages of
PMMC

❑ Use only for dc

❑ The cost of these instruments is higher
than that of moving iron instrument

Wednesday, 42
February 6,
Numeric
als
1. A permanent magnet moving coil instrument has a coil of dimensions
15mm x 12 mm. The flux density in the air gap is 1.8 x 103 Wb/𝑚2 and the
spring constant is 0.14 x 10−6 Nm/rad. Determine the number of turns
required to produce an angular deflection of 90 degrees when a current of
5mA is flowing through the coil.
2. The control spring of an instrument has the following dimensions:
Length of strip =370 mm , thickness of strip =0.073 mm, width of strip=
0.51mm The young modulus is 112.8 GN/𝑚2. Estimate the torque exerted
by spring when it is turned through 90𝑜.
3. The coil of a moving coil voltmeter is 40mm long and 30mm wide and has
100 turns on it. The control spring exerts a torque of 240 x 10−6 N-m when
the deflection is 100 divisions on full scale. If the flux density of the
magnetic field in the air gap is 1.0 wb/𝑚2, estimate the resistance that must
be put in series with the coil to give one volt per division. The resistance of
the voltmeter coil may be neglected.

Wednesday, 43
February 6,
Ammeter
Shunts
DC Ammeter
❑ Its is always connected in series
❑ low internal resistance
❑ maximum pointer deflection is produced by a very small
current
❑ For a large currents, the instrument must be modified by
connecting a very low shunt resister
❑ Extension of Ranges of Ammeter
- Single Shunt Type of Ammeter

Wednesday, 44
February 6,
Ammeter Shunts
V = Vm
sh
I R = Im Rm
sh sh

Rsh = Im
Rm I sh
I = I − Im
sh

∴ R sh = Im Rm
I − Im

Wednesday, February 6, 45
Ammeter
Shunts
❑ Multirange Ammeters Make-before-
break switch
The instrument is notleft
without a shunt in parallel with it.
During switching there are actually two
shunts in parallel with the instrument .

Wednesday, 46
February 6,
Ayrton or Universal
Shunts

Wednesday, 47
February 6,
Numeric
al
Design an Aryton shunt to provide an ammeter with a current ranges 1A,
5A and 10A. A basic meter resistance is 50 ohms and full scale deflection
current is 10mA.

Wednesday, 4
February 6,
201 8
Numeric
al

Wednesday, 4
201
February 6, 9
Voltmeter
Multipliers
A basic d’Arsonval movement can be converted into dc voltmeter by
adding in series resistor multiplier as shown in figure.

Wednesday, 5
February 6, 0
Multirange dc
Voltmeter
A DC voltmeter can be converted into a multirange voltmeter by
connecting a number of resistors (multipliers) in series with the meter
movement. A practical multi-range DC voltmeter is shown in Figure

Wednesday, , 5
February 6
201 1
Ammeter/Voltmeter
Sensitivity
❑ Ammeter sensitivity is determined by the amount of current required by the
meter coil to produce full-scale deflection of the pointer.
❑ The smaller the amount of current required producing this deflection, the
greater the sensitivity of the meter.

❑ The sensitivity of a voltmeter is given in ohms per volt. It is determined by

dividing the sum of the resistance of the meter (Rm), plus the series
resistance (Rs), by the full-scale reading in volts. In equation form, sensitivity
is expressed as follows:

❑ This is the same as saying the sensitivity is equal to the reciprocal of the full-
scale deflection current. In equation form, this is expressed as follows:

Wednesday, 52
February 6,
Numeric
als
❑ Calculate the value of the shunt resistance required to convert a 1-mA
meter movement, with a 100 Ohm internal resistance, into a 0- to 10 mA
ammeter

❑ Compute the value of the shunt resistors for the circuit below. I 3 = 1A, I 2 =
100 A, I 1 = 10
mA, I m = 100 uA and R m = 1K Ohm.

Wednesday, 53
February 6,
Solutio
ns
❑ Solution V m = Im Rm V = Vm = 0.1V
sh
1: = (1mA)* (100Ω) = = I − Im
I
0.1V = 10mA −1mA =
Solution 2 : This is the shunt for the
sh 9mA
V
Rs = sh = 0.1V
range.
10 mA When the meter is set on the h I s 11.11Ω
range,
100-mAthe resistor b R and
c R provide h 9mA
.the
The total shunt resistance is
shunt
equatio
found by the R Rb = (Rb + Rc ) − Rc
n. Rs = m = 1KΩ =
= 1.01 Ω − 0.101Ω =
h
n −1 100 10.1Ω 0.909Ω
R +R =−1
Im (Rb + Rc ) Ra = Rsh − (Rb + Rc )
b c I 2 = 10.1 Ω − (0.909Ω + 0.101Ω) =
0.909Ω
= (100 uA) * (10.1Ω + 1KΩ) = Rsh = Ra + Rb + Rc
1.01Ω = 9.09 Ω + 0.909Ω + 0.101Ω =
100 mA 10.1Ω

R + R = I m (Rb + Rc ) 5
Wednesday,
February 6,I
b c
2 5
Moving Iron
Instruments
-Torque Equation
Classification
1. Moving Iron Attraction Type
Instruments
1. Moving Iron Repulsion Type
Instruments.

Wednesday, 5
February 6, 6
Moving Iron
Instruments

Wednesday, February 6, 57
2019
Moving Iron
Instruments
▪ Radial Vane
Type
▪ Coaxial Vane
Type

Wednesday, February 6, 58
2019
Torque
Equation

Wednesday, February 6, 59
2019
Torque
Equation

Wednesday, February 6, 60
2019
Advantag
es
❑ Can be used both in D.C. as well as in A.C. circuits.
❑ Robust and simple in construction.
❑ Possess high operating torque.
❑ Can withstand overload momentarily.
❑ Since the stationary parts and the moving parts of the
instrument are simple so they are cheapest.
❑ Suitable for low frequency and high power circuits.
❑ Capable of giving an accuracy within limits of both
precision and
industrial grades.

Wednesday, 60
February 6,
Limitatio
ns
❑ Scales not uniform.
❑ For low voltage range the power consumption is higher.
❑ The errors are caused due to hysteresis in the iron of the operating
system and due to stray magnetic field.
❑ In case of A.C. measurements, change in frequency causes serious
error.
❑ With the increase in temperature the stiffness of the spring decreases.

Wednesday, 61
February 6,
Error
s
Errors with both A.C and D.C

1. Hysteresis error : This error occurs as the value of flux density is different of same
current for ascending and descending values. The flux density is higher for descending
value there for instruments read higher for descending value current this error can be
minimize using small iron parts and other method is used nickel iron alloy
2. Temperature error: the effect of temperature change on moving iron instruments aries
chiefly from the temperature coefficient of spring.for minimize the error the series
resistance should be made of material like Manganin which has small temperature
coefficient. the value of resistance should large as compare with coil resistance.in order
to reduce the self heating.
3. Stray Magnetic fields: It is a also called demagnetization fields. this is weak at full scale
deflection hence it can easily distorted . these error can be minimized using an iron case
or iron shied over working parts

Errors with A.C. only:

1. Frequency error: Change in frequency is also cause of change in reactance of working
coil and also change the eddy currents setup in the metal parts of instrument.
2. Reactance of Instruments coil: the change of reactance of the instrument coil is
importance in case of voltmeter. where a addition resistance put in series with
instrument coil to reduce this effect.
Wednesday, 62
February 6,
Electrodynamometer
Instruments

Wednes y, 63
da 2019 February 6,
Electrodynamometer
Instruments

Wednesday, ry 64
Februa 2019 6,
Torque
Equation

Wednesday, February 6, 68
2019
Torque
Equation

Wednesday, February 6, 69
2019
Torque
Equation

Wednesday, February 6, 70
2019
Advantag
es

❑ As the coils are air cored, these instruments are free

from hysteresis and eddy current losses.
❑ They have a precision grade security
❑ These instruments can be used on both a.c. and d.c.
They are also used as a transfer instruments.
❑ Electrodynamometer voltmeter are very useful where
accurate
r.m.s values of voltage, irrespective of waveforms, are
required.
❑ Free from hysteresis errors.
❑ Low power Consumption.
❑ Light in weight.

Wednesday, 68
February 6,
Disadvanta
ges

❑ These instruments have a low sensitivity due to a low

torque to weight ratio. Also it introduces increased
frictional losses. To get accurate results, these errors
must be minimized.
❑ They are more expensive than other type of
instruments.
❑ These instruments are sensitive to overload and
mechanical impacts. Therefore can must be taken
while handling them.
❑ They have a non-uniform scale.
❑ The operation current of these instruments is large
due to the fact that they have weak magnetic field.

Wednesday, 69
February 6,
Error
s

1. Torque to weight ratio

2. Frequency errors
3. Eddy current errors
currents.
4. Stray magnetic field
error :.
5. Temperature error :

Wednesday, 70
February 6,
Numeric
als
1. In an electrodynamometer instrument the total resistance of the voltage
coil circuit is
8.00 Ω and mutual inductance changes uniformly from -173µH at zero
deflection to + 175µH at full scale, the angle of full scale being 95 degree. If
a potential difference of 100V is applied across the voltage circuit, and a
current of 3A at a power factor of 0.75 is passed through the current coil,
what ill be the deflection , if the spring control constant is 4.63 x 106 𝑁 − 𝑚/
𝑟𝑎𝑑

Wednesday, 71
February 6,
Characteristics of
Instruments

The performance of an instrument is described

by means of a quantitative qualities termed as
characteristics. These are broken down into:
1. Static Characteristics: These characteristics
pertain to a system where the quantities to
be measures are constant or vary slowly with
time
2. Dynamic Characteristics: Performance
criteria based on dynamic relations
(involving rapidly varying quantities)

Wednesday, 72
February 6,
Static
Characteristics
❑ Accuracy
It is the closeness with which an instrument reading
approaches the true value of the quantity measured.
❑ Precision : The degree to which repeated
measurements show the same results.

Low Low
Accuracy Accuracy
Low High
Precision Precision

High High
Accuracy Accuracy
Low High
Precision Precision
Wednesday, 73
February 6,
Accuracy and
Precision
Accuracy may be specified in terms of inaccuracy or
limit of errors and can be expressed in the following
ways:
1. Point Accuracy
2. Accuracy as “Percentage of Scale Range”
3. Accuracy as “Percentage of True value”

Indication of Precision
Significant Figures: It is an indication of precision of
measurement. It convey the actual information regarding
the magnitude and the measurement precision of a qty.
The more the significant figures, the greater the precision.
e.g. 302 A = 3S.F
302.10 V = 5 S.F 0.00030 = 5 S.F
Wednesday,
February 6,
Static
Characteristics
❑ Resolution or Discrimination: The smallest detectable
incremental change of the input parameter that can be
detected in the output signal. Eg; Scale, Multi range
meters.
❑ Sensitivity: For an instrument or sensor with input x
and output y. Sensitivity = dy/dx

outp outp
ut ut

Inp Input
ut
Wednesday,
Static sensitivity = Infinitesimal change in output /
February 6, infinitesimal
Static
Characteristics
❑ Repeatability: Closeness of output reading when the same input
is applied repeatedly over a short period of time with the same
measurement conditions
, same instrument and observer , same location and same
conditions od use
maintained throughout.
❑ Reproducibility: Closeness of output readings for the same
input when there are changes in method of measurement ,
observer, location , conditions of use, and time of measurement.
❑ Span & Range:
Range : High measurement possible
Span : Difference between max. and min measurement possible
E.g. Thermocouple (700 0C to 1200 0C) Ammeter (0 to 10 A)
❑ Dead zone : The largest of a measured variable for which the
instrument
does not respond Cause: friction in mechanical measurement
Wednesday,
system
February 6,
201
Static
Characteristics
❑ Dead Time :The time before the instrument begins to respond after
the measured quantity has been changed. E.g: Camera, Data
acquisition card, Ammeter

Wednesd February
ay,
201 6,
Static
Characteristics
❑ Drift : It is an undesired gradual departure of the instrument o/p
over a period of time that is unrelated to changes in i/p , operating
conditions or load.

The drift may be caused by the following factors:

1) Mechanical vibrations
2) Temp. changes
3) Wear and Tear etc.

Classification:
1) Zero drift : If the whole of instrument calibration/ characterstics
corrected shifts
gradually by shifting pointer
one by same amount. It may be due to presence set
Characteristics with
position.
or slippage and can be zero drift
outp
ut
Normal
Wednesday, characteristics
February 6, Zer
Static
Characteristics
2) Span or senstivtity Drift : If the calibration from zero
upwards changes proportionally

outp
ut
Normal characteristics

Span drift

3) Zonal Drift : When the drift occurs only over a portion of span of
an instrument.

outp
ut
Normal
Wednesday, characteristics
February 6, zonal
Static
Characteristics
❑ Linearity: If the calibration from zero upwards changes
proportionally. If input-output relationship is a straight line passing
through origin
❑ Nonlinearity cause lot of problem during signal conditioning even
though it is more
accurate in some cases e.g. LVDT (linear) , Thermistor (Non-linear)

Actual calibration curve

output
Idealised St. Line

Input

Any departure from straight line relationship is

non-linearity
Wednesday,
February 6,
Static
Characteristics
❑ Error: Error is the degree to which a measurement conforms to the
expected or true value .Errors are due to measuring instruments
(causing the change in the value of the parameter being measured)
or due to persons carrying out the measurements (human errors).
Errors may be expressed as absolute or percentage.

Types of Errors
❑ Gross errors
- Human errors
❑ Systematic errors
- Instrument errors
- Environmental errors
- Observational errors
Random errors

Wednesday,
February 6,
Static
Characteristics
❑ Error: Error is the degree to which a measurement conforms to the
expected or true value .Errors are due to measuring instruments
(causing the change in the value of the parameter being measured)
or due to persons carrying out the measurements (human errors).
Errors may be expressed as absolute or percentage.

Types of Errors
❑ Gross errors
- Human errors
❑ Systematic errors
- Instrument errors
- Environmental errors
- Observational errors
❑ Random errors

Wednesday,
February 6,
Errors in
Measurement
Static Error/Absolute Error- It is defined as the difference between the
measured value and the true value of the quantity. Then:
∆ A = Am - (1
Where ∆ A= error At )
Am = measured value of quantity
At = True value of quantity
∆ A is also absolute static error of
quantity A we have ɛ 0 = ∆ A (2
Where ɛ0 = absolute static error of )
quantity A
Relative Static Error (3
ɛr = absolute error/ true value )

= ∆ A/ At
=
Percentage staticɛerror
0 /A t % ɛr = ɛ r x 100 (4)
We have At = A m - ∆ A

= Am -
Wednesday,
ɛ 0= A m - ɛr At )
= Am/(1+ (5)
ɛr
February 6,
Errors in
Measurement
Equation (5) can also be written as
At = A m (1- (6
)
ɛ)
r

(7
Static Correction
)
∆ C= A t -Am

Wednesday,
February 6,
Questi
on
1. Which of the following instrument is more quality
instrument.
Instrument Instrument
A B
∆ A= 1 A ∆ A= 10 A
At = 2 amp At= 1000
a) Only A amp
b) Only B
c) Both A and
B
d) None of
above

Wednesday,
February 6,
Errors in sum and
Difference of Quantities

Error in the sum of Error in the difference of

quantities equal the sum quantities equal the sum of
of absolute errors absolute errors
Wednesday,
February 6,
Errors in product and
Quotient of Quantities

Wednesday,
February 6,
Dynamic
Characteristics
1) Speed of Response: It is defined as the rapidity with which a
measurement system responds to changes in the measurement
quantity.

2) Measurement Lag: It refers to retardation or delay in the response of

measurement system to changes in measured quantity . The lag is
caused by conditions such as capacitance, inertia or resistance.
Measuring lag are of two types:
a) Retardation type lag
b) Time delay type lag

3) Fidelity: It is defined as the degree to which a measurement system

indicates changes in the measured quantity without any dynamic
error.

4) Dynamic error or measurement error : It is the difference between

true value of the quantity changes with time and the value indicated
Wednesday,
byFebruary
the measurement
6, system if no static error is assumed.
Numeric
als
❑ The output voltage of a 5 V DC supply is measured as 4.9 V. Find (1)
Absolute error (2) Percent error (3) Relative accuracy and (4) Percent
accuracy
❑ The three resistors R1 , R2 and R3 have the following ratings:
R1= 25Ω± 4 % R2= 65Ω± 4%
R3= 45Ω± 4%
Determine the following
a) Limiting value of resultant resistance
b) % Limiting error of series combinations of resistance.

Wednesday,
February 6,
❑ AC and DC
bridges
❑ Bridges circuit are used for measuring components such as R, L and C
and other circuit parameters derived from component values such as
frequency, phase angle and temperature.
❑ Operate on a null indication principle (Comparison). That is known
(standard) value is adjusted until it is equal to unknown value
❑ Very high degrees of accuracy can be achieved using the bridges

Types of Bridge Circuits used in the Measurement

DC Bridges
❑ Low Resistance High Resistance
Measurement Ammeter Measurement
Voltmeter method Kelvin Direct Deflection Method
Double Bridge Method Loss of Charge Method
Potentiometer method Megohm Bridge
❑ Medium Resistance Meggar
Measurement Ammeter
voltmeter method
Substitution
Wednesday, Method
February 6, bridge method
Wheatstone
AC
bridges
Self Inductance Capacitance

❑ De sauty’s
❑ Maxwell’s Bridge
Bridge
Maxwell inductance bridge
❑ Schering
Maxwell inductance capacitance
Bridge
bridge
❑ Hay’s Bridge Mutual
❑ Anderson Bridge
❑ Owen’s Bridge
Inductance
❑ Carry Foster
Haydweiller
bridge
Frequency

❑ Wien’s
Bridge
Wednesday,
February 6,
Ammeter Voltmeter
Method
❑ Resistance can be measured using Ammeter and Voltmeter and
Applying ohms law.
❑ When voltmeter is connected across supply then resistance R= (E+Ev)/
I

In both cases measured value of unknown resistance is equal to the

reading of voltmeter divided by reading of ammeter.
From fig.(1) R = Rm (𝟏 − 𝑹 𝒂/ 𝑹 𝒎 ) Ideally R = Rm only when Ra = 0 From
fig.(2)
R = 𝑹 𝒎 /(𝟏− 𝑹 𝒎/ 𝑹 𝒗 )
Ideally R = Rm when resistance of voltmeter is ‘∞

Wednesday,
February 6,
Substitution
Method

❑ Accuracy depends on the EMF of the battery and also depends on the
resistance of the circuit other than R & S
❑ Substitution method is more accurate than ammeter voltmeter method
Wheatstone
Bridge
• R1 and R2 are called the ratio arms.
• R3 is called the standard arm containing the standard
known resistance.
• R4 is the unknown resistance to be measured.
• Battery connected between A and C.
• Galvanometer attached between B and D.

Wednesday, ruary
Feb 2019 6,
Balanced
Condition

Wednesday,
February 6,
Wheatstone
Bridge

Wednesday,
February 6,
Sensitivi
ty

Current -
Sensitivity:

Voltage
Sensitivity:-
Bridge
Sensitivity:-

Wednesday,
February 6,
201
Under small Unbalance
Condition

Wednesday,
201
February 6,
Under small Unbalance
Condition

Wednesday,
February 6,
Under small Unbalance
Condition

Wednesday,
February 6,
Thevenin
Voltage

Wednesday,
February 6,
Sensitivity under
unbalanec

Wednesday,
February 6,
Errors in Wheatstone
Bridge

❑ The difference between the true and the mark value of the
three resistances can cause the error in measurement.
❑ The galvanometer is less sensitive. Thus, inaccuracy
occurs in the
balance point.
❑ The resistance of the bridge changes because of the self-
heating which generates an error.
❑ The thermal emf cause serious trouble in the
measurement of low-
value resistance.
❑ The personal error occurs in the galvanometer by taking
the reading or by finding the null point.

Wednesday,
February 6,
Kelvin
Bridge

Wednesday,
February 6,
Kelvin
Bridge

Wednesday,
February 6,
Kelvin Double
Bridge

Wednesday,
February 6,
Kelvin Double
Bridge

Wednesday,
February 6,
Kelvin Double
Bridge

Wednesday,
February 6,
Measurement of High
Resistance

❑ Loss of Charge
Method
❑ Direct Deflection
Method
❑ Meggar
❑ Megohm Bridge
Method
Wednesday,
February 6,
 Loss of Charge
Method

Construction:
❑ R, an unknown resistance is connected in parallel with a capacitor C
and electrostatic voltmeter.
❑ A battery with emf V in parallel with R and C.
Operation:
❑ Capacitor is charged to suitable voltage by battery.
❑ Then allowed to discharge through resistance.
❑ Terminal voltage is observed over a considerable period of time
during discharge.
❑ After application of voltage, Voltage across capacitor at any instant ‗t‘
Loss of Charge
Method

Results:
❑ If R is very large, time for appreciable fall in voltage is very large.
❑ Care is to be taken while measuring V and v i.e. voltage at beginning and
end of time ‗t‘
❑ Error in V/v
❑ Better results by change in voltage (V-v) directly and calculating R as
Direct Deflection
Method

Cable having
Cable having no conducting
Sheath
Sheath
Measurement of volume and
surface resistivity
 AC
Bridges

❑ The ac bridge is a natural out growth of the Wheatstone

bridge.
❑ The four arms is impedance. The battery and
galvanometer are replaced by an ac source and a
detector sensitive to small alternating potential
difference.
❑ Detectors commonly used are:
❑ Head phones
❑ Vibration galvanometer
❑ Tunable amplifies detector.
❑ Headphones widely used as detectors at frequency of
250 Hz and above up to 3 or 4kHz. Vibration
galvanometer at frequency 5 Hz to 1000 Hz .commonly
used below 200 Hz.
General AC
Bridge

• When the four resistive arms of the basic Wheatstone bridge are
replaced by impedances and the bridge is excited by an AC source, the
result is an AC Bridge.
• To balance the bridge, two conditions must be satisfied, the resistive (R)
and the reactive components (XC or XL). Once balanced, the AC Bridge
indicates a null.
• AC bridge circuits are also used for shifting phase, providing feedback
paths for oscillators and amplifiers, filtering out undesired signals, and
measuring the frequency of audio and radio frequency (RF) signals.
General AC
Bridge
Bridge balance condition
In admittance form

Polar form of impedance

Sub. The polar values in

balance condition
Maxwell Inductance
Bridge

2
Maxwell Inductance
Bridge

4
Maxwell Inductance-
Capacitance Bridge
Maxwell Inductance-
Capacitance Bridge
Maxwell Inductance-
Capacitance Bridge

Quality Factor
Maxwell Inductance-
Capacitance Bridge

Disadvantage:
Maxwell bridge is that, they are unsuitable of measuring
the low and high quality factor coils.
Anderson
Bridge
Need of Anderson's bridge though we have Maxwell bridge to measure
quality factor
of the circuit.

The main disadvantage of using Maxwell bridge is that,

they are unsuitable of measuring the low and high quality factor.

However Maxwell bridge are suitable for measuring accurately medium

quality factor respectively.

So, there is need of bridge which can measure low quality factor and
this bridge is modified Maxwell's bridge and known as Anderson's
bridge.
Anderson
Bridge
Anderson
Bridge
Anderson
Bridge
Schering
Bridge

This bridge is used to measure to the capacitance of the capacitor,

dissipation factor and measurement of relative permittivity.
Schering
Bridge
Balance equation
Schering
Bridge
 Desauty’s
Bridge

❑ The De Sauty’s bridge is an A.C Bridge works on the principle of Wheat stone’s
bridge
❑ This bridge is used to determine the capacity of an unknown capacitor C1 in
terms of a standard
known capacitor C2.
Modified Desauty’s
Bridge
Desauty’s
Bridge
Owens
Bridge
❑ It is used for the measurement of inductance and is expressed in terms
of capacitance.
Owens
Bridge
Advantages
➢ Balance equations are simple
and does not contain any
frequency component.
➢ Can be used over a wide range
of frequencies.

Disadvantages
➢ Variable Capacitor is expensive.
➢ C2 tends to become large when
measuring high Q values.
Weins
Bridge
• It is primarily known as frequency determining bridge.
• The bridge is also used in a harmonic distortion analyzer, as a Notch
filter, and in audio frequency and radio frequency oscillators as a
frequency determining element.
Weins
Bridge
 Temperature
Temperature Measurement
Measurement
The International Practical Temperature Scale (IPTS) defines six primary
fixed points for reference temperatures in terms of:
➢ The triple point of equilibrium hydrogen 259.34°C
➢ The boiling point of oxygen 182.962 °C
➢ The boiling point of water 100.0°C
➢ The freezing point of zinc 419.58°C
➢ The freezing point of silver 961.93°C
➢ The freezing point of gold 1064.43°C (all at standard
atmospheric pressure)
The freezing points of certain other metals are also used as secondary
fixed points to provide additional reference points during calibration
procedures.

13
7
 Instruments to measure temperature can be divided into
separate classes according to the physical principle on
which they operate. The main principles used are:
➢ The thermoelectric effect
➢ Resistance change
➢ Sensitivity of semiconductor
device
➢ Radiative heat emission
➢ Thermography
➢ Thermal expansion
➢ Resonant frequency change
➢ Sensitivity of fibre optic
devices
➢ Acoustic thermometry
➢ Colour change 13
8
Resistance
Thermometer

14
2
Thermistor (Thermally
sensitive Resistor)

Disk Type (10mm) Bead Type (0.15 mm)

Rod Type
4mm dia Washer Type
12.5-50mmlong
143

Thermistors
THERMally sensitive resISTOR

Thermistor Example

14
1
RTD , Thermistor & Thermocouple

14
2
Thermocou
ple

Thermocouple Connection Current through Two Dissimilar Metals

V = α(T h - T c) Seebeck Effect Circuit 14

3
Thermocou
ple
Seebeck effect & Peltier effect

14
4
Thermocouples (Types)

14
5
 Thermocouple
O/p Voltage Vs Temperature

14
6
Thermocouple circuit

150
Thermocouple Compensation Circuits

Type T

Type K Cold Junction Compensation

14
8
Type J Thermocouple using
Isothermal Block

14
9
 Reference Junction
Compensation

Reference Junction Compensation

15
0
 Thermopiles
Multiple-junction thermocouple circuit designed to amplify the output of the
circuit

T Srinivasa Rao Electronic Mea surements and 154

Instrumentati on (EC-315)
Thermocouples in Parallel

15
2
Different Types of Thermocouples

15
3
 Advantages and Disadvantages
of Thermocouples
✓ Wide temperature range (-270 oC to 2700 oC
✓ Rugged Construction
✓ Bridge Circuits not required for temperature measurement.
✓ Comparatively cheaper in cost
✓ Good reproducibility
✓ Speed of response is high compared to thermometer systems.
✓ Calibration checks can be easily performed
✓ Using extension leads and compensating cables, long distance
transmission for
temperature measurement is possible.
✓ Good Accuracy

✓ Compensation circuits is essential for accurate measurements

✓ They exhibit non-linearity in the emf versus temperature
characteristics.
✓ Many applications
electrical signal needs signal amplifications. 157

✓ Proper
pickup.separation of extension leads from thermocouple is
 Radiation
Pyrometers

• Pyrometry is a technique for measuring

temperature without physical contact.
• It depends upon the relationship between the
temperature of hot body and eletromagnetic
radiation emitted by the body.
• It is a technique for determining a body’s
temperature by measuring its eletromagnetic
radiation .
• Pyro’ is the ‘Greek’ word which means fire.

15
5
• Two types of pyrometers used in
industries : Radiation Pyrometers
Optical Pyrometers

15
6
 Princip
le
• A pyrometer has an optical system and detector.
The optical system focuses the thermal radiation
onto the detector. The output signal of the
detector(Temperature T) is related to the
thermal radiation or irradiance j * of the target
object through the Stefan–Boltzmann law, the
constant of proportionality, called the Stefan
Boltzmann constant and the emissivity ε of the
object.
Worki
ng
• The radiation pyrometer has an optical system, including a lens, a
mirror and an adjustable eye piece. The heat energy emitted
from the hot body is passed on to the optical lens, which collects
it and is focused on to the detector with the help of the mirror
and eye piece arrangement. The detector may either be a
thermistor or photomultiplier tubes. Though the latter is known
for faster detection of fast moving objects, the former may be
used for small scale applications. Thus, the heat energy is
converted to its corresponding electrical signal by the detector
and is sent to the output temperature display device.
Optical
Pyrometer
 Construction and
Construction and
Working
.
.
Working
An eye piece at the left side and an optical lens on the right.
A reference lamp, which is powered with the help of a battery.
. A rheostat to change the current and hence the brightness intensity.
So as to increase the temperature range which is to be measured, an
absorption screen is fitted between the optical lens and the reference bulb.
A red filter placed between the eye piece and the reference bulb helps in
narrowing the band of wavelength.
Working
The radiation from the source is emitted and the optical objective lens
captures it. The lens helps in focusing the thermal radiation on to the
reference bulb. The observer watches the process through the eye piece
and corrects it in such a manner that the reference lamp filament has a
sharp focus and the filament is super-imposed on the temperature source
image. The observer starts changing the rheostat values and the current in
the reference lamp changes. This in turn, changes its intensity. This change
in current can be observed in three different ways.
. The filament is dark. That is, cooler than the temperature source.
2. Filamnet is bright. That is, hotter than the temperature source.
Filament disappears. Thus, there is equal brightness between the filament
and temperature source. At this time, the current that flows in the
reference lamp is measured, as its value is a measure of the temperature of
 Disadvanta
ges

• ABILITY TO MEASURE HIGH

TEMP
• NO NEED FOR PHYSICAL
CONTACT
• FAST RESPONSE SPEED
• HIGH O/P
• MODERATE COST
Disadvanta
ges

• Emissivity errors are introduced

• Errors due to the absorption of
radiation by carbon dioxide, water
or other apparently transparent
gases.
Applicatio
ns

• They are used for temperatures above the practical

operating range of
thermocouples.
• They can be used in the environments which contaminate
or limit the life of thermocouple.
• Used for moving targets.
• They are used for measurement of average
temperature of large surface areas.
• They are used for the targets which would be damaged
by contact with primary elements like thermocouples and
resistance thermometers.
Pressure
Measurement
It is defined as force/unit area. Pressure are exerted by gases, vapours and
liquids. Units of psi, mm Hg and kPa

Atmospheric Pressure
It is the pressure that an area experience due to force exerted by the
atmosphere. The atmospheric pressure at sea level ( above absolute zero)
called std. atmospheric pressure.

Gauge Pressure
It is measured with the help of pressure measuring instrument in which
atmospheric
pressure is taken at datum. Gauge pressure record above or below
atmospheric pressure.

Absolute pressure
Any pressure above the absolute zero of pressure. The actual pressure at
given position.

Absolute pressure= Atmospheric +gauge pressure

Pressure
Measurement

Positive gauge pressure

Atmospheric

pressure Negative gauge

pressure or vacuum

Absolute
pressure

Zero absolute
Pressure
Measurement
Static pressure (Ps)
It is defined as force/ unit area acting on the wall by a fluid at rest or
flowing parallel to
the wall in a pipeline.

Total or Stagnation Pressure (Pt)

It is defined as the pressure that would be obtained if the fluid stream
were brought to rest isentropically.
2
For an incompressible
Dynamic pressure 2𝑔 fluid or gas flowing at low velocities.
=𝑉 = static +
Total
2
dynamic
Pt= Ps+2𝑔𝑉
Pressure Measuring
Instruments
❑ Low Pressure Measurement (below 1 mm of Hg)
- Manometers
- Low pressure gauges
❑ Medium and High Pressure (b/w 1mm of Hg to 1000 atm)
- Bourdon Tubes
- Diaphragm
- Bellow pressure gauges
- Dead Weight pressure gauge
❑ Low Vacuum and Ultra High Vacuum (760 Torr to 10^-9 Torr
and beyond)
- Mcleod. Gauge
- Thermal Conductivity
- Ionisation Gauges
❑ Very High Pressure (1000 atm. and above)
- Diaphragm gauges
- Electrical resistance pressure gauges
Two methods for the measurement of low
pressure
❑ Direct Method : Here the displacement deflection caused by the
pressure is measured and is correlated to pressure
- Spiral Bourdon tubes
- Flat and Corrugated Diaphragms
- Capsules
- Manometers

❑ Indirect Method : In these methods , pressure is determined

through the measurement of certain other pressure controlled
properties including volume and thermal conductivity.
- Mcleod. Gauge
- Thermal conductivity gauges
- Ionisation gauges
- Radioactive vacuum meters
Manomet
ers
• Simplest form is U-shaped, liquid filled tube
• Reference and measured pressure applied to ends of tube
• Difference in pressure causes difference in liquid level between sides

Principles: Hydrostatic Law

∆P=ρ g h
U tube
Manometer
Inclined Type
Manometer
Well Type
Manometer
Applications, Advantages and
Disadvantages
Mainly spot checks or calibration
– Modern calibration using
electronic meters
• Low range measurements
– Higher measurements require
mercury
• toxic, therefore hazardous

• Advantages
Simple operation and Construction
Inexpensive

Disadvantages
Range (water)
Higher pressure range requires
mercury Readings are localised
Sensing
Elements
The main types of sensing
elements are
• Bourdon tubes
• diaphragms
• bellows

The basic pressure sensing element can be configured as a C-shaped Bourdon

tube (A); a helical Bourdon tube (B); flat diaphragm
(C); a convoluted diaphragm (D); a capsule (E); or a set of bellows (F).
 Bellow
s
• Bellows sensor is an axially flexible, cylindrical enclosure with folded
sides. When pressure is applied through an opening, the closed end
extends axially.
• Bellows elements can measure absolute pressure, gauge pressure,
vacuum, or differential
pressure.
 Bourdon
Tubes
• A Bourdon gauge uses a coiled tube, which, as it expands due to
pressure increase causes a rotation of an arm connected to the tube.
• bourdon are often used in harsh environments and high pressures, but
can also be used for very low pressures; the response time however, is
slower than the bellows or diaphragm.
C-type bourdon
psi Range as low as 0 - 15 psi up to 0-1500
Helical bourdon
Range as low as 0 - 200 psi up to 0 – 6000 psi
Spiral bourdon
.Range as low as 0-10 psi up to 0-100,000 psi
 Diaphrag
ms
• A diaphragm is a circular-shaped convoluted membrane that is attached to the
pressure fixture around the circumference . The pressure medium is on one
side and the indication medium is on the other.
• Diaphragms provide fast acting and accurate pressure indication. However, the
movement or stroke is not as large as the bellows .
Electrical Transducers as Secondary
Transducers

❑ Resistance Type
❑ Inductive Type
❑ Capacitive Pressure
Transducer
❑ Differential Transformer
(LVDT)
❑ Photoelectric
Indirect method for the measurement of
pressure

❑ Pirani Gauge
❑ Thermocouple vaccum
gauge
❑ Ionisation gauges
❑ McLeod Gauges
❑ Dead Weight Tester
❑ Knudsen Gauges
Pirani
Gauge
Thermocouple Vaccum
Gauge
Ionisation
Gauges
Mcleod
Gauge
Dead Weight
Tester
Applications, Advantages and
Disadvantages

Applications: It is used to calibrated all kinds of pressure gauges such as

industrial pressure gauges, engine indicators and piezoelectric transducers.

Advantages: it is simple in construction and easy to use. It can be used to

calibrated a wide range of pressure measuring devices. Fluid pressure can be
easily varied by adding weights or by changing the piston cylinder
combination.

Limitations: the accuracy of the dead weight tester is affected due to the
friction between the piston and cylinder, and due to the uncertainty of the
value of gravitational constant 'g'
Stroboscope ( Measurement of Angular
Velocity)
This method measures the periodic or rotary motions by a device
called a STROBOSCOPE.
• This instrument is a simple and manually operated device.
• The speed is measured by adjusting the receptor frequency so that
the moving section is visible at a particular time interval.

Principle
The receptor circuit is based upon variable frequency oscillator
which controls the flashing frequency.
• A strong light is flashed on a moving object , at the time each flash
occurs , in an instantaneous position , the object will appear to be
stationary
Stroboscope ( Measurement of Angular
Velocity)

A strobotron is the high frequency source of light whose frequency can

be varied and controlled.
• For measuring the speed of shaft , a mark is made on the disc attached
to the shaft.
• The flashing frequency is adjusted until the mark appears stationary.
• The flashing rate is reduced gradually and the flashing frequencies are
noted for all single line images.
Advantag
es
Advantages
• Imposes no load on the shaft hence no power loss.
• Non contact type hence, no attachments needed.
• Convenient to use for spot checks on machinery speeds and
laboratory work.