List of diving hazards and precautions

Divers face specific physical and health risks when they go underwater with scuba or other diving
equipment, or use high pressure breathing gas. Some of these factors also affect people who work in raised
pressure environments out of water, for example in caissons. This article lists hazards that a diver may be
exposed to during a dive, and possible consequences of these hazards, with some details of the proximate
causes of the listed consequences. A listing is also given of precautions that may be taken to reduce
vulnerability, either by reducing the risk or mitigating the consequences. A hazard that is understood and
acknowledged may present a lower risk if appropriate precautions are taken, and the consequences may be
less severe if mitigation procedures are planned and in place.

A hazard is any agent or situation that poses a level of threat to life, health, property, or environment. Most
hazards remain dormant or potential, with only a theoretical risk of harm, and when a hazard becomes
active, and produces undesirable consequences, it is called an incident and may culminate in an emergency
or accident. Hazard and vulnerability interact with likelihood of occurrence to create risk, which can be the
probability of a specific undesirable consequence of a specific hazard, or the combined probability of
undesirable consequences of all the hazards of a specific activity. The presence of a combination of several
hazards simultaneously is common in diving, and the effect is generally increased risk to the diver,
particularly where the occurrence of an incident due to one hazard triggers other hazards with a resulting
cascade of incidents. Many diving fatalities are the result of a cascade of incidents overwhelming the diver,
who should be able to manage any single reasonably foreseeable incident. The assessed risk of a dive would
generally be considered unacceptable if the diver is not expected to cope with any single reasonably
foreseeable incident with a significant probability of occurrence during that dive. Precisely where the line is
drawn depends on circumstances. Commercial diving operations tend to be less tolerant of risk than
recreational, particularly technical divers, who are less constrained by occupational health and safety
legislation.

Decompression sickness and arterial gas embolism in recreational diving are associated with certain
demographic, environmental, and dive style factors. A statistical study published in 2005 tested potential
risk factors: age, gender, body mass index, smoking, asthma, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, previous
decompression illness, years since certification, dives in last year, number of diving days, number of dives in
a repetitive series, last dive depth, nitrox use, and drysuit use. No significant associations with
decompression sickness or arterial gas embolism were found for asthma, diabetes, cardiovascular disease,
smoking, or body mass index. Increased depth, previous DCI, days diving, and being male were associated
with higher risk for decompression sickness and arterial gas embolism. Nitrox and drysuit use, greater
frequency of diving in the past year, increasing age, and years since certification were associated with lower
risk, possibly as indicators of more extensive training and experience.[1]

Statistics show diving fatalities comparable to motor vehicle accidents of 16.4 per 100,000 divers and 16 per
100,000 drivers. Divers Alert Network 2014 data shows there are 3.174 million recreational scuba divers in
America, of which 2.351 million dive 1 to 7 times per year and 823,000 dive 8 or more times per year. It is
reasonable to say that the average would be in the neighbourhood of 5 dives per year.[2]

Contents
The aquatic environment
Use of breathing equipment in an underwater environment
Exposure to a pressurised environment and pressure changes
Pressure changes during descent
Pressure changes during ascent
Breathing gases at high ambient pressure
The specific diving environment
Pre-existing physiological and psychological conditions in the diver
Diver behaviour and competence
Failure of diving equipment other than breathing apparatus
Hazards of the dive task and special equipment
See also
References
Sources
Further reading
External links

The aquatic environment

Hazard Consequences Cause Avoidance and prevention
Any liquid Inhalation of liquid (water),
environment. Asphyxia by usually causing Avoid out of air
drowning. laryngospasm and emergencies underwater.
Near drowning is suffocation caused by water Use of a redundant
the survival of a entering the lungs and emergency breathing gas
drowning event preventing the absorption of supply[5]
involving oxygen leading to cerebral Provide appropriate
unconsciousness hypoxia.[3] buoyancy.
or water
Avoid or prevent accidents
inhalation and
can lead to resulting in
unconsciousness.
serious
secondary Use of a full face mask or
complications, diving helmet to protect the
including death, airway.[6]
after the Use of surface-supplied
event.[3][4] diving equipment with voice
communications.[7][5]
Adequate swimming skills
and fitness for the
circumstances.[8]
Use of snorkel when
appropriate.[8]
Lifejackets that hold the
wearer's face above the
water may be worn when
appropriate.
Availability of a stand-by
diver or reliable dive buddy
 to assist.[5]
Competence in recovering
and clearing a dislodged
scuba regulator.[8]
Use of an alternative
regulator which can be
easily reached if the
dislodged primary is difficult
to reach.[9]
Complications can Physiological responses to Prompt and appropriate
occur up to 72 hours contaminants in the lung due medical treatment after near
after a non-fatal to inhalation of liquid. drowning, including a medical
drowning incident, observation period.
and may lead to a Exudation of liquid into
serious condition or the lungs (pulmonary
death. edema) over the hours
following aspiration of
liquid, which reduces the
ability to exchange air
and can lead to a person
"drowning in their own
body fluid".
Aspiration of vomit can
have a similar effect.

Use of breathing equipment in an underwater environment

Hazard Consequences Cause Avoidance and prevention
Oxygen partial Hypoxia: Reduced Equipment failure: A
pressure in the level of consciousness, faulty or misused Correct maintenance,
breathing gas seizures, coma, death. rebreather can provide preparation and pre-use
is too low to Severe hypoxia the diver with hypoxic procedures and checks.[10]
sustain normal induces a blue gas.
activity or discoloration of the Correct use of
consciousness. skin, called cyanosis, recommended
but this may also be procedures and
present in a diver due checklists when
to peripheral preparing for use.[11]
vasoconstriction Calibration of oxygen
resulting from monitoring
exposure to cold. instruments[11][12]
There is typically no
warning of onset or Adequate and redundant
development. instrumentation for
monitoring gas quality
during use.[12]
Constant vigilance during
use.[12]
Adequate bailout facilities
in case of failure.[12]
Adequate training in the
use of rebreathers in
 general and the specific
model.[12]
Some breathing gas
mixtures for deep diving Gas requirements planned
such as trimix and heliox to suit the intended dive
are hypoxic at shallow profile.[9]
depths, and do not Use of a travel mix for
contain enough oxygen descent and a
to maintain decompression mix for
consciousness, or ascent through the depth
sometimes life, at or range where the bottom
near the surface.[13] gas is hypoxic.
Safe procedures used for
gas changes.[14]

Gas switches planned

and executed at
appropriate
depths.[13]
Depth and ascent
rate accurately
monitored and
controlled.
Clear and
unambiguous
identification of
cylinder gases.[9]

Adequate training in the

use of mixed gases.[9]
Internal corrosion of full
cylinder standing for a Routine periodical
long time can potentially inspection and testing of
use up some of the cylinders.[17][18]
oxygen in the contained Analysis of oxygen fraction
gas before the diver of gas before use,
uses the cylinder.[15][16] particularly if cylinder has
been stored for a long time.
Loss of May result in drowning, Equipment failure:
breathing gas occasionally asphyxia Several modes are Appropriate maintenance
supply. without water possible. and servicing of
aspiration. equipment.[5]
Closing and jamming Inspection of the external
of the cylinder valve condition, and testing of the
by rolloff on function of equipment
something overhead before use.[5]
(rotation of the knob
to close the valve by Use only of equipment in
friction when dragged good working condition.[5]
along in contact with Connection and mounting
a surface), or by kelp of equipment to minimise
when pushing risk of damage.
 through dense Avoidance of damage to
kelp.[9] equipment during dives.
Rupture of a bursting Use of two fully
disc overpressure independent breathing gas
protection on a supplies.[19]
cylinder valve (a thin Use of bailout gas
metal membrane supply.[5]
calibrated to fail if the
pressure exceeds a The buddy system, when
safe value for the correctly followed, allows
cylinder).[18] the diver's buddy to supply
breathing gas in an
Rupture of a emergency.[9]
regulator hose or
loss of the end "H" or "Y" type cylinder
component, leaving valves or manifolded twin
an open hose cylinders with two cylinder
end.[18] valves allow the
dysfunctional supply to be
Unrecoverable free closed to prevent total loss,
flow of a second and the other regulator to
stage (valve jammed be used for the remaining
open, allowing gas to gas supply. (frequently
escape even when used to mitigate regulator
not needed by the freezing in cold water)
diver).
Dual independent cylinders
Freezing of a first ensure that if one cylinder
stage regulator, supply fails there is another
locking the valve
available.[5]
mechanism open,
and consequent free Use of DIN connections
flow of the demand can reduce the risk of
valve due to catastrophic O-ring
excessive interstage failure.[20]
pressure. Emergency free ascent
O-ring failure at the may be possible, and is
connection of a generally more survivable
regulator to a than drowning.
cylinder valve.
Running out of breathing
gas because of poor gas Adequate training of
monitoring discipline.[21] divers.[9]
Disciplined attitude and
situational awareness
during dives.[9]
Use of reserve valve.[22]
Use of surface supplied
diving equipment.[7]
Use of bailout gas
supply.[5][7]
The buddy system, when
correctly followed, allows
the diver's buddy to supply
 breathing gas in an
emergency.[9]
Running out of breathing
gas because of being Situational awareness
trapped by nets or lines. underwater.
Use of a diver's net cutter,
or dive tool/knife to cut free
of entanglement.
Carrying sufficient gas in
reserve to allow a
reasonable amount of time
to deal with emergencies.
Use of surface supplied
breathing equipment.[7]
Running out of breathing
gas because of being Appropriate safety
trapped or lost in equipment and procedures
enclosed spaces to avoid getting lost (cave
underwater, such as lines).[23]
caves or shipwrecks.[23] Specific training for
overhead diving. See cave
diving and wreck diving.[23]
Assess stability of
underwater structures and
avoid entry if a structure is
unstable.
Inhalation of Salt water aspiration Inhaling a mist of sea
salt spray syndrome: a reaction water from a faulty Appropriate maintenance
to salt in the lungs. demand valve. and servicing of
equipment.[18]
Inspect external condition
and test function before
use.(specifically test the
seal of exhaust valves and
possible leaks in the
second stage casing and
mouthpiece before opening
the cylinder valve).[24]
Use equipment only if it is
in good working
condition.[5]
Use of alternative air
source if DV breathes wet
during dive.
The technique of inhaling
slowly and using the
tongue to deflect spray
particles may be effective
as a temporary mitigation.
Carbon Carbon monoxide Contaminated air
monoxide poisoning. supplied by a Adequate precautions to
contamination compressor that sucked ensure that intake is in
of breathing in products of uncontaminated air when
gas combustion, often its operating breathing air
own engine's exhaust compressors.[25]
gas. Aggravated by Periodical air quality testing
increased partial of compressors.
pressure due to depth.
Use of compressor output
filter containing "Hopcalite"
catalyst to convert possible
carbon monoxide
contamination to less
hazardous carbon dioxide.
Test air quality before use
(portable carbon monoxide
analysers are available and
may be worth using in
places where air quality is
questionable).
Air contaminated with
carbon monoxide is often
contaminated by
substances having a smell
or taste. Air smelling or
tasting of exhaust fumes
should not be breathed.
Oil getting into the air
and partially oxidising in Adequate maintenance of
the compressor cylinder, the compressor.
like in a diesel engine, Use of correct oil rated for
due to worn seals and breathing air compressor
use of unsuitable oils, or lubrication.[25]
an overheated Ensure compressor running
compressor.[25] temperature is within
manufacturer's
specifications.
Ensure adequate supply of
cooling air to compressor.
Compressor should not be
run when ambient
temperatures exceed
manufacturer's limits.
Hydrocarbon Emphysema or lipid Caused by inhaling oil
(oil) pneumonia (more to be mist. This may happen Use of a suitable
contamination added). gradually over a long separators and air filter
of air supply. time and is a particular after compression.[25]
risk with a surface
supplied air feed.[26] Monitor and drain
separators and
change filters as
necessary.

Periodic testing of delivered

air quality.
 Smell and taste can
distinguish oil
contamination in
many cases.
Passing a metered
quantity of the air
through an absorbent
filter paper may show
up an oil deposit.
Directing air flow onto
a clean mirror surface
or glass sheet may
show gross
contamination.

Excessive Carbon dioxide

carbon dioxide poisoning or Re-inhaling carbon Minimise the volume of any
dioxide-laden enclosed spaces through
in breathing hypercapnia.[27][28]
gas exhaled gas due to which the diver breathes.
excessive dead For example, this can
space in breathing happen with diving with a
apparatus. large "bubblehead" helmet.
Shallow breathing— Avoiding breathing shallow
not exchanging (low volume) breaths.
sufficient air during a
breathing cycle.
The scrubber of a diving
rebreather, fails to Adequate maintenance of
absorb enough of the rebreathers.
carbon dioxide in Correct packing and
recirculated breathing assembly of scrubber
gas. This can be due to canisters.[29]
the scrubber absorbent Pre-use inspection and
being exhausted, the testing of rebreathers using
scrubber being too small, an appropriate checklist.
or the absorbent being Use of correct scrubber
badly packed or loose,
absorbent material.
causing "tunneling" and
"scrubber breakthrough" Use of absorbent that is of
when the gas emerging good working quality.
from the scrubber Discard absorbent after
contains excessive use.
carbon dioxide. Use of carbon dioxide
monitoring instruments.
Adequate training in the
recognition of hypercapnia
before using a rebreather.
Bail-out to open circuit if
carbon dioxide levels get
too high.
Filling of cylinders with
compressed air taken Siting the compressor air
from an area of raised intake in an area of fresh
 concentration of carbon air and ducting it to the
dioxide. compressor.
Passing intake air through
a carbon dioxide scrubber
element before
compression.
Periodical air quality testing
of compressors.
Breathing the Consequences depend
wrong gas on the circumstances, The wrong gas was Cylinders should be filled
but may include put in a cylinder. by competent people.[17]
oxygen toxicity, A cylinder was Clear instructions,
hypoxia, nitrogen marked or labelled preferably written, for the
narcosis, anoxia, and incorrectly. composition of the gas to
toxic effects of gases A correctly labelled be mixed will reduce the
not intended for cylinder was risk of filling with the wrong
breathing. Death or mistaken by the user. gas.
serious injury is likely. The diver Clear, unambiguous and
unintentionally legible labels indicating
switches to the maximum operating depth
wrong gas during a and cylinder contents,
dive. applied in a way that the
user will be able to
positively identify the gas at
the time when it is to be
used can prevent confusion
and inadvertent use of the
wrong gas.[9]
Analysing gas after filling,
before accepting delivery,
and before use (before the
dive) may detect errors in
labelling or composition in
time to take corrective
action.[17]
Procedures designed to
positively identify the gas
may be used when
switching mixes.[9]
Valves that change gas
mixes may be fitted with a
positive interlock
preventing accidental or
inadvertent switching, and
may include a method of
confirming the gas
connected by feel.
Displacement Inability to breathe until
of demand demand valve is Unconscious diver Use of full face mask
valve (DV) replaced. This should releases grip on reduces risk of loss of DV
from the diver's not normally be a mouthpiece.[30] as it is strapped to the head
mouth. major problem as DV is forcibly and can not be dropped if
techniques for DV knocked or pulled
 recovery are part of from the diver's the diver loses
basic training. mouth by impact with consciousness.[6]
Nevertheless, it is an surroundings or Adequate training and
urgent problem and another diver. practice of DV recovery
may be exacerbated by skills.
loss of the mask and/or
Use of an alternative air
disorientation.
source such as octopus DV
or bailout cylinder, which
can be used if the primary
DV is not immediately
accessible.
Mounting the alternative air
source and DV so that it is
easily accessible in an
emergency and protected
from damage when not in
use.
Caustic Leakage of water into
cocktail Disruption of the breathing loop of a Prevent ingress of water to
breathing by watery rebreather, which rebreather by:
suspension/solution dissolves alkaline
containing scrubber checking before use
material used to that the unit does not
absorbent medium. chemically remove leak,
Aspiration of water carbon dioxide from
contaminated by exhaled air. This closing the dive/surface
scrubber medium. valve when the
contaminated water may
mouthpiece is not in the
move further along the
breathing loop and reach diver's mouth.
the diver's mouth, where Prevent creation of caustic
it may cause choking, cocktail by:
and in the case of strong
use of less soluble and
alkalis, caustic corrosion
of the mucous less alkaline scubber
media,
membranes.
design using water
traps and drainage
arrangements (on some
rebreather designs),
introducing a semi-
permeable membrane
to block water from the
scrubber.
Avoid aspiration of water
from loop by recognising
the characteristic gurgling
sounds and increased
breathing resistance, and
taking appropriate action by
bailing out or draining the
set if possible.
In the event of caustic
cocktail reaching the
mouth, bail out to
alternative gas supply and
 rinse mouth with ambient
water.

Exposure to a pressurised environment and pressure changes

Pressure changes during descent

-
Hazard Consequences Cause Avoidance and prevention
Sudden Vertigo, including Cold water in the outer Use of a hood to keep the head
chilling of the dizziness and ear passage, chilling covered. Water leaking into the
inner ear. disorientation, the inner ear, hood will warm up before
particularly if one side particularly severe if entering the external auditory
is more chilled than the eardrum is opening and will be reasonably
the other. ruptured. warm before reaching the
eardrum, and will soon reach
body temperature if flushing is
minimised.
Pressure Burst or stretched The pressure in the Ears can be equalized early and
difference eardrum: middle ear not often during the descent, before
over eardrum The eardrum is equalizing with the stretching is painful.
stretched due to a external (ambient) The diver can check if the ears
pressure difference pressure, usually due will clear on the surface as a
between the outer and to failure to clear the precondition for diving.[31]
middle ear spaces. If Eustachian tube.[31]
the eardrum stretches
sufficiently, it may Reversed ear may be
caused by the outer The hood should not make
rupture, which is more
ear passage being an airtight seal over the
painful. Water outside ear opening.
entering the middle blocked and the
ear may cause vertigo pressure remaining Sealed earplugs should
when the inner ear is low, while the middle never be worn while
cooled. Contaminants ear pressure diving.[32]
in the water may increases by
cause infection.[31] equalising with
ambient pressure
through the
eustachian tubes,
casing a pressure
differential and
stretching the
eardrum, which may
eventually rupture.[32]
Pressure Sinus squeeze: Obstruction to the Do not dive with conditions such
difference Damage to the sinus ducts leading to as the common cold or allergies
between sinuses usually pressure differences that cause nasal congestion.[33]
paranasal resulting in pain, and between the interior of
sinus and often burst blood the sinus and the
ambient vessels and external pressure.[33]
pressure. nosebleed.[33]
Localised Mask squeeze: Caused by local low
low pressure Squeeze damage to pressure in the air Mask squeeze can be
in the diving blood vessels around space inside a diving avoided by allowing air into
mask. the eyes.[34] half-mask. Ambient the mask through the nose
pressure increase whenever the pressure
during descent not difference is noticeable.
balanced inside mask A fullface mask will
air space. automatically equalise
through the demand valve.
Air filled eyes-only goggles
can not be equalised and
are not suitable for diving.
Reduction of Modern drysuits have a low
volume of Loss of buoyancy. Volume of air in a pressure air hose connection
airspace in Suit squeeze drysuit reduces as and valve to inflate the drysuit
drysuit. injury (usually pressure increases from the cylinder. Adding
restricted to with depth. sufficient air to maintain the bulk
bruising and minor Skin may be of the undersuit will prevent suit
abrasion) to pinched by folds in squeeze and stabilize buoyancy
skin.[34][34] a drysuit as the air of the suit.
inside is
compressed.
Pressure Lung squeeze: Lung Free diving to extreme It can be avoided by limiting free
difference damage. depth. diving depth to capacity of lungs
between lung to compensate,[35] and by
gas contents training exercises to increase
and ambient compliance of chest cavity.
pressure
Rupture or supply Maintenance and pre-dive tests
pressure failure of a of non-return valves on the
surface supply hose helmet or full face mask.
with simultaneous
failure of the non-
return valve.[35]
Helmet In severe cases much A non-return valve in Appropriate maintenance and
squeeze, of the diver's body the air supply line to daily pre-use testing of non-
with the old could be mangled and the helmet failing (or return valves.
standard compacted inside the absent on the earliest
diving dress. helmet; however, this models of this type of
(This can not requires substantial diving suit),
happen with pressure difference, or accompanied by a
scuba or by a sudden failure of the air
where there considerable increase compressor (on the
is no rigid in depth, as when the surface) to pump
pressure- diver falls off a cliff or enough air into the
tight helmet) wreck and descends suit for the gas
faster than the air pressure inside the
supply can keep up suit to remain equal to
with the pressure the outside pressure
increase. of the water, or a burst
air supply hose.
A sudden large
increase in ambient The squeeze due to depth
 pressure due to changes was more likely
sudden depth when the air supply was
increase, when the air powered by men. Motorised
supply can not compressors are usually
compensate fast able to supply air much
enough to prevent faster, so an adequate air
compression of the air reservoir on the compressor
in the suit. should prevent this problem.
The diver may be prevented
from sinking too deep by
minimizing slack in the
lifeline or umbilical.
The diver may work at
neutral buoyancy when
there is a risk of falling off a
structure, or may clip on to
the structure, but this
presents a hazard of
entrapment.
Tooth Toothache, most often Any gas space inside Tooth squeeze may be avoided
squeeze[36] affects divers with a tooth due to decay by ensuring good dental
preexisting pathology or poor quality fillings hygiene and that all fillings and
in the oral cavity.[37] or caps may allow caps are free of air spaces.
tissue inside the tooth
to be squeezed into
the gap causing pain.
Suit Loss of buoyancy may Buouyancy loss due to
compression. lead to: compression of foam Use of buoyancy
neoprene wet or compensator with volume
Uncontrolled drysuit material. appropriate to expected
descent. buoyancy variation during
Inability to achieve dive.
neutral buoyancy. Use of appropriate ballast
Inability to surface weight for dive profile and
due to insufficient equipment in use.
buoyancy. Use of inflation system for
Difficulty in replacing lost volume in
controlling depth drysuits.
and ascent rate. Excessive weighting makes
This can be critical buoyancy control more
when difficult and loss of control
decompression is more likely.
required, and Adequate training and
oxygen rich practice of buoyancy control
breathing gases skills.
are used.

Pressure changes during ascent

Hazard Consequences Cause Avoidance and prevention
Lung Pulmonary barotrauma Failing to maintain an Divers should not hold their
overpressure: (Lung overexpansion open airway to release breath while ascending after
Pressure in injury)—rupture of lung expanding air while diving with breathing apparatus:
lungs tissue allowing air to ascending.
exceeds enter tissues, blood The best option is to breathe
ambient vessels, or spaces normally while ascending
pressure. between or surrounding when possible, and exhale
organs: during free ascent.[38]
Forced exhalation before
Pneumothorax: starting an emergency free
Free air in the ascent may increase risk of
pleural cavity, lung overpressure injury.[38]
leading to collapsed
lung.
Interstitial
emphysema: Gas
trapped in the
spaces between
tissues.

Mediastinal
emphysema:
Gas trapped
around the
heart.

Subcutaneous
emphysema: Free
gas under the skin.
Arterial Gas
embolism: Air or
other breathing gas
in the blood stream,
causing blockage of
small blood vessels.
Sinus Sinus overpressure Blockage of the sinus's
overpressure. injury is commonly duct, preventing Not diving with nasal
restricted to rupture of trapped air in a sinus congestion, e.g. Hay fever, or
mucous membrane and from equalising with the the common cold.
small blood vessels, but pharanx. Checking before a dive to
can be more serious ensure that sinuses and
and involve bone middle ears will equalise
damage. without undue effort.
Systemic decongestants have
been used successfully, but
Middle ear Injury (reversed ear) of Blocked Eustachian may have undesirable side-
overpressure eardrum stretching or tube fails to allow effects, and there is a risk that
bursting outwards due pressure to equalise they will wear off before
to expansion of air in middle ear with the surfacing. Topical
the middle ear. upper airway. decongestants do not usually
have sufficient lasting effect.
Overpressure Tooth Gas may find its way Good dental hygiene, and
within a cavity squeeze/Toothache, unto a cavity in the maintenance of dental repairs to
in a tooth, may affect divers with tooth or under a filling prevent or remove potential gas
usually under preexisting pathology in or cap during a dive traps.
the oral cavity. and become trapped.
a filling or Tooth pain, loss of During ascent, this gas
cap. fillings, cracking of will exert pressure
teeth. inside the tooth.
Suit and BC Loss of buoyancy Expansion of neoprene
expansion control—uncontrolled suit material, gas Automatic dump valves in dry
ascent. content of dry suits and suits.
buoyancy Monitoring of buoyancy on a
compensators continuous basis when in
increasing buoyancy of mid-water, and manually
the diver. adjusting volume of buoyancy
compensator when
necessary.
Appropriate training and
practice to develop good
buoyancy control skills to suit
the equipment in use.
Ability to recover from
inversion in dry suit.
Maintaining the minimum air
volume for adequate liner
bulk maintenance in a dry
suit, as this prevents
excessive buoyancy shifts.
This implies use of BC for
buoyancy control, not the suit.
Minimizing weighting to what
is actually necessary, so
compensatory air volume is
minimized. This reduces the
magnitude and rate of
buoyancy change with
pressure change.
History of Risk of increased Data from a 2000 Don't smoke.
heavy severity of analysis of
smoking decompression illness decompression illness
records suggest that
smokers with DCI tend
to present with more
severe symptoms than
non-smokers.[39]

Breathing gases at high ambient pressure

Hazard Consequences Cause Avoidance and prevention
Medium to Decompression Gas dissolved in
long term sickness ("the bends"): tissues under pressure Decompress to suit the dive
exposure to Injury due to gas during the dive profile and gas mixtures
high partial bubbles expanding in according to Henry's used.
pressures the tissues and causing Law coming out of Use appropriate ascent rates
(>c1.3 bar) of damage, or gas solution and forming and decompression stops.
inert gas bubbles in the arterial bubbles if the ascent Oxygen-rich gas mixtures
(usually N2 or circulation causing and decompression is may be used to accelerate
He) in the emboli and cutting off too fast to allow safe decompression.
breathing blood supply to tissues elimination of the gas Use depth control aids to
gas. downstream of the by diffusion into the maintain correct
blockage. capillaries and decompression depth.
transport to the lungs Avoid dehydration and
where it can diffuse into hypothermia.
the respiratory gas.
Although rare, Maintain cardiovascular
fitness.
decompression
sickness is possible in
free-diving (breathhold
diving) when many
deep dives are done in
succession. (See also
taravana).
Short term Nitrogen narcosis: A high partial pressure
(immediate of nitrogen in the nerve Use of less narcotic gases to
onset) A reversible tissues. (other gases dilute the breathing gas, or
exposure to alteration in may also have narcotic Limit the partial pressure of
high partial consciousness that effect, to varying narcotic gases at maximum
pressure occurs while diving degrees). depth by limiting the depth of
(>c2.4 bar) of at depth. the dive.
nitrogen in A state similar to Related to the
the breathing alcohol intoxication increased solubility
gas: or nitrous oxide of gases in body
inhalation. tissues at elevated
The most pressure.[40]
dangerous aspects Inert gases
of narcosis are the dissolving in the
loss of decision- lipid bilayer of cell
making ability and membranes may
focus, and impaired cause narcosis.[41]
judgement, multi- Other possibilities
tasking and include
coordination. neurotransmitter
Other effects receptor protein
include vertigo, and mechanisms.[42]
visual or auditory
disturbances,
exhilaration,
giddiness, extreme
anxiety, depression,
or paranoia,
depending on the
individual diver.
Short term Acute oxygen toxicity: Breathing gas with too
(minutes to high a partial pressure Appropriate training before
hours) Convulsions similar of oxygen, risk using a rebreather or oxygen
exposure to to epileptic seizure. becomes significant at enriched gases such as
high partial Loss of partial pressures nitrox.
pressure consciousness may exceeding 1.6 bar Correct labeling of cylinders
(>c1.6 bar) of occur with no (partial pressure containing mixed breathing
oxygen in the warning, or may be depends upon gases, specifying oxygen
breathing preceded by any of proportion of oxygen in fraction and maximum
gas. the following operating depth.
symptoms:
 Muscle the breathing gas, and Accurate monitoring of dive
twitching, depth). depth to ensure that gases
Tinnitus, are not used below the
appropriate maximum
Blurred or
operating depth for the
tunnel vision,
mixture.
Disorientation,
Aphasia,
Nystagmus,
Incoordination.

Long term Chronic oxygen toxicity: Breathing gas at too

(hours to high a partial pressure Not normally a risk for
days) Signs of pulmonary of oxygen, Risk is recreational divers due to
exposure to toxicity begin with significant at a partial short exposures.
moderately inflammation of the pressure in excess of Limit use of rich nitrox
raised partial upper airways. 0.5 atmospheres mixtures and pure oxygen for
pressure Temporarily reduced pressure for long accelerated decompression.
(>0.5 bar) of lung capacity. periods and increases Limit exposure by calculating
oxygen in the Acute respiratory with higher partial Oxygen Toxicity Units for pre-
breathing distress syndrome. pressure even for existing and planned
gas. shorter exposures. exposures and keeping below
recommended limits.
Most likely to be encountered
in recompression treatment
for decompression illness.
Exposure to a High-pressure nervous HPNS has two
high partial syndrome (HPNS): components: The susceptibility of divers to
pressure(>15 HPNS varies over a wide
bar) of helium The compression range depending on the
in the effects may occur individual, but has little
breathing when descending variation between different
gas. below 500 feet dives by the same diver.[43]
(150 m) at rates Use another diving technique,
greater than a few such as an atmospheric
metres per minute, diving suit, submersible or
but reduce within a ROV.
few hours once the
Including other gases in the
pressure has
mix, such as nitrogen
stabilised.
(creating trimix) or hydrogen
The effects from to make (hydreliox)
depth become suppresses the neurological
significant at depths
effects.[44][45][46]
exceeding 1,000
feet (300 m) and
remain regardless
of the time spent at
that depth.[43]

The specific diving environment

Hazard Consequences Cause Avoidance and prevention
Exposure to Hypothermia: Reduced Loss of body heat to
cold water core temperature, the water or other Diving suits are available that
during a dive, shivering, loss of surroundings. Water are suited to a wide range of
and cold strength, reduced level carries heat away far water temperature down to
environment of conscuousness, loss more effectively than freezing.[48] The appropriate
before or after of consciousness and air. Evaporative cooling level of insulation for the
a dive, wind eventually death. on the surface is also conditions will reduce heat
chill.[47] an effective mechanism loss.
of heat loss, and can In extreme conditions and
affect divers in wet when helium based mixtures
diving suits while are in use as breathing gas,
travelling on boats.[47] heated suits may be
necessary.[47]
On the surface, wind chill can
be avoided by staying out of
the wind, staying dry, and
suitable protective
clothing.[47]
Some parts of the body,
particularly the head,[48] are
more prone to heat loss and
insulation of these areas is
correspondingly important.
Nonfreezing Cold Exposure of the Hand and Foot Temperature
Injuries (NFCI). extremities in water Limits to avoid NFCI:[49]
temperatures below
12 °C (53.6 °F). Fully Functional 18 °C
(64.4 °F) Non Freezing Cold
Injury Threshold < Week.
12 °C (54 °F) approximately 3
hours.
8 °C (46.4 °F) for maximum of
30 min.
6 °C (42.8 °F) immediate
rewarming required.

Protection in order of
effectiveness:

Dry gloves attached to drysuit

without wrist seal.[49]
Dry gloves with wrist seal.
Wet suit (neoprene) gloves.
Rubberised cloth or leather
gloves.
Frostbite Exposure of Prevent excessibe heat loss of
inadequately perfused body parts at risk:[47]
skin and extremities to
temperatures below Adequate insulation of the
freezing.[47] diving suit, particularly the
gloves and boots.
Prevention of wind chill by
use of shelters and additional
 layers of clothing when out of
the water.
Muscular cramps Better insulation and/or suit fit.
Inadequate
insulation.
Reduced perfusion
to the legs and feet
(occasionally
hands).
Hard Coral cuts—Infected Sharp coral skeleton
Coral cuts may be prevented
corals.[47] lacerations of the edges lacerating or
by avoiding contact of
skin.[47] abrading exposed skin,
contaminating the unprotected skin with
wound with coral tissue coral.[47]
and pathogenic Protective clothing such as
microorganisms.[47] wet-suit, dry suit, skin/lycra
suit or overalls are
effective.[47]
Sharp edges Lacerations and Contact with sharp
of rock, metal, abrasions of the skin, edges. Most cuts may be avoided by
wearing protective clothing
etc.[47] possibly deeper
wounds. such as wet-suit, dry suit,
skin/lycra suit or overalls.[47]
Avoiding high risk areas such
as shipwrecks during strong
water movements such as
surge or currents is also
effective.
Strength and skill in avoiding
contact with sharp edges will
help, but does not eliminate
the risk when water
movement is strong.
Stinging Stinging skin rash, local Contact of bare skin
hydroids[47] swelling and with fire coral.[47] Avoid contact with benthic
organisms.
inflammation.[47]
Protective clothing such as
exposure suits, lycra skins, or
overalls are effective.[47]
Stinging Stinging skin rash, local Some species of
Avoid contact with jellyfish
jellyfish[47] swelling and jellyfish (free swimming
inflammation, cnidaria) have stinging tentacles.
sometimes extremely cells that are toxic to Protective clothing such as
painful, occasionally humans, and will inject exposure suits, lycra skins, or
dangerous or even venom on contact with overalls is effective.[47]
fatal[47] the skin.[47]
Stingrays A deep puncture or Defensive reaction of a
laceration that leaves sting ray when Stingrays can usually be
venom in the wound. disturbed or threatened, avoided by not poking about
by lashing out with the on the bottom where they
venomous spine on the may be hiding, partly or
tail. completely buried under a
thin layer of sand.
 The risk is usually greater
when wading, when the
wader may inadvertently step
on a buried ray.
Rays are usually very shy and
will usually swim away when
approached. Risk of injury
may be avoided by not
molesting or threatening the
animals when seen, and by
staying a safe distance from
the tail.
Tropical reef Reef rash: General orA generic term for the A full-body exposure suit can
environment localised stinging orvarious cuts, scrapes, prevent direct skin to
inflammation of the bruises and skin environment contact.
skin. may include conditions that result
allergic reactions. from diving in tropical
waters. This may
include sunburn, mild
jellyfish stings, sea lice
bites, fire coral
inflammation and other
skin injuries that a diver
may get on exposed
skin.
Fish and Puncture wounds with Lionfish, stonefish,
invertebrates venom injection. Often crown of thorns starfish, Most of these animals are
with extremely painful and some sea urchins in sedentary and non-
aggressive and may be
venomous may be fatal in rare warm seas.[47]
spines. cases. avoided if seen and
recognised in time.
The risk is often greater when
wading. Some protection is
provided by rubber soled
neoprene diving boots, but
hard soled boots are more
effective.
Venomous Local envenomation at The Blue ringed
octopus site of bite wound. octopus may on rare Found only in parts of the
Extremely painful and occasions bite a diver. Pacific Ocean from Japan to
may result in death. Australia.
The octopus is unlikely to be
aggressive, and is not likely
to bite unless handled.
However it can be well
camouflaged against the reef
and difficult to see, so not
contacting the reef is the
most reliable way to avoid
contact.
Sharks Lacerations by shark Attack or investigation
teeth can involve deep by shark with bites. Consult location-specific
wounds, loss of tissue Risk is location, information to determine risk.
and amputation, with
 major blood loss. In conditions, and species Never molest even apparently
extreme cases death dependent.[47] docile sharks underwater.
may result.
Crocodiles Lacerations and Risk factors are
punctures by teeth, proximity or entry to Found worldwide in tropical
brute force tearing of water, and low light. seas and fresh water.
tissues. Possibility of Launching ranges are Consult local information on
drowning. 4m forwards out of risk.
water and 2m above Stay out of waters and
water surface. Running surroundings known to be
speed is up to inhabited by crocodiles.
11 km/h.[50]
Titan This tropical Indo- Keep a lookout for the fish and
triggerfish Pacific fish is very move away if they act
territorial during aggressively. Since his territory
breeding season and and nest is roughly cone-
will attack and bite shaped[52][51] move to the side
divers.[51] instead of ascending.
Very large Bite wounds, bruising The Giant grouper
groupers. and crushing injuries. Epinephelus Get local information on risk.
lanceolatus can grow Stay clear of very large
very big in tropical specimens.
waters, where Do not attempt to feed the
protected from attack fish, they may take more than
by sharks. There have is offered.
been cases of very
large groupers trying to
swallow
humans.[53][54][55][56][57]
Electric shock Electrical discharge Defense mechanism of
that will startle and may Electric eel, in some Get local information on risk.
stun the diver. South American fresh Do not touch the animals if
waters. seen.
Defense mechanism of
Electric ray, in some Do not touch the animal.
tropical to warm
temperate seas.
It is said that some
naval anti-frogman Keep out of armed forces
defences use electric areas.
shock.
Powerful Exposure to ultrasound It is said that some
[47] in excess of 120 dB naval anti-frogman Keep out of armed forces
ultrasound
may lead to hearing defences use powerful areas.
loss. Exposure in ultrasound. Also used Avoid large naval ships' anti-
excess of 155 dB may for long-range submarine warfare sonar.
produce heating effects communication with See Underwater Port Security
that are harmful to the submarines. Most high System.
human body, and it has power sonar is used for
been calculated that submarine detection
exposures above and target acquisition.
180 dB may lead to
death.
Water Weil's disease. Leptospirosis infection Avoid diving in contaminated
contaminated (Weil's disease) is water.
by infectious commonly transmitted Analyse water before diving if
aquatic to humans by allowing presence of contaminants is
organisms water that has been suspected, but type and
contaminated by animal concentration is not known.
urine to come in contact
If it is necessary, and
with unhealed breaks in
depending on risk:
the skin, the eyes, or
with the mucous
membranes. Outside of A watertight drysuit with
tropical areas, dry gloves and integral
leptospirosis cases dry hood, and positive
have a relatively distinct pressure full face diving
seasonality with most of mask will provide
them occurring in acceptable protection in
spring and autumn. some circumstances.[58]
Bilharzia (in some Schistosomiasis Surface supplied
warm fresh water) (bilharzia) is a parasitic equipment with heavy
disease caused by duty full environmentally
several species of sealed dry suit with
trematodes or "flukes" integral boots and
of the genus gloves, and helmet
Schistosoma. Snails sealed to suit, with
serve as the either free flow air
intermediary agent supply or series exhaust
between mammalian valve system will
hosts. This disease is provide more protection.
most commonly found Gas reclaim systems
in Asia, Africa, and can provide the greatest
South America, security to ingress of
especially in areas contaminants.[59] The
where the water gas need not actually
contains numerous be reclaimed if it is not
freshwater snails, which economically desirable,
may carry the parasite. the systems are used so
The parasitic larvae that there are no
enter through potential leaks though
unprotected skin and underwater exhaust
further mature within openings.
organ tissues.
(details to come) Various bacteria found Protective overalls may be
in sewage worn over the drysuit to
Chemically Water polluted by protect it from puncture
polluted water Consequences industrial waste outfalls damage.
variable depending or by natural sources. Appropriate decontamination
on: procedures may be used after
the dive.
Identity of The diver should breathe
pollutant from the diving air supply
Concentration when surfaced in
of pollutant environments where air
Exposure to quality is uncertain.
pollutant
 Refer to Materials
Safety Data Sheet
(MSDS) for
identified pollutants.
Hydrogen Hydrogen sulfide Hydrogen sulfide is
sulfide poisoning: associated with sour
natural gas, crude oil,
anoxic water conditions
and sewers (more
information needed).
hydrogen sulfide is
present in some lakes
and caves and can also
be absorbed through
the skin.
Impact with Broken bones,
boat or bleeding, laceration Colliding with a boat Use of Surface detection aids
shoreline wounds and other or its propeller. or a diving shot to locate and
[47] Wave action on mark surfacing position and
trauma
rocky shore. warn vessels of the presence
of divers.
A safe exit point and
alternatives may be planned
for taking into account
forecasts for weather and
tidal conditions.
Abandonment Diver lost at sea on the
at surface surface after a dive, Diver separated Boat crew may use a positive
after a boat with risk of exposure, from boat cover due check system to identify that
dive drowning and to poor visibility at each diver is on board after a
dehydration. surface or strong dive.
underwater Divers may carry a yellow flag
currents. or surface marker buoy to
Diver left behind attract attention.
due to inaccurate Divers may carry a personal
check by boat crew. submersible EPIRB or vhf
Diver unable to radio.
return to unattended Divers may carry a signalling
boat. mirror and/or sound signalling
device.
Diving from unattended boats
only when a safe shore exit is
feasible.
Inability to Diver lost at sea after a
return to shore dive. Big breaking waves Local knowledge, good
shore or to make it unsafe to weather forecasts, plan
exit the water. approach the shore. alternative exits.
Currents move the EPIRB, marker buoy, flares,
diver away from a die markers, signalling light,
safe exit. mirror, whistle or other means
Weather conditions of signalling distress and
make the sea too indicating position to
rough to safely exit. rescuers.
 Good buoyancy aids and
exposure suit to provide
protection while rescue is
awaited.
Notification before the dive of
someone on shore of the
expected time of return, so
they can notify the rescue
orgabisations if the divers do
not return within a reasonable
time.
Silt Sudden loss of Stirring up silt or other
underwater visibility (silt light loose material, Appropriate trim, buoyancy
out), which can cause either by natural water and propulsion techniques.
disorientation and a movement or by diver Training and skills for diving
diver getting lost under activity, often due to in zero visibility and silting risk
an overhead. poor trim and finning areas.
skills. Use of distance line when it is
possible to end up under an
overhead.
Entrapment Diver trapped Snagging on lines,
hazards such underwater and may nets, wrecks, debris or Carrying at least one effective
as nets, lines, run out of breathing gas in caves. line cutting implement, more
kelp, unstable and drown. in high risk areas.
structures or Inappropriate response Entrapment by Diving with a buddy who is
terrain, and due to panic is collapse of terrain capable of helping to free the
confined possible. or structure, either trapped diver and will stay
spaces. directly or by close enough to notice.
obstructing the exit
Training in wreck diving and
route.
cave diving techniques.[23]
Use of low snag equipment
configurations (avoid dangling
gear and snap hooks that can
snag on lines).
Overhead Getting lost in wrecks
environment Diver may get lost and caves or under ice Appropriate training and dive
(cave, wreck and be unable to where there is no direct planning.[23]
or ice, where identify the way out,route to the surface, Correct use of reels, lines and
direct ascent and may run out of often due to not using a directional markers.[23]
to the surface breathing gas and distance line, or losing
drown.[23] Backup lights.[23]
is obstructed) it in darkness or bad
Inappropriate visibility, but sometimes
response due to due to the line
panic is possible. breaking.[23]
Differential Getting too close to
pressure Diver may get propellers, thrusters or Appropriate training and dive
hazards drawn into moving intakes on operational planning.
(Pressure machinery or vessels, outlets and Correct use of lockout-tagout
difference trapped against an sluices in dams, locks and permit to work systems[7]
other than intake opening, and or culverts, failure of
may be directly Restricted length of lifeline or
hydrostatic, lockout tagout and umbilical[60]
causing injured or unable to permit to work systems,
strong water escape and may
flow, usually run out of breathing Previously unknown or Use of temporary or
towards the gas and drown. changed flow in caves. permanent safety barrier[60]
hazard)[47] Inappropriate
response due to
panic is possible.
Strong
currents or Impact against the Strong water Strong currents and surge
bottom terrain or movement carrying may often be avoided by
surge[47]
underwater the diver along and planning the time of the dive.
structures, which into contact with Divers may stay a safe
can dislodge rigid objects fixed in distance from the bottom
equipment such as place. terrain during drift dives.
mask or DV, roll off Strong water Drift divers may tow a surface
a cylinder valve, movement creating marker buoy to identify their
snag and damage so much drag on positions to the boat.
equipment or cause the diver that
impact trauma to progress upcurrent
the diver. Severity is severely
can vary from restricted.
annoyance to fatal.
It is also possible to
get wedged into a
small gap and
trapped, or caught
up on nets or lines
in the water.
In an overhead
environment the
diver may be
unable to get back
against a strong
current.
Breaking
waves Impact injury and Uncontrolled Avoidance of strong surf
damage to transportation by transits.
(surf)[47]
equipment. surf surge onto Minimising time in surf zone.
Disorientation. rocks or other hard
Secure attachment of
Loss of equipment, obstacles. equipment.
temporary loss of Tumbling in
Protection of mask and
breathing gas. breaking wave demand valve security by
causing vertigo. holding them in place in high
Strong turbulence in turbulence.
breaking wave may
pull equipment from
diver, particularly
mask and demand
valve, occasionally
fins.
Low visibility Inability to read Lack of light or
and darkness. instruments to monitor absorption of light by A dive light can provide light if
(in depth, time, ascent turbidity. the visibility is sufficient.
conjunction rate, decompression In zero visibility special
with other schedule, gas precautions must be taken.
hazards) pressure, and to
 navigate. These are not It is usually preferable to
dangerous in use surface supplied
themselves, but may equipment with voice
result in the diver communications, as the
getting lost, swimming diver can not get lost,
into an entrapment and the surface team
hazard or under an can monitor depth, time,
overhang, violating a breathing gas and
decompression decompression
obligation, or running obligations.
out of breathing gas. Navigation and work
must be done by feel.

High altitude Increased risk of Diving at altitude.[47]

decompression Acclimatisation at altitude
sickness—Reduced before diving.
ambient pressure can Use of decompression
induce bubble schedules designed for
formation or growth in altitude diving.[61]
saturated tissues. Ascent to altitude after Surface interval appropriate to
diving, including:[47] the planned change in
altitude.[61]
Flying in
pressurised aircraft.
Flying in
unpressurised
aircraft.
Ascent by road or
rail to significantly
higher altitude.[61]

Pre-existing physiological and psychological conditions in the diver

Hazard Consequences Cause Avoidance and prevention
Heart disease Exertion beyond the capacity
Heart attack, of the unhealthy heart. Periodical medical
with high risk examination for diving
of death as fitness, and discussion of
direct medical history with
consequence, provider.
or by drowning Stress ECG when indicated
as indirect by medical examination.
consequence.
Maintaining good cardio-
Angina with vascular fitness.
severe pain
Use of Nitrox may decrease
and severely
risk.
reduced
physical
strength and
endurance,
and reduced
situational
awareness,
 which increase
the risk of
further
deterioration of
the incident
Patent Possibility of Otherwise low-risk venous gas
foramen venous gas bubbles formed during Screening for PFO for high
ovale (PFO) bubbles shunting decompression may shunt risk divers
into arterial through PFO during Conservative
circulation and anomalous pressure decompression and ascent
causing emboli differential episode such as Avoidance of exercise
coughing, Valsalva which is likely to induce
manoeuver, or exertion while shunting during ascent
holding the breath.
Epilepsy Loss of Epileptic seizure. Divers with a history of
consciousness epilepsy are generally
and inability to considered unfit for diving due
remain alert and to the unacceptable risk
actively control associated with an underwater
activity. Likely to seizure.
lead to drowning in
Scuba divers.
Diabetes (to be added) (to be added) (to be added)
Asthma Difficulty in constriction of lung passages, (to be added)
breathing, increasing work of breathing.
particularly
difficulty in
exhaling
adequately during
ascent, with
reduced physical
work capacity, can
seriously reduce
ability to cope with
a relatively minor
difficulty and
precipitate an
emergency.
Trait anxiety Panic, and Higher susceptibility to panic
Overlearning of critical
associated sub- under high stress[62]
optimal coping skills.
behaviour. Avoidance of high stress
dive plans.
Dehydration
Increased risk Overheating and sweating Ensure adequate hydration
of before dive. before diving.
decompression Drinking diuretic beverages Rehydrate during dives if
sickness before diving. they are several hours long.
Muscular Immersion effects of Rehydrate after dives.
cramps diving.
Fatigue Reduced Lack of sleep, excessive (To be added)
situational exertion prior to dive.
awareness,
 reduced ability to
respond
appropriately to
emergencies
Compromised Illness, lifestyle, lack of Training and exercise,
physical Reduced ability exercise. particularly swimming and
fitness to respond finning exercise using diving
effectively to equipment
emergencies
Muscular
cramps

Diver behaviour and competence

Hazard Consequences Cause Avoidance and prevention
Inadequate Inability to deal with
learning of minor incidents, which Inadequate Quality assurance by
critical safety consequently may demonstration and training agency
skills. develop into major assessment of skills
incidents. by instructor.
Ineffective skills
taught, due to
inappropriate training
standard, or
misinterpretation of
training standard.
Insufficient correct
repetition of skills
during training.
Inadequate Inability to deal with
practical minor incidents, which Insufficient practice of Clear standards for
competence in consequently may skills during training. competence in
critical safety develop into major Insufficient practice of assessment criteria of
skills. incidents. skills after training. training programme.
Quality assurance by
training agency.
Post training practice of
vital skills by the diver.
Periodical re-assessment
of skills by a competent
assessor.
Overconfidence. Diving in conditions
beyond the diver's Over-optimistic self- Objective assessment and
competence, with high assessment of accurate feedback during
risk of accident due to personal competence training.
inability to deal with by the diver. Realistic training
known environmental Insufficient information standards and
hazards. due to inadequate competence level
training. descriptions.
Inadequate
strength or Inability to Underestimating Experience and familiarity
fitness for the compensate for severity of conditions. with local conditions.
conditions difficult conditions
 even though well Overestimating fitness Use of weather and tide
versed at the and strength. forecasts when planning
required skills. Conditions deteriorate dives.
Over-exertion, during the dive. Maintaining fitness to dive
overtiredness, Excessive task by adequate exercise.
stress injuries or loading. Use of equipment and
exhaustion. techniques that reduce
Use of equipment that
requires greater physical exertion required.
exertion than the diver Gradual buildup of task-
can produce. loading to develop
appropriate skills and
fitness.
Training with equipment in
benign conditions before
using in severe
conditions.
Peer pressure Inability to deal with
reasonably predictable Divers may be Objective and accurate
incidents in a dive. pressurised into knowledge of the diver's
undertaking dives capabilities.
beyond their Recognising and
competence or fitness. accepting responsibility
Divers may be for possible
pressurised into diving consequences of exerting
with unsuitable or submitting to peer
buddies, often by dive pressure.
professionals who
should know better.
Diving with an Injury or death while
incompetent attempting to deal with The buddy may get Diving with a buddy is
buddy a problem caused by into difficulty due to known to be competent
the buddy. inattention or and who can be trusted to
incompetence, and behave responsibly.[63]
require a rescue that Training to deal with
is hazardous to the emergencies and rescue.
rescuer.
Carrying equipment to be
The buddy may get independent of the buddy
into difficulty and in most emergencies.
mishandle the
situation or panic, In some circumstances it
creating an incident may be safer to dive
that is hazardous to without a buddy.[64]
both divers.
Overweighting Difficulty in Carrying more weight Establish and use the correct
neutralising and than needed. amount of weight for the
controlling buoyancy. Recreational divers do not circumstances of the dive,
usually need more weight taking into account:
Uncontrolled than is needed to remain
descent. slightly negative after Density of water (sea or
Inability to using all the gas carried. fresh).
establish neutral Professional divers may Buoyancy of equipment
buoyancy. need to be heavy at the (mainly exposure suit).
 Inefficient bottom to provide stability Buoyancy change of
swimming. to work. cylinders as gas is used
High gas up.
consumption. Tasks of the dive.
Poor trim. Capacity of buoyancy
Kicking up compensator to neutralise
silt. buoyancy at depth and
provide positive buoyancy
Difficulty in ascent at the surface.
Inability to control Use surface supply
depth accurately equipment or a lifeline if it
for decompression is necessary to dive
heavy.
Underweighting Difficulty in Not carrying sufficient
neutralising and weight. Divers need to be
controlling buoyancy. able to remain neutral at
3m depth at the end of a
Inability to achieve dive when the gas has
neutral buoyancy, been used up.
particularly at
decompression
stops.
Diving under the Use of drugs that alter Avoid use of substances that
influence of Inappropriate or mental state or are known or suspected to
drugs or delayed response physiological responses reduce the ability to respond
alcohol, or with to to environmental appropriately to
a hangover contingencies.[65] conditions. contingencies.

reduced
ability to deal
timeously
with
problems,
leading to
greater risk
of developing
into an
accident.

Increased risk of
hypothermia.
Increased risk of
decompression
sickness.
Use of Muscular cramps Use of fins that are too
inappropriate large or stiff for the diver Exercise to develop skills
equipment and fitness appropriate to
and/or the fins chosen
configuration Use softer or smaller
bladed fins (this may
compromise speed and/or
maneuverability)
Lower back pain Use of heavy weightbelts
for scuba diving Use of integrated weight
 systems, which support
the weights directly by the
buoyancy compensator
Different distribution of
weights - some weight
transferred to the harness,
BCD, cylinder or
backplate
Avoiding excessive
weighting
Inappropriate Wilfull or negligent Psychological and Background checks
attitude towards violation of procedures competence problems
safety leading to avoidable
incidents

Failure of diving equipment other than breathing apparatus

Hazard Consequences Cause Avoidance and prevention
Ballast weight Possible inability to Loss of diving weights.
Inspection of weight belt
loss[47] establish neutral
buoyancy leading buckle or weight pocket
to uncontrolled clips for good condition
ascent and correct function before
dive.
Use of correct length
weight belt.
Use weight harness or
integrated weight system if
weight belts tend to slide
over hips and fall off.
Carry weights in secure
method, which can not
easily be accidentally
released.
Carry the amount of weight
appropriate for regaining
neutral buoyancy on a
releasable system, and the
rest securely attached to
the harness.
Water ingress Catastrophic leak in dry suit:
into dry suit, Insulation loss, Maintenance and pre-use
and accelerated Zipper bursting.[48] inspection of dry suit zip
associated loss of body Tear of latex neck seal.[48] and seals.[48]
loss of air heat, potentially Use of a dry suit
from dry leading to undergarment that retains
suit.[47] hypothermia.[48] moderate insulation
Buoyancy loss - properties when flooded
potential (e.g. Thinsulate B).[66][67]
inability to Use of a drysuit material
establish having significant inherent
neutral or
positive
 buoyancy, and insulation properties (e.g.
difficulty or foam neoprene).[48]
inability to Training and practice of
ascend.[48] skills for recovery from this
situation.
Use of a buoyancy
compensator with sufficient
volume to compensate for
the suit buoyancy loss.[48]
Use of a lifeline with a
surface tender.
Sufficient ballast weight
ditchable to recover neutral
buoyancy at depth.
Use of a DSMB or surfave
marker buoy with sufficient
volume to compensate for
loss of buoyancy.[9]
Drysuit blow- Uncontrolled Inflation valve jammed
up[47] ascent with open.[48] Use of low flow rate inflator
possible hose connections.[9]
decompression Training and competence
problems[48] at emergency procedures
for inflation valve failure.[9]
Loss of Loss of swimfin(s). Most often
propulsion, Inability to swim due to strap or strap Pre-use inspection of
maneuvering against current. connector failure. straps and strap
control and Inability to exit connectors.
mobility overhead Practice skill of finning with
environment one fin.
before running Spare fin strap in
out of gas. emergency spares for
team.
Replace original straps
with more reliable type.[68]
Loss of mask Inability to focus Failure of mask strap or
vision underwater: buckle. Inspection of the mask and
strap before use.[19]
High level of Broken lens/faceplate due Hold mask in place with
stress. to impact with hard object. hand.
Inability to read Mask knocked off and lost Practice diving with no
instruments
mask.[19]
Spare mask in emergency
spares for team.[19]
Use of full face mask that
is more securely attached
to the head and tethered
by the hose.[6]
Buoyancy Uncontrolled Inflation valve stuck open.
compensator ascent with Inspection and testing of
blow-up. possible inflator mechanism before
(uncontrolled decompression use.
inflation) problems Appropriate maintenance
after use.
Training and practice of
skills to control situation.
Use of buoyancy
compensator with
moderate volume.
Uncontrollable Inability to achieve Catastrophic leak in buoyancy
loss of air neutral or positive compensator: Maintenance and
from buoyancy, and inspection of BC before
buoyancy potential difficulty Loss of manifold fitting. use.
compensator or inability to make Corrugated hose failure. Use of drysuit as
controlled ascent or Torn bladder. emergency buoyancy
to ascend at all. control device
Use of reel and DSMB of
sufficient volume as
shotline and buoyancy aid
for ascent.
Use of lifeline and surface
tender.
Use of double bladder
buoyancy compensator.
Ditching of sufficient
weights to allow ascent.
Blunt edged Inability to cut free Poor maintenance and pre-
cutting tool from entanglement, dive inspection procedures. Inspect and test cutting
possibly resulting in edge periodically
drowning. Sharpen or replace tool
when blunt

Hazards of the dive task and special equipment

Hazards specific to special purpose underwater tools should be described in the article for the tool, but may
be added here.

-
Hazard Consequences Cause Avoidance and prevention
Carrying Buoyancy Carrying an excessive weight of
tools (in problems due tools. Tools may be lifted and
general) in to weight of lowered to the worksite using
midwater and tools—Inability a rope.[69]
at the to achieve Tools may be returned to the
surface. neutral surface using a lift bag and a
buoyancy for surface marker buoy in case
ascent and the bag sinks.
positive Surface supplied divers may
buoyancy on be pulled up by the tender or
surface. lifted on the diving stage or
bell.
Increased
risk of
 drowning.
difficulty in
controlling
ascent rate.
Risk of
losing tools
if they must
be
abandoned.
Lifting bags Uncontrolled Snagging on lift bag as it begins Precautions can be taken to
ascent of diver. ascent, and being dragged up reduce risk if diver snagging on
with it. bag or load. These include use
of a rigid extension pipe to fill
parachute style bags, allowing
the diver to remain at a safe
distance.[70]
Loss of Using up breathing air to fill lift
breathing gas. bag. Use of an independent air
cylinder dedicated to bag
filling, rather than filling from
the breathing gas
cylinder(s).[5]
Use of surface supplied air to
fill bags.[70]
Runaway lift(bag):
Impact of Marking lift bag or load with a
falling Lift bag broaching at surface surface marker buoy before
objects. or leaking, losing gas and lifting.
sinking on top of divers. [70]
Loss of lift Ensuring that lift takes place
bag and Lift bag broaching at surface when surface vessels and
cargo. or leaking and sinking at structures are clear of the
Damage to unknown position. [70] area.[5]
lift bag, Lift bag surfacing under Buoyant assisted lifting,
cargo or vessel or structure and where the lift bag is
other snagging on projection that insufficient volume to lift the
equipment. punctures bag, or fouling load without assistance from
propeller or rudder etc. [70] a crane or winch.[70]
Poor rigging causing Staged lifting, where the load
damage to bag or cargo. [70] is lifted in stages, a short
distance at a time.[70][5]
Adequate training and use of
suitable rigging equipment
and lift bag size and style.
Attachment to suitable lift
points, taking trim and
stability into account.[5][70]

See also
Alternobaric vertigo – Dizziness resulting from unequal pressures in the middle ears
 Cave diving – Underwater diving in water-filled caves
Freediving blackout – Loss of consciousness caused by cerebral hypoxia towards the end of a
breath-hold dive
Diver rescue – Rescue of a distressed or incapacitated diver
Diver training – Processes by which people develop the skills and knowledge to dive safely
underwater
Divers Alert Network – International group of not-for-profit organizations for improving diving
safety
Diving equipment – Equipment used to facilitate underwater diving
Hazard – An agent which has the potential to cause harm to a vulnerable target
Human factors in diving safety – The influence of physical, cognitive and behavioral
characteristics of divers on safety
Risk assessment – Estimation of risk associated with exposure to a given set of hazards
Rubicon Foundation – Non-profit organization for promoting research and information access
for underwater diving
Task loading – The relationship between operator capacity and the accumulated activities that
must be done
Taravana – Decompression sickness after breath-hold diving
Wreck diving – Recreational diving on wrecks

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Further reading
Chung, J; Brugger, J; Curley, M; Wallick, M; Perkins, R; Regis, D; Latson, G (2011). "Health
survey of U.S. Navy divers from 1960 to 1990: A first look" (http://archive.rubicon-foundation.or
g/10138). US Navy Experimental Diving Unit Technical Report 2011-11. Retrieved 2013-03-08.
 Edmonds, C; Thomas, R; McKenzie, B; Pennefather, J (2012). Diving Medicine for Scuba
Divers (https://web.archive.org/web/20171220050959/http://www.divingmedicine.info/) (5th
ed.). Archived from the original (http://www.divingmedicine.info) on 20 December 2017.
Retrieved 16 May 2013.

External links
Diving Diseases Research Centre (http://www.DDRC.org)

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