Āris Kaksis 2019 Year, Riga Stradin`s University: http://aris.gusc.lv/BioThermodynamics/4KimiskaSaiteAngl.

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Chemical interaction forces and covalent bond
Interaction forces between atoms, ions and molecules are absent just in gas state of substances. If cool
gases enough its becomes liquid and freeze solid, because between atoms, ions and molecules are forming
chemical interactions forces, due to interaction forces particles stick together and aggregates.
Chemical interaction are attraction and binding forces, what works between atoms, ions and molecules,
forming compounds, aggregates and complexes. In nature it can observe as atoms, molecules and ions attracts
and stick together, for example: water vapors (gas water molecules H2O) forms rein drops, snowflakes , fog and
clouds, which merge and precipitate getting into puddles, lakes, rivers, sees, oceans, glaciers and snow coats.
Chemical binding forces according its strength are classified as weak chemical interaction forces, as moderate
chemical interaction forces and as strong chemical interaction forces, where strong interaction forces are called
as chemical bond. Chemical bond establishes between two atoms according exchange mechanism or donor-
acceptor mechanism.

1. Exchange mechanism binds two atoms with common binding electron pair orbital , what has the
name covalent bond. That forms commonly for two atoms, if one atom on outer electron shell energy level has

single unshared electron with spin +1/2 and, if second atom on outer electron shell energy level has single

unshared electron with opposite spin -1/2 . That binds chemical bond members, atoms firm together with
single value chemical covalent bond between atoms. From primary school is known, that covalent bond to
each of two atoms make in chemical compound one valence value. Total valence number for chemical element
atom in compound determines this atom made number of covalent bonds.

2. Donor acceptor mechanism binds two atoms with common binding electron pair orbital , what has
the name donor-acceptor bond or coordinative bond. That forms commonly for two atoms, if one central

atom on outer electron shell energy level has empty orbital , and, if second atom on outer electron shell

energy level has at least one unshared electron pair orbital . Central metal element atom usually is cat ion

with empty several orbitals , in which atom acceptor coordinates around itself one, two, four or six atoms,

which are electron pair donors , and those call as ligands. In coordinative compound central atom has
coordination number, which corresponds to donor-acceptor bond number, donor atom account and ligands
number, which coordinates around central atom.
VSEPR Valent Shell Electron Pair Repulsion according Exchange Mechanism.
Chemical bond between two atoms makes common electron pair, what call as covalent bond.
Covalent – co in Latin – common, with and – valēre in Latin – to be valuable.
Chemical interaction problem, binding with covalent bond or any other chemical interaction bond is
science central problem.
I , II , III Covalent bond types in chemistry and examples
I Covalent nonpolar, polar , ionic bond: nonmetals, oxides, acids, bases, salts, minerals, organic compounds;
II Donor-acceptor bonds or coordinative bonds: complex or coordinative compounds and

III. Metallic bond in metals are for s orbital electrons which have saved free, spherical ground wave
state in body of metals and as the free electrons in metals assign for its metallic properties : reflect the light as
mirror, conductivity etc. as for example: Al, Fe, Cu, Ag, Au, Pt etc..

Different in nonmetal p, d and f orbitals electrons are localized at node planes and can not be
free on positive charged atom nuclei, which site is localized on node plane, as it is obviously observing opposite

to free electrons on s orbital electrons in metallic body, which do not have node planes and as well as
are in metallic body free electrons,
as well as electrons s are independent on atomic nuclei because of node plane absence and
as well as belong to all atoms of metallic body instantly.

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 Exchange mechanism - ,  covalent bonds.
Valent Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) according exchange mechanism define fife points, what
reveal covalent bond properties to form non polar, polar and ionic covalent bonds, which have the compounds
nonmetals, oxides, acids, bases, salts, minerals and organic compounds
1. Covalent bond bind both atoms with common electron pair having opposite spins .
1. atoms 2. atoms
  
2. Electron pair establish overlapping both orbitals. If stronger is overlapping, then stronger is covalent bond.
Hydrogen 1s orbital and fluorine 2p orbital overlapping between atoms make common electron

pair orbital – covalent bond (1.figure)

 node plane  of fluorine atom


designation of chemical formula using different types:

H + F  H-F
Structural formula Electron formula Molecular formula
••
H + F  H F HF H +• F •• HF
••
1.Figure. Covalent bond formation between H and F atoms overlapping electron orbitals. Common

electron pair of both atoms valent electron adding + with opposite spins.
3. Orbital overlapping zone between positive charged (+) nucleus increased electron negative charge ()
density weaken repulsing forces between atoms and strengthening covalent bond.
node planes   of chlorine atoms

designation of chemical formula using different types:

ClCl Structural formula Electron formula Molecular formula

++ ••
Cl+e– e–Cl+  Cl—Cl +Cl + Cl • chlorine molecule Cl
+
++• ••
• 2

2.Figure. Electron negative  () charge density between positive charged (+) nucleus weaken repulsing
forces and strengthening covalent bond.
4. Covalent bond is saturated, because common orbital of both atoms may occupy just two electrons

with anti-parallel spins . Any chemical element atom valence in compound is univalent and corresponds to

one common orbital with two electrons . Hydrogen in compounds is univalent H-H (H:H hydrogen
molecule H2), H—O—H in water molecule H2O hydrogen is univalent. Oxygen —O— is two valent with two

valences – each of two covalent bonds is saturated H O H having valence one whole.
5. Covalent bond has central atom symmetric geometry in space, what optimize maximal overlapping
orbitals along chemical bond between atoms. Atoms bind to form central symmetric geometric figures, which
forming with valence angle and bond length (distance between atoms).
http://aris.gusc.lv/BioThermodynamics/CrystalloGraphy.pdf

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 Molecular orbitals (covalent bonds) are forming two possible types of orbital overlapping configuration
sigma  (singular) bonds, which apply symmetrisation around central atom,
http://aris.gusc.lv/BioThermodynamics/CrystalloGraphy.pdf and pi  (paired) bonds.
3.fig. F-F  bond forms p orbitals which symmetry axes align on one line. Orbitals approaches with
electron anti parallel spins and fuse in red region, blue regions remain outside behind atom nuclei. Nodes
planes retain position on atom nuclei perpendicular to symmetry axes and are correlated parallel each to other.
  nodes planes   of fluorine atoms

 designation of chemical formula using different types:

F + F  F F Structural formula Electron formula Molecular formula

++ ••
F + F  FF + F + F• fluorine molecule F2
+
+ +• • •
•
3.Figure. F and F atomic p orbitals fuse into  molecular orbital and form electron negative charge ()
density between fluorine positive charged atom nuclei weakened repulsion forces and strengthening covalent
bond in fluorine molecule F2. Atomic nuclei lies on parallel orbital node plans perpendicular symmetry axis
line, which divide negative charged electron () density into three symmetric regions and greatest electron
density lies between atomic nuclei.

node plane   on node plane lie both carbon atom nuclei

C + C  CC  >C=C< double bond with  and  bonds

C + C  C C
4.Figure. C and C atomic orbitals fuse into  molecular orbital and form in double bond >C=C< second
bond after sigma  bond CC formation. On common node plane lie both carbon atomic nuclei, but negative
charge () density between positive charged atom nuclei weakened repulsion forces and strengthening
covalent bond together with sigma bond  on formed double bond >C=C< .
 bond forms overlapping (C and C or O or S or P or N) atomic electron orbitals with parallel symmetry
axis. Atomic nuclei approach on common node plane and fuse p orbital parts on both side of node plane as
double bonds delocalised at joined groups of atoms, for example, >C=C-C=C-C=C< common for six carbon
atoms which each has energy from -100 to -150 kJ/mol.
 molecular orbital electron negative charge density increases on line, what connect atomic nuclei.  bond
forms negative charge density increase between atoms (C and C or O or S or P or N) both side node planes.
Latin word singulāris – one, alone in English and Greeks letter sigma  is first letter of word and designate
simple covalent bond – sigma bond. Double bond is paired bond >C=C< and Latin word pār –pair in English
which first letter from Greeks alphabet is pi  which designate double or triple bond pi.

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 H H
H H
HC CH C C
 orbital parallel to  orbital - sigma covalent bond in ethane ( ) in ethene H H and
H H
ethyne (H-CC-H) as additional to  bond (singular bond) are double and triple bonds. Naturally occurring 
bond exist only in combination with  bond as additional covalent bond into double and triple bonds.
H
O

C O

O
C=O ; O=C=O ; H
Carbon(II) oxide; carbon(IV) oxide; carbonic acid H2CO3
H H
C C
Simple covalent bonds always are  molecular orbitals, but double ( H H) and triple (H-CC-H)
bonds are  molecular orbital (one or two) additional combination with simple covalent bond  molecular
orbital. Triple bond for both  orbitals node planes are interconnected perpendicular.

With  bond connected atoms in molecule has rotation freedom dimension around symmetry axis of orbital.
O  H
C
C
H O H H
Acetic acid molecule HOOC-CH3 between carbon atoms has sigma bond.
However double bond is solid, steady and consistent (consistere – Latin word – solid, firm, standing).
H H
C C
H Hethene molecule is planar inflexible structure without rotation around >C=C< double bond.
Ethyne triple bond provides four atoms quite on linear structure H-CC-H straight stick form.
Exercise. Draw the structure formulas for given molecules! Account sigma  and  bonds? Account and
show  bonds between which atoms in molecule are formed? Oxygen O2, nitrogen N2, carbon(IV) oxide CO2,
sulfur(IV) oxide SO2, sulfur(VI) oxide SO3, nitrogen(IV) oxide NO2, carbonic acid H2CO3,
sulfuric acid H2SO4, phosphoric acid H3PO4, acetic acid CH3COOH, acetone CH3COCH3,
calcium carbide CaC2, ethyne C2H2.
Most important for covalent bond

1. Covalent bond between two atoms forms common electron pair in molecular orbital .

2. According exchange mechanism from each atom participate unpaired free electron and , forming

common orbital with electron pair having opposite spins .

3. Sigma  bond is simple single covalent bond, which can get additional  bonds double or triple bonds.