CLAUSES

TYPES:
1. Main clauses
Are groups of words
Usually contain at least a subject and a verb
Are normally finite, i.e., contain a verb which is in a recognisable tense form
2. Subordinate clauses
Clauses that are attached in some way to main clauses
 Finite adverbial clauses
Adverbial clauses are linked to a main clause and tell us something about the
information in that main clause; in this respect they are similar to adverbials
Start with a subordinating conjunction
Ex: They left when we arrived.
While I agree with you, many people don’t.
Adverbial clauses can be non-finite (‘reduced’) when the subject and the verb
are left out of it; it happens when the subject of the adverbial clause is the
same as the subject of the main clause. Can be:
- Present participle
Ex: I happened to bump into him when [I was] shopping for groceries.
- Past participle
Ex: Even though [this chest is] badly damaged, this chest is still valuable.
- Verbless
Ex: Once [the train was] finally under way, the train quickly made up for lost
time.
 Non-finite clauses
Clauses in which the verb, is in an -ing or infinitive form, or is completely
omitted whatsoever
- Participle clauses (present and past)
Are usually reduced adverbial or relative clauses:
Present participle clauses are used as the subject of another clause,
the complement of another clause, and after certain verbs and verb /
adjective / noun + preposition combinations:
Ex: Getting started on the Internet doesn’t cost a fortune.
The biggest problem in learning a language is remembering all
the words.
He recommends leaving after the interval.
We can also use a passive form of participles and a perfect form of a
present participle:
Ex: Being rejected in this way, I consider I have rights, too.
Having drunk all their store of water, they started collecting snow.
- Infinitive clauses
o With full infinitive: used as the subject of another clause, as the
complement of another clause, and when attached to another
clause
Ex: To give up now seems stupid.
Our only option is to let them win.
I came all the way to find out what had happened.
o With bare infinitive: used after rather than, as the complement of a
pseudo-cleft sentence, and when attached to another clause after
sense verbs
 Ex: Rather than open a new packet, why don’t you finish the
remaining one?
What you should do is try to open it with a knife.
I didn’t see anyone come into the room.
- With subjects
Ex: The house sold at last, we were able to start planning to move
out.
- Defining
Identify something or someone – they say which thing or person we are
talking about
Ex: The guest house to stay in is the last one in the row.
- Non-defining
Used to indicate things happening simultaneously; one thing happening
immediately after another; cause and effect; give descriptive details;
make something possible; and expand on information
Ex: She froze, the jar in her hand, as if she was caught in an act of
private violation.
Once away from the city, we opened all windows.
With the feathers all over the room, it was obvious to everyone
what had happened.
She looked at me, guilty and a little ashamed.
She lost 3 kilos by eating nothing but spinach.
Satisfaction is a concept impossible to define precisely.
 Noun clauses
Generally follow the main clause and are linked to it by one of the following
(kinds of) conjunctions, so can be of three types:
- Question-word clauses
Ex: I don’t know why/when he’s coming tomorrow.
- if- or whether-clauses
Ex: I don’t know if/whether he’s coming tomorrow.
- That clauses
Are often used:
o After adjectives and nouns which express feelings, mental states,
necessity, or some aspect of possibility
Ex: I am convinced (that) he’ll win the game.
o After verbs which express feelings, mental states, or are used to
report what someone says or writes
Ex: I believe (that) he’s coming tomorrow.
o As complements
Ex: The point I want to make is that we’re in trouble.
 Relative clauses
Describe or provide information about something or someone that we have
usually already specified
Are similar in function to adjectives
Ex: They gave me a book, which I read in one sitting.
They gave me a book (that) they found in a second-hand shop.
Relative clauses also enable us to combine clauses without repeating things:
Ex: I tried to help a child. The child was crying. -> I tried to help a child who
was crying.
We sometimes use relative clauses in order to identify things (or people) – to
distinguish them from other, similar things (or people)
Finally, we also use relative clauses to define or describe qualities after we
have used a ‘vague’ noun such as things or stuff:
 Ex: The thing (which/that) I liked best was the singing.
Characterised by use of relative pronouns, e.g., that, which, who, what, whom,
whose, where, when, why
Can be:
- Defining (provide essential information that cannot be left out; no commas)
Ex: The child who was crying eventually found her mother.
- Non-defining (provide extra information that can be left out without
affecting the meaning; separated by commas)
Ex: The bus came at last, which was an enormous relief.
- Non-finite (when a relative pronoun is followed by a form of the verb be, we
often leave out both the pronoun and this verb)
Ex: Let’s discuss only issues [which are] relevant to the topic on the agenda.
The house [which was] broken into last week has been boarded up.
We don’t speak to the people [who are] living in the cottages.
 Defining clauses
Used to single a thing or person out from two or more similar things or people
No commas used
Ex: Our house is the one with the new paint.
 Non-defining clauses
Do not define anything or anyone in the particular context
Separated by commas
Ex: Our house is the last one in the street, with the new paint.
Types:
- Phrases in apposition
- Prepositional phrases
- Participle clauses
- Infinitive clauses
- Relative clauses
 Adjective clauses