PHYSICS 2

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Formulas
𝑑
Constant Speed 𝑣=
𝑡

𝑉𝑓 = 𝑉𝑖 + 𝑎𝑡
2
(𝑉𝑓 ) = (𝑉𝑖 )2 + 2𝑎𝑑
Constant
(𝑉𝑖 + 𝑉𝑓 )𝑡
Acceleration 𝑑=
2
𝑎𝑡 2
𝑑 = 𝑉𝑖 𝑡 +
2

𝑉𝑓𝑣 = 𝑉𝑖𝑣 + 𝑔𝑡
2
(𝑉𝑓𝑣 ) = (𝑉𝑖𝑣 )2 + 2𝑔𝑑𝑣
(𝑉𝑖𝑣 + 𝑉𝑓𝑣 )𝑡
Vertical 𝑑=
2
Projectile Motion
𝑔𝑡 2
𝑑 = 𝑉𝑖𝑣 𝑡 +
2
𝑉𝑖𝑣 = 𝑉𝑖 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑖 )
𝑎𝑣 = 𝑔

𝑑ℎ
𝑣𝑖ℎ =
𝑡
Horizontal 𝑉𝑓ℎ = 𝑉𝑖ℎ = 𝑉𝑖 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑖 )
Projectile Motion (𝑉𝑖 )2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
𝑅=
𝑔
𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒: 𝜃 = 45°

2𝜋𝑟
𝑣=
Uniform Circular 𝑇
Motion 𝑣2
𝑎𝑐 =
𝑟
1
 𝐺𝑀
Gravity 𝑔=
𝑅2
𝑤 = 𝑚𝑔
Law of
𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎
Acceleration

𝑓𝑠,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇𝑠 𝐹𝑛
Frictional Force
𝑓𝑘 = 𝜇𝑘 𝐹𝑛

Gravitational 𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2
Force 𝐹=
𝑑2

𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣
Momentum ∆𝑝 = 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 × 𝑡
𝐽 = ∆𝑝 = 𝑝𝑓 − 𝑝𝑖

𝑣𝑠
Collision 𝑒=
𝑣𝑎

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Energy 𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
𝐺𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ = 𝑤ℎ

Work 𝑊 = (𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)𝑑

𝑊 𝐹𝑑
Power 𝑃= = = 𝐹𝑣
𝑡 𝑡

∆𝑈 = 𝑄 − 𝑊
.

𝑄
∆𝑆 =
𝑇
Thermodynamics 𝑄𝐿 𝑄𝐻
∆𝑆𝑇 = ∆𝑆𝐿 − ∆𝑆𝐻 ∆𝑆𝑇 = −
𝑇𝐿 𝑇𝐻
𝑇𝐿
𝑒 =1−
𝑇𝐻

2
 𝐾 |𝑞1 𝑞2 |
𝐹=
𝑑2
𝐹
𝐸=
|𝑞|
𝑘 |𝑞|
𝐸=
𝑑2
𝐹 = |𝑞|𝐸
Φ = EA
Φ = ∫ 𝐸 ∙ 𝑑𝐴
Electrostatics 𝑄
Φ=
𝜀0
1
K=
4𝜋𝜀0
E = 𝐾𝑄/𝑟 2
𝑄
∮ 𝐸 ∙ 𝑑𝐴 =
𝜀0
E = 𝐾𝑄/𝑟 2
E = 𝜆/2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
E = 𝜎/𝜀0

Constant Values:
Speed of Light = 300 000 000 m/s = 3.0 × 108 m/s
Gravitational Constant (G) = 6.67 × 10-11 Nm2kg2
Gravitational Acceleration at Earth’s Surface (g) = 9.8 m/s2
Earth’s Mass = 5.98 × 1024 kg
Earth’s Radius = 6.37 × 106 m
Coulomb’s Constant (K) = 9 × 109 Nm2/c2
Lowest Value of Permittivity = 9 × 10-12 C2/Nm2

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 Thermodynamics
study of the effects of heat on a system

Heat (Thermal Energy)

o Energy due to the random motion of the particles of an object
o Transferred from one object to another having a difference in
temperature
o SI UNIT: Joule (J) OTHER UNIT: cal or Kcal

Temperature – measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles of

an object in random motion

3 Forms of Heat Transfer

1. Conduction – through solid particles
2. Convection – through fluid (liquid and gas) particles
3. Radiation – through a vacuum (space devoid of matter)

Laws of Thermodynamics
1. Zeroth Law
If systems A and B are each in thermal equilibrium with system C,
then A and B are in equilibrium with each other; that is, all three
systems are at the same temperature

Thermal equilibrium
o Condition in which systems or object within a system are at
the same temperature
o Condition in which no heat transfer occurs

2. First Law of Thermodynamics

In any endothermic process, the change in internal energy of a
system is equal to the heat added to the system minus the work
done by the system.
∆𝑈 = 𝑄 − 𝑊

o Extension of the Law of Conservation of Energy

o Internal Energy – sum of the kinetic energies and the potential
energies of the particles od an object

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 THERMODYNAMIC PROCESS
1) Adiabatic Process ( ∆𝑼 = −𝑾 )
o Transfers no heat (Q = 0)
o Expansion (system does work)
▪ W (+) ∆U (-)
o Compression (work is done on the system)
▪ W (-) ∆U (+)

2) Isothermal Process ( 𝑸 = 𝑾 )
o Constant temperature (∆T = 0, ∆U = 0)
o Any energy entering the system must leave as work

3) Isobaric Process
o Constant pressure
o ∆U, W, and Q must be non-zero
o Ideal gas: 𝑊 = 𝑃∆𝑉

4) Isochoric Process ( ∆𝑼 = 𝑸 )
o Constant volume
o W=0

3. Second Law of Thermodynamics

1) Heat flows naturally from hot to cold reservoir
2) No heat engine can completely convert heat into work
3) Entropy of the universe increases

Entropy (s)
o Degree of disorder in a system
o ↑ Temperature ↑ Entropy
𝑄 𝑄𝐿 𝑄𝐻
∆𝑆 = ∆𝑆𝑇 = ∆𝑆𝐿 − ∆𝑆𝐻 ∆𝑆𝑇 = −
𝑇 𝑇𝐿 𝑇𝐻

Heat Engine
o Device for converting heat into work

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 o Heat engine efficiency – measures how much of the heat
input is converted into work

Consequences of Carnot Efficiency Equation

o Heat cannot be converted into work without a temperature
difference
𝑇𝐿
𝑒 =1−
𝑇𝐻
o A heat engine can only be 100% efficient if the low
temperature reservoir is at 0K (absolute zero)

4. Third Law of Thermodynamics

No system can reach absolute zero.

WHY ABSOLUTE ZERO IS IMPOSSIBLE?

o Particles of matter are in constant random motion
o Graph of Charles’ Law

When matter reaches 0K, its

volume reaches 0.

No piece of matter can occupy

zero volume.

o To reduce the temperature of a body down to zero kelvin,

would mean removing all the energy associated with the
body. Now, since energy is always associated with mass, if
all the energy is removed there won't be any mass left.
Hence it isn't possible to attain absolute zero.

o As we decrease the temperature, the vibration decreases

and decreases until, at absolute zero, there is a minimum
amount of motion that atoms can have, but not zero.

o To cool something to zero kelvin, first you'll need something

that is cooler than zero kelvin.

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 Electrostatics
study of electric charges at rest

Electroscope
o Device used to detect objects
that are electrically charged

Hair
o Built-in electroscope in the
human body

Van de Graaff Generator

o Electrostatic generator which uses a moving
belt to accumulate electric charge on a hollow
metal globe on the top of an insulated column,
creating very high electric potentials

MINIATURE: FunFlyStick

What form of energy is involved in the

functioning of the two devices?
Electricity – form of energy due to electric
charges
To understand electricity, we must understand matter.
o All matter is made up of atoms.
o Atoms have electrons, protons, and neutrons.

Electric Charges are found in atoms

a. Positive charge – protons
b. Negative charge – electrons

LAW OF CHARGE INTERACTION

o Like charges repel
o Unlike charges attract

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Electric Charge is measured in Coulomb (C):
o A proton has a charge of + 1.6 x 10-19 C
o An electron has a charge of - 1.6 x 10-19 C
o A neutron has a charge of 0 C

Equal number of Net Charge: Net Charge:

Charges ( 0C ) - 1.6 x 10-19 C + 1.6 x 10-19 C

How many electrons or protons are needed to make ± 1 C? 6 x 1018

Electrostatic Charging
o Process of transferring electrons to make objects electrically charged

1. Charging by Friction
o The rubbed object must be insulators and must have different
affinities for electrons.

o Rod gains electrons

o Cloth loses electrons

Why is a piece of paper which is

initially neutral attracted to the
charged object?

Charge redistribution occurs

because of the dipoles (opposite
charges separated by a certain
distance)

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2. Charging by Contact

a) A charged object is placed in

contact with a metal

b) Electrons repel one another, so

they spread out evenly in the
metal sphere

3. Charging by Induction

Why are tall objects often the target of a

lightning strike?

Because tall objects offer a path of least

resistance and electricity tend to flow
through the path of least resistance

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 A lightning rod protects a building by
diverting lightning to the ground.

Ground rod gradually discharges the

thundercloud, avoiding an explosive charge

Lightning never strikes in the same place

twice. [FALSE]

Coulomb’s Law
The magnitude of the electric force between two stationary charges is
directly proportional to the product of the charges and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.

𝐾 |𝑞1 𝑞2 |
𝐹= 𝐾 = 9 × 109 𝑁𝑚2 /𝐶 2
𝑑2

o Electrostatic force – electric force that stationary charges exert

on each other
o Point charges – charged objects that are very small in
comparison to the distance between them.

Coulomb’s Law Equation for electrostatic force has a strong resemblance

to the Newton’s equation for Universal Gravitation:

𝐾 |𝑞1 𝑞2 | 𝐺 |𝑚1 𝑚2 |
𝐹𝑒 = 𝐹𝑔 =
𝑑2 𝑑2

o Both equations have a similar form

o Both equations show an inverse square relationship between
force and separation distance
o Both equations show that the force is proportional in the
product of the quantity that causes the force (charge for
electricity | mass for gravity).

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Yet, there are some striking differences between these two forces:
o Gravitational forces are only attractive;
Electrical forces can either be attractive or repulsive.
o The Coulomb’s constant (K) is significantly greater than
Newton’s Universal Gravitation constant (G). Subsequently, a
unit of charge with significantly more force than a unit of mass
will attract a unit of mass.
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• Electric charge causes electric force.
• Electric charge exerts an electric force by means of an electric field.

Electric Field (E)

o An invisible form of energy that surrounds an electric charge.
o It enables an electric charge to exert force on another charge.

o Technically, it is the force on a small positive charge at that

point divided by the magnitude of the charge:
𝐹
𝐸=
|𝑞|
o E = electric field at the point where q is located; always +
SI UNIT: N/C

o Test charge – small positive charge used to determine E

o Electric field is represented by electric lines of force.
o The direction of an electric field is based on the direction of the
force on the test charge.

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Electric Lines of Force

We can use Coulomb’s Law to derive another

equation for the electric field:

𝐹 = 𝐾 |𝑄𝑞|/ 𝑑2
𝐹/ |𝑞| = 𝐾 |𝑄|/ 𝑑2

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 Electric charges exert an electric force through an electric field that
determines the electric flux used in Gauss’s Law.

Electric Flux (Φ)

o Product of the electric field perpendicular to a surface and the
area of the surface
o Φ = 𝐸𝐴
o SI UNIT: Nm2/C

CONDITIONS FOR SPECIAL EQUATION (Φ = 𝐸𝐴 )

1.) Uniform Electric Field
▪ Electric Field has the same magnitude at all points on
the surface under consideration
2.) Electric Field is Perpendicular to the Surface
3.) Surface has a Regular Shape
▪ Such as the shape of a sphere, cylinder, a circle, etc.

General Equation for Electric Flux

Φ = ∫ 𝐸 ∙ 𝑑𝐴

Gauss’s Law
o The electric flux through a closed surface (Gaussian Surface) is equal
to the enclosed charge divided by the permittivity of free space.
𝑄
Φ=
𝜀0

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Permittivity of Free Space or Vacuum (ε0)
o Lowest value of permittivity: 9 × 10-12 C2/Nm2
o The measure of a material’s ability to store an electric field
o The lower its value, the greater is the ability to store an
electric field
1
o K=
4𝜋𝜀0

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φ = φin + φout
φ=0

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φ = φin + φout
φ=0

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o Gaussian Surface – an imaginary closed surface of any shape;

the most useful GS is one that mimics the symmetry of the
given problem.

GENERAL EQUATION FOR GAUSSIAN LAW

𝑄
∮ 𝐸 ∙ 𝑑𝐴 =
𝜀0

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Application of Gauss’s Law
It is used to determine the electric field produced by a given
charge distribution.

1. Electric field produced by a point charge Q at a distance r

A = 4𝜋𝑟 2

Φ = 𝑄/𝜀0
EA = 𝑄/𝜀0
E (4𝜋𝑟 2 ) = 𝑄/𝜀0
E = 𝑄/4𝜋𝑟 2 𝜀0
E = 𝐾𝑄/𝑟 2
(d = r)

2. Electric field produced by a long, straight, charged wire

Φ = 𝑄/𝜀0
EA = 𝑄/𝜀0
E = 𝑄/2𝜋𝑟𝑙𝜀0
E = 𝜆/2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

𝜆 = charge per unit

length (C/m)

3. Electrical field produced by a parallel-plate capacitor

o Capacitor – a device used to store an electric charge consisting
of one or more pairs of conductors separated by an insulator

Φ = 𝑄/𝜀0
EA = 𝑄/𝜀0
E = 𝑄/𝐴𝜀0
E = 𝜎/𝜀0

𝜎 = charge per unit area (C/m2)

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