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MATH 114 – differential calculus
Handout #1
Historical Background of the Calculus
Some of the ideas of calculus can be found in the works of
the ancient Greek mathematicians at the time of Archimedes (287
– 212 B.C.) and in the works of the early seventeenth century by
Rene Descartes (1596 – 1650), Pierre de Fermat (1601 – 1665),
John Wallis (1616 – 1703), and Isaac Barrow (1630 – 1677).
However, the invention of calculus is often attributed to Sir Isaac
Newton (1642 – 1727) and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646 –
1716) because they began the generalization and unification of
the subject. There were other mathematicians of the seventeenth
and eighteenth centuries who joined in the development of the
calculus; some of them were Jakob Bernoulli (1654 – 1705),
Johann Bernoulli (1667 – 1748), Leonhard Euler (1707 – 1783),
and Joseph Lagrange (1736 – 1813). However, it wasn’t until the nineteenth century that the processes
of calculus were given a sound foundation by such mathematicians as Bernhard Bolzano (1781 –
1848), August Cauchy (1789 – 1857), Karl Weierstrass (1815 – 1897), and Richard Dedekind (1831 –
1916).
Preliminaries
Functions and Relations
A relation is any set of ordered pairs ( x, y) where x
belong to one set and y belongs to another set. The set of all
x is called the domain while the set of all
first elements
second elements y will constitute the range. A relation can
also be defined as the set of ordered pairs ( x, y) such that
for everyx element of the domain, there will be at least one
element y of the range.
We can express a relation in different ways:
Listing ordered pairs, say (0, 5),(1, 1),(2,3)
Using set notation, say ( x, y) | x2 y 2 25
Describing the elements by an equation, say y 4x 5 or x2 y 2 25
Using graphs:
Panopio, F.M. Simplified Differential Calculus. Feliber Publishing House. 1998
Leithold,Louis. The Calculus 7. Pearson Education Asia Pte Ltd. 2002
Arcega, V.D. College Algebra Made Easy. G&P Printing Press. Lipa City. 2010
2
Example 1.
F (1,1),(1,2),(2,3),(3,7)
Example 2.
G (0, 2),(2,0),(3,1),(4,2)
In some cases, the domain of the relation is not easily determined.
Example 3.
E ( x, y) | y x 9
Example 4.
x
y
x2 4
Example 5.
y x2 9
Example 6.
1
y
x5
Panopio, F.M. Simplified Differential Calculus. Feliber Publishing House. 1998
Leithold,Louis. The Calculus 7. Pearson Education Asia Pte Ltd. 2002
Arcega, V.D. College Algebra Made Easy. G&P Printing Press. Lipa City. 2010
3
Functions and Functional Notations
A function is a relation in which no two distinct ordered pairs ( x, y) have the same first
element. Therefore, a function is a special type of relation which is either one to one or many to one.
Furthermore, all functions are relations but not all relations are functions.
In this definition, the restriction that no two distinct ordered pairs can have the same first number
ensures that y is unique for a specific value of x . The symbols x and y denote variables. Because
the value of y is dependent on the choice of x , x denotes the independent variable and y denotes
the dependent variable.
For example, the set of ordered pairs (1,5),(5,3),(3,7) is a function because the first element of
each ordered pair is unique; while the set of ordered pairs (1, 2),(1,3),(3,5) is a mere relation since in
the latter, (1, 2) and (1,3) are two ordered pairs which have the same first element.
Another way to determine whether a relation is a function or not is by using the vertical line
test. If a vertical line intersects the graph of a relation at more than one point, then the relation is not a
function.
Every function will be denoted by a symbol which is usually a letter such as: f , F , g , G, h, H and
others. Therefore, if f is a function involving variables x and y , that is, ( x, y) f , then we can write
the second coordinate y by the symbol f ( x) which is read as “ f of x .” As a result, the ordered pair
( x, y) can be written as ( x, f ( x)) since y f ( x) . This equation y f ( x) is the most common way of
writing a function. The notation f ( x) , called a function value, is due to the Swiss mathematician and
physicist Leonhard Euler (1707 – 173).
Example 7. Given the function f ( x, y) | y x 2; x 0, 2,3, 4 , determine the range of the
function f .
Panopio, F.M. Simplified Differential Calculus. Feliber Publishing House. 1998
Leithold,Louis. The Calculus 7. Pearson Education Asia Pte Ltd. 2002
Arcega, V.D. College Algebra Made Easy. G&P Printing Press. Lipa City. 2010
4
Example 8. If f ( x) 3x2 5 , find f (1) , f (3) , f (a) , and f (4h 1) .
Example 9. Given g ( x) 4x , find a.) g (0) b.) g 1 2 , and c.) g 2 .
f ( x h) f ( x )
Example 10. Find where h 0 , if (a) f ( x) 4x2 5x 7 ; (b) f ( x) x
h
Panopio, F.M. Simplified Differential Calculus. Feliber Publishing House. 1998
Leithold,Louis. The Calculus 7. Pearson Education Asia Pte Ltd. 2002
Arcega, V.D. College Algebra Made Easy. G&P Printing Press. Lipa City. 2010
5
Graph of a Function
The graph of a function, or in general an equation, is the geometric representation of all the points
that satisfy the given function or equation.
If f is a function, then the graph of f is the set of all points ( x, y) in the plane R 2 for which
( x, y) is an ordered pair in f .
From this definition, the graph of a function f is the same as the graph of the equation
y f ( x) .
For simple functions, like those given as a set of few elements like F (1,2),(3,3),(4,2),(2,4)
the graph is done by just plotting these four points in the xy -plane.
Similarly, when the function is given in equation form but is linear like x 2 y 2 , the graph will
be easily done by getting two points, plotting them in the xy -plane and then joining them using a
straight edge or ruler.
However, when the equation is of higher degree, the tabular form or point-plotting method may
not be enough. Other information about the graph of the given equation is needed. For example, the
intercepts will help determine where the curve will cross the x and y axes. Tests for symmetry will
help minimize the tabular values needed. Asymptotes or guiding lines will determine boundaries in the
xy -plane where the graph can go. Even the domain and range will always be of help.
Example 11. Find the domain and range of y x 1 . Sketch its graph and determine if it is a
function or not.
Panopio, F.M. Simplified Differential Calculus. Feliber Publishing House. 1998
Leithold,Louis. The Calculus 7. Pearson Education Asia Pte Ltd. 2002
Arcega, V.D. College Algebra Made Easy. G&P Printing Press. Lipa City. 2010
6
You have seen that the domain of a function can usually be determined by the function’s
definition. Often the range can b determined by the graph of the function as in the next example
involving a piecewise-defined function, one that is defined by using more than one expression.
Example 11.
Let f be the function defined by
x 1 if x 3
f ( x) 5 if x 3
2 x 1 if 3 x
Determine the domain and range of f and sketch its graph.
Example 12. Let g be the function defined by
3x 2 if x 1
g ( x)
x
2
if 1 x
Determine the domain and range of g and sketch its graph.
Panopio, F.M. Simplified Differential Calculus. Feliber Publishing House. 1998
Leithold,Louis. The Calculus 7. Pearson Education Asia Pte Ltd. 2002
Arcega, V.D. College Algebra Made Easy. G&P Printing Press. Lipa City. 2010
7
x2 9
Example 13. The function h is defined by h( x) . Determine the domain and range of h and
x 3
sketch its graph.
x 3 if x3
Example 14. Let H be the function defined by H ( x)
2 if x3
Determine the domain and range of H and sketch its graph.
Panopio, F.M. Simplified Differential Calculus. Feliber Publishing House. 1998
Leithold,Louis. The Calculus 7. Pearson Education Asia Pte Ltd. 2002
Arcega, V.D. College Algebra Made Easy. G&P Printing Press. Lipa City. 2010
8
x2 if x2
Example 15. The function f is defined by f ( x)
7 if x2
Determine the domain and range of f and sketch its graph.
Example 16. Determine the domain and range of the function f such that f ( x) x .
Panopio, F.M. Simplified Differential Calculus. Feliber Publishing House. 1998
Leithold,Louis. The Calculus 7. Pearson Education Asia Pte Ltd. 2002
Arcega, V.D. College Algebra Made Easy. G&P Printing Press. Lipa City. 2010
