Alternative Terms for NNESTs

RASHI JAIN

­Framing the Issue

The terms non-native English speakers (NNESs) and non-native English-speaking

teachers (NNESTs) are widely used in many English-language settings around the
world. These terms are also frequently seen in literature about learners and teach-
ers of English who speak English as a second, foreign, international, or an addi-
tional language. Some of the earliest instances of the use of the term “non-native
English speaker” in published educational literature—including books, journals,
and conference proceedings—date back to as early as the 1960s and 1970s. In
TESOL, the term NNEST has gained currency over the last half-century, culminat-
ing in the NNEST movement that began to emerge in the mid-1990s in the work of
self-identified NNES scholars within the field (see Braine, 2010; Mahboob, 2010)
and has also been enriched by contributions from NES scholars over the years.
The issue of establishing native and non-native English speaker identities has
long been a problematic one. Chomsky (1965, p. 3) has defined a native speaker as
an “ideal speaker-listener, in a completely homogeneous speech community, who
knows its language perfectly.” Such a definition assumes that a native speaker is
“perfectly” proficient in his or her language. Other researchers have questioned
the validity of such a definition. Other attempts to identify a native speaker by
virtue of such biographical information as country of birth or childhood are also
attended by problems.
Adding to this complexity of categorizing English speakers as “native” or “non-
native” is the reality that according to recent estimates, those who teach English-
language learners are increasingly themselves speakers of more than one language.
Often identified singularly as non-native English-speaking teachers (NNESTs),
these teachers in reality represent a diversity of (English) language-learning and
acquisition experiences. Additionally, the seemingly neutral label of NNEST per-
petuates an artificial dichotomy between those who speak English “natively” and
those who do not, which then gets transferred to ideas about who is a legitimate
English teacher and who is not. This fallacy of the native (English) speaker as the
“ideal” (English) teacher has done much disservice to all participants in TESOL,

The TESOL Encyclopedia of English Language Teaching, First Edition.

Edited by John I. Liontas (Project Editor: Margo DelliCarpini).
© 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2018 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118784235.eelt0005

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 2 Alternative Terms for NNESTs

teachers and students alike. There exists, as a result, a consistent critique of the
terms NNES and NNEST.
While some continue to use the terms—NES(T) and NNES(T)—to perpetuate
the perceived dichotomy, others have taken ownership of the terms to chal-
lenge the underlying assumptions (see Braine, 2010; Mahboob, 2010). These
efforts have  resulted in the well-recognized NNEST movement that aims to
highlight issues surrounding NNESTs in TESOL. Scholars in the field also
continue to use the terms NNES and NNEST to problematize stereotypes,
myths, and discriminatory practices perpetuated through the implicit or
explicit use of the labels.
Additionally, alternative terms have been offered in literature for “NNES”
­language users that are largely self-explanatory, including “proficient user of the
language,” “language expert,” “English-using speech fellowship,” “multicompe-
tent speaker,” and “intercultural speaker.” TESOL scholars have also proposed
alternative terms for NNESTs, such as: multicompetent teachers, bilingual or
­multilingual teachers, and translingual teachers. This entry provides an overview
of some of these key alternative terms for NNESTs in TESOL.

­Making the Case

As already mentioned, many alternatives have been suggested for NNES. While
some of these alternative terms have then been extended to NNESTs as well, other
entirely new terms have also been used specifically for NNESTs. Some of the key
terms that pertain to English-language teachers are explored briefly below.

Multicompetent Teachers
Cook (1999) defines multicompetence as the knowledge of two or more languages
in one mind. While Cook has not used the term specifically for language teachers,
others have extended the notion of “multicompetent” to (re)define and (re)imag-
ine NNESTs (e.g., Blair, 2012; Pavlenko, 2003). Pavlenko (2003), in particular, has
provided a powerful reconceptualization of the NNEST as a multicompetent
teacher. Her seminal studies paved the way for more work based on the notion of
multicompetence that opens up the possibility of imagined alternative communi-
ties for (second) language users and teachers to reposition themselves as multi-
competent, bilingual, and multilingual speakers.

Bilingual and Multilingual Teachers

Teachers who speak English as a second, an additional, or a “nativized” language
are sometimes described as bilingual or multilingual teachers in TESOL, as
opposed to “NNEST” (e.g., Blair, 2012). In reality, these terms can be expanded and
applied to all English teachers who are proficient in more than one language,

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 Alternative Terms for NNESTs 3

regardless of whether they grew up in a monolingual English-only environment,

or with English as their primary language, or with English as one of the two or
more primary languages in operation (see Edge, 2010). However, the terms
­bilingual and multilingual teachers, when applied to those traditionally identified
as NNESTs, serve the critical function of highlighting the diverse linguistic
resources that teachers can potentially bring into their classrooms. In that sense, by
not being subtractive and focusing not on what is “missing” (i.e., “native English”),
these terms are similar to the additive idea of the multicompetent teacher.

Translingual Teachers
One of the critiques of the terms bilingual and multilingual teachers is that these
terms stem from a monolingual orientation, and do not adequately capture the
linguistic dynamism that can be found in contexts where many languages operate
simultaneously (see Canagarajah, 2013; Pennycook, 2008). In response to this
­criticism, scholars have proposed the ideas of translingualism and translinguistic
identities (e.g., Canagarajah, 2013; Horner, NeCamp, & Donahue, 2011; Jain, 2014;
Motha, Jain, & Tecle, 2012; Pennycook, 2008). Translingualism refers to the
­speaker’s capacity for using English contextually and creatively in relation to
the  other codes in society and their personal repertoires (Canagarajah, 2013).
Translingual teachers, in particular, undergo the cognitively complex process of
developing proficiency in more than one language, and this experience of travers-
ing complex and dynamic linguistic landscapes creates new understandings and
processes, supports conceptual fluency, and allows teachers to draw on a broad
range of concepts and interpretive frames including their own translinguistic
identities in their pedagogies (Motha, Jain, & Tecle, 2012).
It is important to note that these alternative terms are not intended to be mutu-
ally exclusive. Indeed, many TESOL researchers and scholars have used one, two
or more of these terms in their writing when (re)defining “NNESTs” (e.g., Blair,
2012; Canagarajah, 2013; Motha, Jain, & Tecle, 2012). In addition to the terms
described earlier, a few other terms have also been used, albeit less frequently, to
capture the diversity within the NES-NNES paradigm (described by some as a
continuum), spanning what would traditionally be identified as outer-circle
English speakers—such as non-center NESs and nativized English speakers as
well as “NNESTs” from expanding-circle settings, such as speakers of other
­languages teaching English or SOLTE (Blair, 2012).

­Pedagogical Implications

The various terms for diverse English-language teachers—NNEST as well as the

alternatives that have been offered in TESOL thus far—have a thread that connects
all of them to each other. These terms, when used by scholars and practitioners in
the field to showcase the strengths that English-language teachers (and learners)

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 4 Alternative Terms for NNESTs

bring to their contexts, as well as to highlight the manner in which the “non-
native” label is misused to perpetuate discrimination and stereotypes, become
part of the activism inherent in the NNEST movement.
All these terms—NNEST as well as the alternatives—are also tied in closely
with teacher identity and self-perception. Such concepts as the native–non-native
speaker dichotomy, language ownership, speaker legitimacy, and credibility
as  language educators continue to occupy both pre-service and in-service
­teachers traditionally identified as NNESTs. This has been evident especially in
Western contexts, for instance as reflected in studies examining NNEST self-
perceptions in teacher preparation programs at US universities. The manner in
which teachers perceive themselves often informs their teaching. In addition, the
self-perceptions of NNESTs are tied up with such concepts as the definitions of
native and non-native speakerhood, the ownership of English, language profi-
ciency, teaching competence, self-esteem, and professional empowerment (e.g.,
Pavlenko, 2003).
All these factors impact the efficacy of English-language teaching by those
­traditionally labeled as NNESTs. Researchers have found, for instance, that some
NNESTs question their ownership of the language and hence are unable to see
themselves as legitimate speakers of the language (Pavlenko, 2003). These
NNESTs thus perceive their non-native status as a handicap that adversely affects
their teaching. In addition, both research and personal narratives show that many
of the NNES practitioners are actively engaged in the debate concerning discrimi-
nation, prejudice, and empowerment. For these myriad reasons, it is imperative
to raise awareness about NNEST issues in all sites where NNESTs engage in prac-
tice, as well as teacher education programs that prepare both NESTs and NNESTs
to work with diverse English-language learners. University settings where teach-
ers are prepared to engage in critical thinking and pedagogy, in particular, can be
fertile sites of discussion, debate, and transformation around NNEST labels and
issues.
Although some scholars have posited the emergence of the alternative terms as
part of a “post-native” era (e.g., Blair, 2012), these terms—bilingual, multilingual,
multicompetent, translingual, and so forth—are not always meant to replace the
existing terms, but to reflect more accurately the ever-emerging complexities
and increasing diversity within the field. As such, all these terms collectively offer
language learners, teachers, and teacher educators a wider range of (alternative or
imagined) identity options. Further, the alternative terms help dissolve the artificial
line between who speaks English as a “native” language and who does not, and
instead bring all English-language teachers together. When professional competence
and diversity of relevant experiences become the starting points for the definition of
a “good teacher” in TESOL, the profession as a whole stands to gain much.

SEE ALSO: Challenges Faced by NNESTs; Equity and Inclusivity for NESTs and
NNESTs; Idealization of Native Speakers and NESTs; Identity and NNESTs;
Native-Speakerism

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 Alternative Terms for NNESTs 5

­References

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of Speakers of Other Languages Teaching English. (Doctor of Education), University of
Sussex, England.
Braine, G. (2010). Nonnative speaker English teachers: Research, pedagogy, and professional
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Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Cook, V. (1999). Going beyond the native speaker in language teaching. TESOL Quarterly,
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Horner, B., NeCamp, S., & Donahue, C. (2011). Toward a multilingual composition
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