Character Formation With Leadershop, Decision Making, Management and Administration (CFLM 2)
Character Formation With Leadershop, Decision Making, Management and Administration (CFLM 2)
Character Formation With Leadershop, Decision Making, Management and Administration (CFLM 2)
FORMATION
WITH
LEADERSHOP, DECISION
MAKING,
MANAGEMENT AND
ADMINISTRATION
(CFLM 2)
COURSE DISCRIPTION
This course is designed to offer analysis of the motives for individual decision making
and elaboration of policy making processes. It will study investigation of the problems of
policy formation, measurement and outcome prediction. This course is also designed to
study elements of leadership as applied to selected administrative situations in the field
of management. It also studies social, psychological and behavioral theories of
organization.
PREPARED BY:
JEJIE M. AWIT., LPT.
LESSON 1
Leadership, decision making, and rationality
Objectives:
Appreciate the wide array of leadership and management approaches and refine
their leadership and management styles;
Better understand personal values, characteristics, decision making process.
No. 1
Instructions: Based on your own management approches how will you explain the
follwing words.
1. reflection
2. change
3. dedication
NO.1
Organizational decision making is a product of both the way individuals make decisions
and the context in which these individuals make decisions. Current work in this area
draws drom the areas of behavioral decision theory, social network, information
processing, cognitive psychology, artificial intelligence, and computational organization
theory. Collectively, the work in this area suggests that limits to cognition and rationality
and the structure of relations among individuals and organizations are equally important
in determining what decisions are made. Advances in this area are facilitated by the use
of computational models of organizations in which organizational decisions result from
the concurrent actions and interactions among multiple distributed intelligent and
adaptive agents. Organizations do not make decisions, people do. This observation is a
statement of both structural and operational fact: organizations (as physical realities, not
accounting or legal entities) are made by, and are comprised of, people. There may be
transportation, transformation, technological, computation and communication
infrastructures to support human decision makers. These infrastructures generally have
differential impact on the individuals in question, affect what information they have
access to, and so what decisions they make. Nevertheless, organizations are all
created, supported, maintained and operated by these individuals. Thus, the issue of
socially constrained, but nevertheless indvidual decision making, lies at the heart of
research on organizational decision making. That humans comprise organizations is
neither a questionable nor a key issue from an organizational decision-making
perspective. What is important is whether any (or all) of individual behavior can affect
the constructs theorized or measured at the organizational level. Some researchers
have argued that human behavior is largely irrelevant. For example, Schelling (1978)
presents the game of musical chairs as an example of a class of organizational
behavior patterns that are realized in the aggregate independent of how the individuals
who form the aggregate behave (within the rules of the game). No matter how the
individuals play the game, one will always be left chairless. Thus, if one has a theory of
the game, the players are simply agents carrying out the rules and roles of the game
and general outcome can be predicted without models of the individual agents (again,
as long as they play by the rules). Thus the form of the game itself makes the specific
model of the individual agent irrelevant. Secondly, it has been argued that because of
scale the specific model, of the individual agent is irrelevant. This would suggest that for
markets, national economies, and social structures, it is important to measure the
aggregate or collective behavior of players, but not the individual micro processes
underlying these individual behaviors. In this sense, individuals may be (succinctly)
represented in an aggregate manner (e.g., a production function or a cost curve) which
reflects their collective behaviors. Thirdly, it has been argued that there are general
principles of organizing that are true for any collection of entities and not peculiar to
humans. Thus, these principles should be applicable to any collection of intelligent,
adaptive agents, such as individuals, webhost or robots, engaged in distributed and
collaborative work. Establishing a model of the individual agent requires making a series
of simplifying assumptions. For Schelling these assumptions include that the game does
not change and that the agents follow the rules of the game. In neoclassical economics
and political economy, on an aggregate level (for macroeconomics, the industry; for
microeconomics, the firm), there are underlying assumptions of the participating agents'
perfect knowledge and perfect choice. Yet making simplifying assumptions is an
important step in science, and for some types of research (i.e., for some types of
questions), these are acceptable, simplifying assumptions. Nevertheless, it should be
realized that these assumptions, as a representation of decision making reality within
organizations, are largely incorrect. Organizations, like games, are “artificial” in the
sense that they are crafted by humans (Simon, 1981a). But, unlike many games,
organizations are very volatile or fluid constructs; that is, the rules change, the players
change, and the situations change (Cohen, March and Olsen, 1972; March and
Romelaer, 1976). This volatility is due in large part to the agents which comprise them.
Hence, within organizations, the form of the game depends on the agents and their
personal history. From a managerial perspective this strong interaction between
cognition and task opens the avenue to strategies involving changing not just the task
but the type of agents who engage in a task to achieve a particular level of
performance. As to the scale argument, the rational expectations model opposes much
of what is known of human reasoning (Simon, 1979) and as a representation of decision
making is largely incorrect (Simon, 1959, 1979). The principles of organizing argument
is, from an organizational standpoint, the most intriguing. This argument cannot be
easily wiped away by pointing to the interaction between agent-cognition and task.
Rather, the issue here forces the researcher to establish the general principles and then
generate the conditions under which, and the ways in which, agent cognition matters.
For the most part, organizational theorists interested in individual and organizational
decision making take this latter perspective and argue for the relevance of the agent-
model. In this case, organizational behavior is seen as an emergent property of the
concurrent actions of the agents within the organization. This body of research has
been informed by the work in distributed artificial intelligence, computational biology,
information systems, social networks, behavioral decision theory, and human computer
interaction and is influencing work in organizations, particularly that on organizational
decision making. In summary organizational performance is a function of both individual
actions and the context in which individuals act (see Figure 1). This context includes the
web of affiliations in which the individual is embedded, the task being done, and the
organization's structure and extant culture. Any model that does not include both
individual cognition and context and the way in which these mutually co-adapt will not
be able to explain or predict behaviors associated with collaborative and distributed
work.
The Individual in the Organization Perhaps, the individual who could best be described
as the founder of the work on individual decision making within organizations would be
Chester Barnard. In 1938, Barnard wrote the book, The Functions of the Executive. His
analysis of individuals in organizations, particularly of individuals in cooperative systems
was the precursor for many future studies as was the work by Roethlisberger and
Dickson (1939). This work suggests that others’ evaluations, particularly the manager’s,
directly affect concrete rewards such as pay. And that, feelings of fairness and equity in
how one is treated in an organization stem from discrepancies between self and others’
evaluations. Such discrepancies, therefore, should affect job satisfaction, organizational
commitment, performance, and turnover. However, extensive studies of the
relationships among job satisfaction, organizational commitment, individual and
organizational performance, and personnel turnover have led to a set of complex and
inconsistent results (Mowday, Porter and Steers, 1982; Mobley, 1982). Moving beyond
this sub-area, however, major advances in individual and organizational behavior have
followed from alternative perspectives. Among these alternative perspectives are a
predominantly psychologically and economically based behavioral perspective, an
information processing perspective, a cognitive perspective, and a structural or social
network perspective.
No.2
Instructions: Answer the following questions in your own opinion
2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of and individual decision making?
Explain each briefly.
3. In your own perspectives, what is decision making?
4. What are the best decision you have ever made? Cite at least 2
No. 2
Instructions: write an essay about the title below.
Objective:
Appreciate the importance of leadership and its importance.
There is an element that does drive leaders’ decision-making, qualities and actions, and it
is one that relatively no one is talking about. Yet, if we better understood this element and
its power, we could enhance those decision-making, qualities and actions. To introduce this
element, consider the impression you get when reading this list of words:
Which of these leaders will make better decisions, have more positive qualities and engage
in more effective actions? Whom would you rather follow?
What sets apart a great leader from an average or poor leader? The simple answer is how
they see the world they operate in. The technical answer is their mindset.
Mindset experts Alia Crum, Peter Salovey and Shawn Achor define mindsets as
individuals’ mental frames that create a lens through which they selectively organize and
encode information, orienting them toward a distinct way of understanding experiences and
guiding them toward corresponding actions and responses.
There are four sets of mindsets that drive leaders’ decision-making, qualities and actions.
They all relate to how leaders see challenges and failures, disagreement, risk, and
underperforming employees. They exist on a continuum from negative to positive, and the
more positive a person’s mindset, the more effective he or she will be as a leader.
The more positive a person’s mindset, the more effective he or she will be as a
leader.
A growth mindset is the belief that you are able to change your talents, abilities and
intelligence and that others are able to do the same. It differs from a fixed mindset, which is
the belief that you are unable to change your talents, abilities and intelligence.
Leaders with a fixed mindset prioritize looking good and validation. They do not believe that
they can improve, so it’s important for them to be seen as someone who possesses a high
degree of talent, ability and intelligence. As a consequence, they seek to avoid challenges
and failure.
Leaders with a growth mindset believe they can change their talents, abilities and
intelligence, and they are not concerned about their appearance. Their priority is to learn
and grow, and their growth mindset allows them to see challenges and failure as
opportunities to learn and develop. Thus, they embrace rather than avoid them.
Leaders with a growth mindset see challenges and failure as opportunities to learn
and develop.
When leaders possess an open mindset, they are open to the ideas of others and are
willing to take those ideas seriously, while being open to the possibility that they could be
wrong. A person with a closed mindset is not open to the ideas of others and believes he or
she is nearly always right.
As Shane Parrish, a business investor and popular blogger and podcaster, writes, “Closed-
minded people would never consider that they could actually be closed-minded. In fact,
their perceived open-mindedness is what’s so dangerous.”
Again, closed and open mindsets drive leaders to see things differently. Specifically,
leaders with a closed mindset are focused on being right and being seen as being right. As
such, they are uncomfortable with ambiguity. If they seek out ideas from others, they only
seek out the ideas that confirm their perspective, and they see disagreements as threats.
Leaders with an open mindset, on the other hand, focus on finding truth, even if it means
that they are wrong. They are more comfortable with ambiguity, they seek out new and
different perspectives, and they see disagreements as opportunities to improve their
thinking.
Leaders with a promotion mindset are focused on winning and gains, while leaders with a
prevention mindset are focused on not losing and avoiding problems.
Leaders with a prevention mindset are primarily concerned about their ship not sinking. As
such, they are focused on avoiding problems, not taking risks and maintaining the status
quo. Leaders with a promotion mindset are focused on what is truly important: reaching a
specific goal, objective or destination. As such, they anticipate problems, are open to take
risks (believing that without risk comes no rewards) and seek to advance rather than
maintain the status quo.
The ultimate difference between these two mindsets is that leaders with a prevention
mindset end up being blown about by the winds and the currents of their sea, ending up in
a destination not of their own design. Leaders with a promotion mindset are willing to brave
the winds and currents to end up where they want to be.
Leaders with an inward mindset see the people they lead as objects. Leaders with an
outward mindset see them as people and valuable partners.
When leaders have an inward mindset, they see themselves as superior and their followers
as instruments to do their bidding. Thus, when an employee is underperforming, they see
replacing the instrument for a better one as the best course of action. When leaders have
an outward mindset, they see themselves as equals of, if not inferior to, their followers.
Thus, when an employee is underperforming, they seek to understand what is preventing
them from performing at a higher level. They are willing to ask themselves, “Who am I
being that their light is not shining?”
What sets apart a great leader from an average or poor leader? It’s an element that almost
no one is talking about – their mindsets – which, if not overlooked, can be harnessed to
develop leaders effectively.
Elements of Leadership
Here are seven aspects of leadership that can serve as a springboard to
success for anyone occupying a leadership role:
1. Transparency
When a leader is transparent, they are challenged less by those they
oversee. Good leaders use transparency to help those around them embrace
change, which can be accomplished with a combination of communication,
informed debate, shared decision-making, reaching a consensus and using
social media. People should know why and how a leader has come to a
decision and in what ways it will affect them. Transparent leaders are not
micromanagers; they give credit to others when success occurs, and take the
blame for failures.
3. Trust
One of the core principles of leadership is trust. In the past, leadership was
scarce and special, a function of powerful people . In the modern day, that
vertical model of leadership is less effective. Today, success is attained by
being able to collaborate with someone a leader has no power over in pursuit
of common goals. In other words, a good leader no longer trusts in power,
but places their faith in the power of trust. Additionally, a leader is the trustee
in any relationship and in order to be effective, must be trustworthy as well
as willing to take the risk of placing trust in the people around them.
4. Confidence
A good leader embodies confidence. No one will follow a leader that isn’t
self-assured, and people can see through a façade of confidence. A leader
who can articulate their goals and stand by decisions is far more effective
than someone trying to hide their insecurities behind a mask of arrogance.
Even after failure, a good leader is able to trust their gut and take on any
decision. Confident leaders are generally happier, create better relationships,
remain open to risks, accept feedback, think for themselves, recognize
success and are more motivated.
5. Decisiveness
A good leader weighs a decision carefully, but once they make up their mind,
they are not easily put off course. This shows commitment, which breeds
consistency, both of which are traits that pay off well in leadership. Scott
Hoffman, owner of Folio Literary Management, told Entrepreneur.com that he
often looks back on advice he received from a mentor when learning how to
officiate basketball games; “Make the call fast, make the call loud and don’t
look back,” he said. He went on to note that many times, wrong decisions
over trivial matters made in a decisive manner yield better long term results
and a strong team mentality than “wishy-washy” decisions that end up being
correct.
6. Humility
This trait is important to keep leaders grounded and connected with the
people around them. Being honest, having integrity and listening to
employees will only help gain their respect, which will pay off when it comes
time to exercise decisiveness. The best leaders possess an open mind and
flexibility, and are able to adjust to new ways of thinking or alternative
methods when necessary. These leaders take criticism in stride and view it
more as an opportunity for growth than an assault on their character. While
it’s true that everyone loves confidence, humility creates a likable persona,
making others more comfortable with their position.
7. Creativity
Many decisions a leader will encounter will be unique to the business and will
require more thought than simply throwing a canned solution at it. Teams will
often look to a leader for innovative thinking, so being able to tap into
previous experiences and a treasure chest of new ideas will pay off for any
leader. For Aubrey Marcus, founder of dietary supplement company Onnit,
innovation is a key element of survival in the modern business world. “The
innovators are our leaders. You cannot separate the two,” Marcus said in the
Entrepreneur.com interview.
While leadership styles may need to be tailored to suit specific situations and
businesses, these seven traits can provide the tools necessary to steer an
organization down the path of success. Some people may be born leaders,
but these are characteristics anyone can display with the right amount of
determination.
No.3
No. 3
Instructions: Answer the following questions carefully.
1. In your own view, what are the essential factors for leadership to function effectively?
Lesson 4
Objectives:
Provide students with a working knowledge of the skills and functions necessary
to be an effective, efficient manager.
Provide an introduction to the theory and practice of managing organizations.
Introduction
Management is a vital aspect of the economic life of man, which is an organized group
activity. A central directing and controlling agency is indispensable for a business
concern. The productive resources - material, labor, capital etc. are entrusted to the
organizing skill, administrative ability and enterprising initiative of the management.
Thus, management provides leadership to a business enterprise. Without able
managers and effective managerial leadership the resources of production remain
merely resources and never become production. Under competitive economy and ever-
changing environment the quality and performance of managers determine both the
survival as well as success of any business enterprise.
Management may be defined in many different ways. Many eminent authors on the
subject have defined the term “management”, some of these definitions are reproduced
below: According to Lawrence A Appley, “Management is the development of people
and not the direction of things”. According to Joseph Massie, “Management is defined
as the process by which a co-operative group directs action towards common goals”. In
the words of George R Terry, “Management is a distinct process consisting of planning,
organizing, actuating and controlling performed to determine and accomplish the
objectives by the use of people and resources”.
In the words of Kimball and Kimball, “Management embraces all duties and functions
that pertain to the initiation of an enterprise, its financing, the establishment of all major
policies, the provision of all necessary equipment, the outlining of the general form of
organization under which the enterprise is to operate and the selection of the principal
officers.
1. Give at least 5 examples of management best practices and explain each briefly.
3. Do you agree that Managers who cannot manage time well are often ineffective? If
so, why?
Lesson 5
Objectives:
How strong is the attitude-behavior link? First of all, it depends on the attitude in
question. Your attitudes toward your colleagues may influence whether you actually
help them on a project, but they may not be a good predictor of whether you will quit
your job. Second, it is worth noting that attitudes are more strongly related to intentions
to behave in a certain way, rather than actual behaviors. When you are dissatisfied with
your job, you may have the intention to leave. Whether you will actually leave is a
different story! Your leaving will depend on many factors, such as availability of
alternative jobs in the market, your employability in a different company, and sacrifices
you have to make while changing jobs. In other words, while attitudes give us hints
about how a person might behave, it is important to remember that behavior is also
strongly influenced by situational constraints.
What makes you satisfied with your job and develop commitment to your company?
Research shows that people pay attention to several aspects of their work environment,
including how they are treated, the relationships they form with colleagues and
managers, and the actual work they perform. We will now summarize the factors that
show consistent relations with job satisfaction and organizational commitment.
Personality
Can assessing the work environment fully explain how satisfied we are on the job?
Interestingly, some experts have shown that job satisfaction is not purely environmental
and is partially due to our personality. Some people have a disposition to be happy in
life and at work regardless of environmental factors. It seems that people who have a
positive affective disposition (those who have a tendency to experience positive moods
more often than negative moods) tend to be more satisfied with their jobs and more
committed to their companies, while those who have a negative disposition tend to be
less satisfied and less committed.Connolly, J. J., & Viswesvaran, C. (2000). The role of
affectivity in job satisfaction: A meta-analysis. Personality and Individual Differences,
29, 265–281; Thoresen, C. J., Kaplan, S. A., Barsky, A. P., de Chermont, K., & Warren,
C. R. (2003). The affective underpinnings of job perceptions and attitudes: A meta-
analytic review and integration. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 914–945. This is not
surprising, as people who are determined to see the glass as half full will notice the
good things in their work environment, while those with the opposite character will find
more things to complain about. In addition to our affective disposition, people who have
a neurotic personality (those who are moody, temperamental, critical of themselves and
others) are less satisfied with their job, while those who are emotionally more stable
tend to be more satisfied. Other traits such as conscientiousness, self-esteem, locus of
control, and extraversion are also related to positive work attitudes.Judge, T. A., Heller,
D., & Mount, M. K. (2002). Five-factor model of personality and job satisfaction: A meta-
analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 530–541; Judge, T. A., & Bono, J. E.
(2001). Relationship of core self-evaluations traits—self esteem, generalized self
efficacy, internal locus of control, and emotional stability—with job satisfaction and job
performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86, 80–92; Zimmerman,
R. D. (2008). Understanding the impact of personality traits on individuals’ turnover
decisions: A meta-analytic path model. Personnel Psychology, 61, 309–348. Either
these people are more successful in finding jobs and companies that will make them
happy and build better relationships at work, which would increase their satisfaction and
commitment, or they simply see their environment as more positive—whichever the
case, it seems that personality is related to work attitudes.
Person–Environment Fit
The fit between what we bring to our work environment and the environmental demands
influences our work attitudes. Therefore, person–job fit and person–organization fit are
positively related to job satisfaction and commitment. When our abilities match job
demands and our values match company values, we tend to be more satisfied with our
job and more committed to the company we work for.Kristof-Brown, A. L., Zimmerman,
R. D., & Johnson, E. C. (2005). Consequences of individuals’ fit at work: A meta-
analysis of person-job, person organization, person-group, and person-supervisor fit.
Personnel Psychology, 58, 281–342; Verquer, M. L., Beehr, T. A., & Wagner, S. H.
(2003). A meta-analysis of relations between person-organization fit and work attitudes.
Journal of Vocational Behavior, 63, 473–489.
Job Characteristics
The presence of certain characteristics on the job seems to make employees more
satisfied and more committed. Using a variety of skills, having autonomy at work,
receiving feedback on the job, and performing a significant task are some job
characteristics that are related to satisfaction and commitment. However, the presence
of these factors is not important for everyone. Some people have a high growth need.
They expect their jobs to help them build new skills and improve as an employee. These
people tend to be more satisfied when their jobs have these characteristics. Loher, B.
T., Noe, R. A., Moeller, N. L., & Fitzgerald, M. P. (1985). A meta-analysis of the relation
of job characteristics to job satisfaction. Journal of Applied Psychology, 70, 280–289;
Mathieu, J. E., & Zajac, D. M. (1990). A review and meta-analysis of the antecedents,
correlates, and consequences of organizational commitment. Psychological Bulletin,
108, 171–194.
Psychological Contract
After accepting a job, people come to work with a set of expectations. They have an
understanding of their responsibilities and rights. In other words, they have a
psychological contract4 with the company. A psychological contract is an unwritten
understanding about what the employee will bring to the work environment and what the
company will provide in exchange. When people do not get what they expect, they
experience a psychological contract breach5 , which leads to low job satisfaction and
commitment. Imagine that you were told before being hired that the company was family
friendly and collegial. However, after a while, you realize that they expect employees to
work 70 hours a week, and employees are aggressive toward each other. You are likely
to experience a breach in your psychological contract and be dissatisfied. One way of
preventing such problems is for companies to provide realistic job previews to their
employees.Premack, S. L., & Wanous, J. P. (1985). A meta-analysis of realistic job
preview experiments. Journal of Applied Psychology, 70, 706–719; Wanous, J. P.,
Poland, T. D., Premack, S. L., & Davis, K. S. (1992). The effects of met expectations on
newcomer attitudes and behaviors: A review and meta-analysis. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 77, 288–297; Zhao, H., Wayne, S. J., Glibkowski, B. C., & Bravo, J. (2007).
The impact of psychological contract breach on work-related outcomes: A metaanalysis.
Personnel Psychology, 60, 647–680.
No.5
2. Do you think making employees happier at work is a good way of motivating people?
When would high satisfaction not be related to high performance?
No.5
1. In your opinion, what are the three most important factors that make people
dissatisfied with their job? Explain each.
2. Do you think younger and older people are similar in what makes them happier at
work and committed to their companies? Do you think there are male–female
differences? Explain your answers.
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