2.

Materials
The piping can be made of any one of the following materials: iron, steel, aluminum, copper, brass, Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC). The
material selected depends on the medium conveyed and the design temperature. At high temperature, creep is governing. At low temperature,
brittleness is governing. Materials with food impact strength and malleability are used. Cross-country piping experience different
environments. The valves, gages, instruments and appurtenances should be compatible with the piping. The cost of the piping is directly related to
the material of construction.
Commonly Used Seamless Tube Specifications in Boiler
Pressure Parts and Applicable Service Temperatures
Nominal CSN DIN Temperature
Product ASME (American) BS (British)
Composition (Czeek) (German) limit
SA192 SA210GrA1 BS 3059 P2 S2
CS T -- St35.8 St45.8 800°F (427°C)
SA210C 45
CS P SA106B SA106C -- St35.8 St45.8 BS 3602 HFS27 800°F(427°C)
1/2 Mo T SA209T1 -- 15 Mo -- 900°F(482°C)
BS3059 P2 S2
1 Cr½ Mo T -- -- 13Cr Mo44 995°F (535°C)
620
1 Cr½ Mo P SA335 P12 15111.1 13Cr Mo44 BS3604 HF 620 995°F (535°C)
1¼ Cr½ Mo T SA213T11 -- -- -- 1025 °F(552°C)
10 Cr Mo BS3059 P2 S21070° F(577°
2¼ Cr½ Mo P SA213 P22 --
910 622/50 C)
BS3604 HF 1070° F(577°
2¼ Cr½ Mo P SA335 P22 -- --
622/31 C)
1070° F(577°
½ Cr½ Mo V T -- 15123.1 14MoV63 +BS3604 CD660
C)
1070° F(577°
½ Cr½ Mo V P -- 15123.1 14MoV63 +BS3604 CD660
C)
1300° F(704°
18Cr 8Ni T SA213TP304H -- -- --
C)
18Cr 10Ni 4C X10Cr Ni Ti 1300° F(704°
T SA213TP321H -- --
Ti0.6 89 C)
18Cr 10Ni 8C 1300° F(704°
T SA213TP347H -- -- --
Co+Ta C)
18Cr 8Ni 5C 1300° F(704°
T -- -- -- BS3605 822Ti
Ti0.7 C)
Legend: T — Tube, P — Pipe, Chemical compositions in %, Rest: Iron

3. Loads
The loads on the piping can be classified into the following three categories:

 Primary Loads: internal pressure, external pressure, self weight of contents, insulation weight, refractory weight, weight of inner lining.
weight of outer lining, equipment loads, valves, fittings, gages, instruments and supports.
 Secondary Loads: thermal load, thermal transients, anchor displacements, relative settlement if foundations and constrains for
movements.
 Occasional Loads: wind load, seismic load (earth-quake load), snow load , ice load, flood load, fire load, vehicle passing load (under ground
piping), tsunami loads, and cyclone load
4. Load Combinations
The following load combinations are considered;

 primary load - secondary load

 primary load - occasional load

Occasional loads consist of the following:

1. wind in positive X- direction

2. wind in negative X-direction
3. wind in positive Z-direction
4. wind in negative Z-direction
5. earth-quake load in positive X-direction
6. earth-quake load in negative X-direction
7. earth-quake in positive Z-direction
8. earth-quake in negative Z-direction
9. hydraulic test pressure load+water load

All the nine loads indicated above are considered to be mutually exclusive.
The following load combinations are not considered:

 secondary load - occasional load

 primary load - secondary load - occasional load

5. Allowable Stress
1. Introduction
This write-up gives particulars of the allowable stress as per the ASME.
2. Allowable Stress as per ASME-1 (Power Boilers)
The basic allowable stress (Sm) is the minimum of the following seven values:

1. ultimate tensile strength at room temperature/3.5

2. 1.1 x ultimate tensile strength at metal design temperature/3.5
3. yield stress at room temperature/1.5
4. yield stress at metal design temperature/1.5
5. minimum stress to produce a creep strain of 0.01% in 1,000 hours
6. average stress to produce rupture in 100,000 hours/1.5
7. minimum stress to produce rupture in 100,000 hours/1.25

3. Allowable Stress for Welds as per The ASME-I (Power Boilers)

1. groove-weld in tension = 74%

2. groove-weld in shear = 60%
3. fillet-weld in shear = 49%

where, Sm = basic allowable stress

4. Allowable Stress as per The ASME-B31.1 (based on faigue and creep) – Power Piping
SA = f(1.25 Sc + 0.25Sh)
Where, SA = allowable stress range for expansion stresses
Sc = allowable stress at room temperature
Sh = allowable stress at metal design temperature
f = metal fatigue stress range reduction factor
= 1.0 for 1 to 7,000 metal fatigue cycles
 = 0.9 for 7,001 to 14,000 metal fatigue cycles
= 0.8 for 14,001 to 22,000 metal fatigue cycles
= 0.7 for 22,001 to 45,000 metal fatigue cycles
= 0.6 for 45,001 to 100,000 metal fatigue cycles
= 0.5 for 100,000 and over
SA+SL = f(1.25 Sc + 1.25Sh)
Where, SL = longitudinal stress due to pipe/tube internal pressure

6. Working Pressure
The working pressure of a component is the Maximum Allowable Working Pressure (MAWP) for the metal working temperature (design
temperature). The MAWP permitted for different components as per The Indian Boiler Regulations, 1950 – (IBR - with amendments) – are given below:
IBR Formula for the shell of Headers and Drums (IBR-270, 1950)

2 f E(T –C)
WP =

(D +T – C)

Hence,

WP x D
T=

(2 f E – WP)

Where,
T = minimum required thickness, mm
WP = working pressure, kg / sq mm (g)
D = drum inside diameter, mm
f = drum metal allowable stress, kg / sq mm
p = tube hole longitudinal pitch, mm
d = tube hole diameter, mm
C = 0.03 inch = 0.762 mm
E = (p-d) / p = longitudinal ligament efficiency

IBR Formula for straight Tubes (IBR-338,1950)

2 f E(T – C)
WP =

WP x D + C

Hence,

WP x D + C
WP =

(2 f +WP)

Where,
T = minimum required thickness, mm
WP = working pressure, kg / sq mm (g)
D = tube outside diameter, mm
f = tube metal allowable stress, kg / sq mm
 C = 0.75 mm when WP = 70 kg / sq cm (g) and lower
= 0.0 mm when WP = above 70 kg / sq cm (g)

IBR Formula for straight Pipes (IBR-350,1950)

WP x D + C
T=

(2 f E – WP)

Where,
T = minimum required thickness, mm
WP = working pressure, kg / sq mm (g)
D = tube outside diameter, mm
f = tube metal allowable stress, kg / sq mm
E = joint efficiency
C =0.75 mm

7. Support Span
The distance between two consecutive supports is to be allowable. The allowable support span for horizontal pipe lines is given in Table-7
Table-7: Suggested Horizontal Pipe Support Spacing

Nominal Pipe
Suggested Maximum Span
Size
Serial
Water Steam, Gas, or Air
Number NPS NPS
Service Service

Inch 'mm 'm 'm

1 1 25 2.1 2.7

2 2 50 3.0 4.0

3 3 75 3.7 4.6

4 4 100 4.3 5.2

5 6 150 5.2 6.4

6 8 200 5.8 7.3

7 12 300 7.0 9.1

8 16 400 8.2 10.7

9 20 500 9.1 11.9

10 24 600 9.8 12.8

If the pipeline is inclined, the support span indicated in Table-7 can be based on the following assumptions:

 Suggested maximum spacing between pipe supports for horizontal straight runs of standard and heavier pipe at maximum operating
temperature of 750° F (400°C)
 This table does not apply where span calculations are made or where there are concentrated loads between supports, such as flanges,
valves, specialties, etc.,
  The spacing is based on a fixed beam support with a bending stress no exceeding 2,300 psi (15.86 MPa) and insulated pipe filled with water
or equivalent weight of steel pipe for steam, gas, or air services, and the pitch of the line is such that a sag of 0.1 Inch (2.5 mm) between
supports is permissible

8. Deformations
Deformations can be linear deformation or angular deformation. Linear deformation is known as deflection. The deformation can be in the
horizontal plane or in the vertical plane. There limits on the deformation suggested by different codes and standard. These are not mandatory. These
are only empirical in nature. The allowable deviation to vertical plane is 3.0 mm per meter. The allowable deviation to horizontal plane is 3.0 mm
per meter. The allowable angular deformation is 0.5 Degree. The induced deformation are computed using computer software. These are reviewed
for deformation. These deformations are not applicable to thermal expansion induced movements.

The following loads induce deformations: primary loads, secondary loads and occasional loads. Suitable load combinations are considered. The
following types of restraints are used: limit stops, hydraulic snubbers, slings, anchors and two way restraints. The rigid supports for the piping also
work as deformation limits.

9. Valves
The following types of valves are used:

1. stop valve
2. check valve
3. non-return valve
4. butter-fly valve
5. globe valve
6. gate valve
7. safety valve
8. dead weight safety valve
9. relief valve
10. safety-relief valve
11. motor operated valve
12. pneumatically operated valve
13. hydraulically operated valve
14. valve with integral by-pass.
15. swing type non-return valve
16. fire resistant valve.

10. Gages
The following types of gages and instruments are used:

1. liquid level gage

2. pressure gage
3. temperature measurement
4. flow measurement
5. pressure measurement
6. quality of medium measurement

The following types of indication and recording are used:

 1. local indicator
2. remote indicator
3. local recording
4. remote recording
5. Data Acquisition System (DAS)

The following types of controls are used:

1. pneumatic controls
2. hydraulic controls
3. electronic controls
4. mechanical controls
5. feed-forward controls system
6. feed-back control system

11. Types of Supports

The following types of supports and are used:

1. rigid support
2. Variable Load Hanger (VLH)
3. semi constant load hanger
4. Constant Load Hanger (CLH)
5. restraints
6. limit stops
7. vibration snubber
8. anchors
9. floating anchors
10. directional restraints
11. bottom support
12. sliding bottom support
13. composite support
14. collector support
15. hanger bifurcation

12. Flow Analysis

The pressure drop and the pumping power required for a pipe carrying water at ambient temperature in a horizontal pipe is considered in this write-
up.
From Darcy-Weisbach’s formula

fl W2
Pressure drop = hf =

2gd

Exercise
f = friction factor = 0.02
l = length of pipe = 1.000m
V = mass flow rate = 10 tonne / hr = 10x1,000 /3,600 = 2.78kh / sec
p = density of fluid (water) = 1,000 kg / cu m
 Wl = flow rate = V / p = 2.78 / 1,000 = 0.00278 cu m / sec
Use NPS 4 Sechedule 80 pipe – Ø 114.3 x 8.6 mm
d = pipe inside diameter = 114.3 = 2x8.6 = 97.1 mm = 0.0971 m
AF = pipe flow area = π (114.3 – 2x8.6)2 / (4 x 106 )7405 x 10-6 sq m
g = gravitational constant = 9.80665 m / sec2
W = velocity of flow = Wl/AF = 0.00278 / (7405 x 10 -6)= 0.375 m/sec

fl W2 0.02 x 1,000 x 0.3752 = 1.5m

hf =

2gd 2 x 9.80665 x 0.0971

hf p W
HP AF = 1.5 x 1,000 x 0.375 x 7405 x 10-6 = 0.06 HP
=

75 75

Assuming a pump efficiency of 80% HP required = 0.06/0.8 = 0.0.08 Use 0.1 HP Pump

13. Codes and Standards

1. Codes, standards, regulations and rules are provided by many groups to simplify and unify the work.
2. The following codes and standards are used in the piping industry:

 The Indian Boiler Regulations, 1950

 American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Section – I Power Boiler
 American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Section – VIII, Pressure vessels
 American Society of Mechanical Engineers, B31.1 (Power Piping)
 ASME B16.9 – “Factory – Made Wrought Butt Welding Fittings”
 ASME B16.11 – “Forged Fittings, Socket-Welding and Threaded”
 ASME B16.25 – “Butt Welding Ends”
 ASME B16.34 – “Valves – Flanged, Threaded and Welding End”
 ASME B36.10 – “Welded and Seamless Wrought Steel Pipe”
 BS 1113, 198

14. Flexibility Analysis

1. Introduction
This write-up gives particulars of the flexibility analysis of piping.
2. Strength
The piping is subjected to internal pressure. Required thickness is provided to resist the internal pressure.
3.Stiffness
Suitable supports are provided to withstand the self weight and imposed loads.
4.Flexibility
The piping is subjected to thermal and occasional loads. Required flexible loops are provided to take care of the thermal loads.
5. Restraints
The piping is provided with required restraints to take care of the occasional loads, such as wing load and seismic load (earth-quake load).
6. Flexibility Check as per The Indian Boiler Regulations, 1950
The following equation shall be satisfied for a two anchor problem.
DY <208
(L – U)2

Where,
D = nominal diameter of pipe, mm
Y = total thermal movement to be absorbed, mm
L = developed length of piping, m
U = shortest distance between the two anchors, m

7. Exercise
a) D = 100 mm
b) Y = 24 mm
c) L = 6.8 mm
d) U = 3.3 m
100x24
196<208
(6.8 – 3.3)2

15. Supports Design

1. Introduction
This write-up gives particulars of the supports for piping.
2. Types of Supports
The following three types of supports are used: primary support, secondary support and tertiary support.
3. Primary Support
The following are primary supports: lug, bolt, washer, nut, hanger rod, Variable Load Hanger (VLH), Constant Load Hanger (CLH), semi-
constant load hanger, clamps, rockers, pins, and cotter pins.
4.Secondary Support
The following are secondary supports: knee brackets, moment brackets, channels, angles, beams and spacers.
5.Tertiary supports
The following are tertiary supports: beams, columns, `, base plates, foundations, foundation material and attachments.
6. Strength Requirements
The following shall be taken care-of:

 induced stress < allowable stress

 induced deformation < allowable deformations
 vibration of piping – to be taken care of

16. Lateral Restraints

1. Introduction
This write-up gives particulars of the lateral restraints and the loads resisted.
2. Loads
The following loads are considered: thermal movement induced loads, wind load, seismic load (earth-quake load), vibration of equipment.
3. Load Combination
The following load combinations are considered:

 primary load + secondary load

 primary load + occasional load

The following load combination is not considered:

  secondary load + occasional load
 primary load + secondary load + occasional load

4. Lateral Restraints
Lateral restraints retain the piping layout against the forces of nature, such as wind load and seismic load (earth-quake load). Hydraulic snubbers
or mechanical snubbers can be used for this purpose. However, limit stops are used commonly. The loads, locations and direction of loads are
obtained from a stress analysis of piping. Lateral restraints are provided to serve the following puposes:

 guide for piping

 resist horizontal loads
 resist horizontal movements
 reduce vibration.

17. Fail-Safe Design

“Fail Safe Design” is the objective of design. The designer has to compromise between the following three requirements: quality product, timely
delivery and economic product. The designers are of the following types: process designer, product designer and project manager. Designs can be
ready-made or tailor-made. Boiler parts are tailor-made. But some of the modules are standardized. Only few of the standard design are
used. These designs are known as rationalized designs.
Suitable loads and load combinations are considered. Design is an iterative process. Design by analysis is the order of the day. The analysis can be
process analysis or stress analysis. As designers are held responsible for negligence in duty and dereliction of duty, the designer should be
careful. The guarantee and warranty of the design is only 18 months. Hence, if there is a failure after 18 months, the required products and support
are provided at the cost of the buyer.
The following checks are done by the designer:

 procurable
 fabricate-able
 ship-able
 store-able
 erect-able
 commission-able
 operate-able
 service-able
 upgrade-able
 disposable

The designer is responsible for “Cradle to Grave” of the product. Pre-planing and pre-engineering are required for timely delivery of products.

18. Insulation and Refractory

Insulation is provided primarily to reduce the heat loss from equipment. Insulation is provided for personal protection, also. Insulation is generally
provided on the out side of the piping. Outer casing of light thickness (1.6mm) is provided to protect the insulation. The insulation is made of
fibrous materials, such as slag wool, mineral wool and glass wool. Outer casing is made of aluminum or galvanized iron (GI) sheets. Thickness of
the insulation is calculated considering heat loss and personal protection considerations.
Refractory is made of refractory clay. Refractory is applied on the inner of the piping. Refractory is applied to reduce pipe metal temperature and
improve economics. Inner casing (liner) is provided to retain the refractory in place. Where the pipe inside temperature is high (above 700 Degree
C), insulation retainers are provided. Insulation retainers can be welded with the pipe inner or bolted.
The following gives the calculation for loss of heat through the piping insulation (hollow cylindrical shape):
where,

Q = heat transferred, kcal/hr

Dt = temperature difference, Degree C
R = resistance for flow of heat, hr - Degree C/kcal
L = Length of pipe, m
Ti = pipe inside fluid temperature, Degree C
To = pipe outside ambient temperature, Degree C
Hi = convective heat transfer co-efficient inside pipe,k cal/hr-Degree C-sq m
convective heat transfer co-efficient outside pipe, k cal/hr-Degree C-sq
Ho =
m
K1 = thermal conductivity of pipe material, k cal/hr-Degree C-m
K2 = thermal conductivity of insulation material, k cal/hr-Degree C-m
R1 = pipe inside radius, m
R2 = pipe outside radius, m
R3 = insulation outside radius, m
Loge = logarithm to the base "e"

19. Standard Components

Piping industry uses many standard components. They are: long radius elbow, short radius elbow, equal TEE, unequal TEE; branch, concentric
reducer, eccentric reducer, Y-Pieces, flange, etc. Standard pipes are also used. Pipes are classified into Schedule pipes. The dimensions of Schedule
pipes is given in the attachment. The fittings of the piping are rated based on Classes. A typical pressure temperature rating is given in the
attachment. The standard components are to be arranged and supported. Piping and Instrument Diagram (P & ID) is prepared considering the
operation of the plant. After a trial layout, a trial stress analysis is done using a computer. Based on the results of the trial stress analysis, the design
is updated and finalized.

Standard components are available across the shelf. This improves the project execution time. As the materials, shape, size and details are similar,
the design activity is done fast. This helps in completing the contract execution, early.

20. Creep and Fatigue

Pipe experiences vibration when a fluid flow inside the piping. Vibration of piping under flow of fluid outside the piping is more critical. When the
fluid flow is outside the piping and across, the vibration is considerable. Vibration of blanks of tubes under cross flow vibration has been
extensively researched. The piping at high temperature undergoes creep. The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (Power Boilers) consider
100,000 hours of creep life. This is equivalent to eleven years of continuous operation. The behavior of the piping subjected to fatigue and creep,
simultaneously is not known.
The life of piping is expected to be twenty five years. Hence, the number of fatigue cycles expected:
25 years X 300 cycles/year = 7,500 fatigue cycles
An approximate treatment of the interaction (based on numerical experiments) of fatigue and creep is given in the following:
1. Design temperature = 400 Degree C
2. Design pressure = 100 bar (g)
3. Number of cold starts = 100 per cent life lost (fatigue)=12%
4. Number pf warm starts = 1,000 per cent life lost (fatigue)=6%
5. Number of hot starts = 10,000 per cent life lost (fatigue)=10%
6. Number of load variations = 100,000 per cent life lost (fatigue)=25%
7. Duration at 430 Degree C = 100 hour per cent life lost (creep)=2%
8. Duration at 420 Degree C = 1,000 hour per cent life lost (creep)=8%
9. Duration at 410 Degree C = 10,000hour per cent life lost (creep)=13%
10. Duration at 400 Degree C = 100,000 hour per cent life lost (creep)=10%
Total life lost (fatigue+creep) =86%
Expected life of piping = 25 years / 0.86 = 29 years.

21. Design and Stress Analysis of Piping and Supports

Step-01: Prepare Process Flow Diagram (PFD)
Step-02: Prepare Piping and Instrument Diagram (P & ID)
Step-03: Prepare piping layout drawing
Step-04: Prepare piping isometric drawing
Step-05: Select valves, gages, instruments and appurtenants
Step-06: Locate valves, gages, instruments and appurtenants
Step-07: Obtain allowable forces and moments for equipment
Step-08: Obtain thermal expansion movements for equipments (floating anchor)
Step-09: Select pipe diameter based on flow considerations.
Step-10: Select pipe thickness based on hoop stress
Step-11: Select pipe insulation based on heat loss and personal protection
Step-12: Select pipe outer casing
Step-13: Locate pipe supports
Step-14: Calculate wind load
Step-15: Calculate seismic load (earth-quake load)
Step-16: Calculate hydraulic test pressure
Step-17: Obtain hydraulic test water weight
Step-18: Finalize load combinations
Step-19: Make trail run of the piping stress analysis
Step-20: Obtain allowable stresses
Step-21: Carry-out stress analysis iteratively
Step-22: Check acceptability of forces and moment on anchors and floating
Anchors
Step-23: Select hangers, restraints, limit stops and Constant Load Hangers(CLH)
Variable Load Hangers (VLH)
Step-24: Set hangers, restraints, limit stops, Constant Load Hanger (CLH) and
Variable load hangers (VLH)
Step-25: Prepare Close-Out Report
22. Pressure and Temperature Drop in Pipelines
1. Introduction Piping
This write-up gives design calculation for pressure drop and temperature drop in steam pipe line.
2. Example: Contents

Given: I. Preface
Pipe Size = Ø Do x T – Ø 323.9x25.4mm
1. Introducti
Steam temperature = TI = 460 Degree C
Steam pressure = PI = 65 Kg/sq cm (a) 2. Materials

Enthalpy = I =792.4 k cal/kg

3. Loads
Specific weight = v = 0.04895cu m/ kg
Density = p = 1/0.0485 = 20.4 kg/ cu m 4. Load Comb

Friction factor = f = 0.02 5. Allowable

Pipe length = L = 100m
6. Working P
Flow velocity = W = 30m/ sec
Inside diameter = d =(323.9 - 2 x 25.4) = 273.1 mm = 0.2731 7. Support Sp

Calculation
8. Deformati

9. Valves

10. Gages

11. Types of

12. Flow Ana

Where, 13. Codes an

14. Flexibilit
Q = heat transferred, kcal/hr
Dt = temperature difference, Degree C 15. Supports

R = resistance for flow of heat, hr - Degree C/kcal

16. Lateral R
L = Length of pipe, m
Ti = pipe inside fluid temperature, Degree C 17. Fail-Safe

To = pipe outside ambient temperature, Degree C 18. Insulation

Hi = convective heat transfer co-efficient inside pipe,k cal/hr-Degree C-sq m
19. Standard
convective heat transfer co-efficient outside pipe, k cal/hr-Degree C-sq
Ho =
m 20. Creep an
K1 = thermal conductivity of pipe material, k cal/hr-Degree C-m
21. Design an
K2 = thermal conductivity of insulation material, k cal/hr-Degree C-m of Piping and

R1 = pipe inside radius, m

22. Pressure
R2 = pipe outside radius, m Temperature
Pipelines
R3 = insulation outside radius, m
Loge = logarithm to the base "e" 23. Matrix Me
Analysis

24.Reference
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23. Matrix Method of Piping Analysis

Matrices are used in solving structural mechanics problems. The structural mechanics problems can be expressed in the Piping
form of linear simultaneous equations. Consider a one dimensional problem.
Contents

I. Preface

1. Introducti

2. Materials

3. Loads

4. Load Comb

5. Allowable

6. Working P

7. Support Sp

8. Deformati

9. Valves

10. Gages

11. Types of

The above can be written as: Force Vector = Stiffness Matrix x Displacement Vector Solution for structural problem can be 12. Flow Ana
obtained from this equation.
Matrices are used in solving structural mechanics problems. The structural mechanics problems can be expressed as linear 13. Codes an
simultaneous equations. By solving these equations using computer, these problems can be solved. Consider a rectangular
prism. Consider a two dimensional problem. The governing equations are given in the following. 14. Flexibilit

15. Supports

16. Lateral R

17. Fail-Safe

18. Insulation
 19. Standard

20. Creep an

21. Design an
of Piping and

22. Pressure
Temperature
Pipelines

23. Matrix Me
Analysis

24.Reference

Where,

E = Elastic modulus = Young's modulus, kg/sq mm

L = length, mm
I = moment of inertia, mm ^ 4
A = area, sq mm
Fx = force in X - direction, kg
Fy = force in Y - direction, kg
Mz = moment about Z - direction, kg - mm
Δx = deflection in X - direction, mm
Δy = deflection in Y - direction, mm
θz = rotation about Z - axis, radian

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