Eddy Current method-part 2

week 7&8
Materials Testing
JU/IE
Dr. Belal Gharaibeh

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 Depth of Penetration & Current Density
• Eddy currents are closed loops of
induced current circulating in
planes perpendicular to the
magnetic flux. They normally
travel parallel to the coil's
winding and flow is limited to
the area of the inducing
magnetic field.
• Eddy currents concentrate near
the surface adjacent to an
excitation coil and their strength
decreases with distance from
the coil as shown in the image.
Eddy current density decreases
exponentially with depth. This
phenomenon is known as the
skin effect.
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• The skin effect arises when the eddy currents
flowing in the test object at any depth produce
magnetic fields which oppose the primary field,
thus reducing the net magnetic flux and causing a
decrease in current flow as the depth increases.
• Alternatively, eddy currents near the surface can
be viewed as shielding the coil's magnetic field,
thereby weakening the magnetic field at greater
depths and reducing induced currents.

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 Standard depth of penetration (δ)
• The depth that eddy currents
penetrate into a material is
affected by the frequency of the
excitation current and the
electrical conductivity and
magnetic permeability of the
specimen.
• The depth of penetration
decreases with increasing
frequency and increasing
conductivity and magnetic
permeability. The depth at which
eddy current density has
decreased to 1/e, or about 37% of
the surface density, is called the 4
standard depth of penetration (δ).
 Standard depth of penetration (δ)
• The word 'standard' denotes plane wave
electromagnetic field excitation within the test
sample (conditions which are rarely achieved in
practice).
• Although eddy currents penetrate deeper than
one standard depth of penetration, they decrease
rapidly with depth. At two standard depths of
penetration (2 δ), eddy current density has
decreased to 1/e squared or 13.5% of the surface
density. At three depths (3 δ), the eddy current
density is down to only 5% of the surface density.

5
 Depth versus flaws detection
• Since the sensitivity of an eddy current inspection depends
on the eddy current density at the defect location, it is
important to know the strength of the eddy currents at this
location. When attempting to locate flaws, a frequency is
often selected which places the expected flaw depth within
one standard depth of penetration. This helps to assure
that the strength of the eddy currents will be sufficient to
produce a flaw indication.
• Alternately, when using eddy currents to measure the
electrical conductivity of a material, the frequency is often
set so that it produces three standard depths of
penetration within the material. This helps to assure that
the eddy currents will be so weak at the back side of the
material that changes in the material thickness will not
affect the eddy current measurements.
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Calculating (δ)

7
 Phase lag: depth of a flaw
• Phase lag is a parameter of the eddy current signal that
makes it possible to obtain information about the depth of
a defect within a material.
• Phase lag is the shift in time between the eddy current
response from a disruption on the surface and a disruption
at some distance below the surface.
• The generation of eddy currents can be thought of as a
time dependent process, meaning that the eddy currents
below the surface take a little longer to form than those at
the surface.
• Disruptions in the eddy currents away from the surface will
produce more phase lag than disruptions near the surface.
• Both the signal voltage and current will have this phase
shift or lag with depth, which is different from the phase
angle 8
 Phase lag
• Phase lag is an important parameter in eddy
current testing because it makes it possible to
estimate the depth of a defect, and with proper
reference specimens, determine the rough size of
a defect.
• The signal produced by a flaw depends on both
the amplitude and phase of the eddy currents
being disrupted. A small surface defect and large
internal defect can have a similar effect on the
magnitude of impedance in a test coil. However,
because of the increasing phase lag with depth,
there will be a characteristic difference in the test
coil impedance vector. 9
 Phase lag
• Phase lag can be calculated with the equation on next slide.
• The phase lag angle calculated with this equation is useful
for estimating the subsurface depth of a discontinuity that
is concentrated at a specific depth.
• Discontinuities, such as a crack that spans many depths,
must be divided into sections along its length and a
weighted average determined for phase and amplitude at
each position below the surface.
• At one standard depth of penetration, the phase lag is
one radian or 57o. This means that the eddy currents
flowing at one standard depth of penetration (d) below the
surface, lag the surface currents by 57o. At two standard
depths of penetration (2d), they lag the surface currents by
114o. Therefore, by measuring the phase lag of a signal the
depth of a defect can be estimated.
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11
 Eddy Current Instruments

• Eddy current instruments can be purchased in a

large variety of configurations.
• Both analog and digital instruments are available.
• Instruments are commonly classified by the type
of display used to present the data.
• The common display types are analog meter,
digital readout, impedance plane and time versus
signal amplitude. Some instruments are capable
of presenting data in several display formats.
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• The most basic eddy current testing
instrument consists of an alternating current
source, a coil of wire connected to this source,
and a voltmeter to measure the voltage
change across the coil. An ammeter could also
be used to measure the current change in the
circuit instead of using the voltmeter.

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 Probes for accurate and comprehensive
measurements
• Eddy current probes typically have a frequency or a range
of frequencies that they are designed to operated. When
the probe is operated outside of this range, problems with
the data can occur.
• When a probe is operated at too high of a frequency,
resonance can occur in the circuit. In a parallel circuit with
resistance (R), inductance (XL) and capacitance (XC), as the
frequency increases XL decreases and XC increase.
• Resonance occurs when XL and XC are equal but opposite in
strength. At the resonant frequency, the total impedance
of the circuit appears to come only from resistance since
XL and XC cancel out. Every circuit containing capacitance
and inductance has a resonant frequency that is inversely
proportional to the square root of the product of the
capacitance and inductance.

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Display - Complex Impedance Plane (eddy scope)
• Electrical Impedance (Z), is the total opposition that a
circuit presents to an alternating current. Impedance,
measured in ohms, may include resistance
(R), inductive reactance (XL), and capacitive
reactance (XC). Eddy current circuits usually have only R
and (XL) components.
• The resistance component and the reactance
component are not in phase, so vector addition must
be used to relate them with impedance.
• For an eddy current circuit with resistance and
inductive reactance components, the total impedance
is calculated using the following equation.

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16
 Eddy current impedance plane responses

• The impedance plane diagram is a very useful way of

displaying eddy current data. As shown in the figure above,
the strength of the eddy currents and the magnetic
permeability of the test material cause the eddy current
signal on the impedance plane to react in a variety of
different ways. 17
 Plane response for conductive but weak
magnetic materials
• If the eddy current circuit is balanced in air and then placed
on a piece of aluminum, the resistance component will
increase (eddy currents are being generated in the
aluminum and this takes energy away from the coil, which
shows up as resistance) and the inductive reactance of the
coil decreases (the magnetic field created by the eddy
currents opposes the coil's magnetic field and the net
effect is a weaker magnetic field to produce inductance).
• If a crack is present in the material, fewer eddy currents will
be able to form and the resistance will go back down and
the inductive reactance will go back up. Changes in
conductivity will cause the eddy current signal to change in
a different way.

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 Plane response for conductive and magnetic
materials
• When a probe is placed on a magnetic material such as
steel, something different happens. Just like with aluminum
(conductive but not magnetic), eddy currents form, taking
energy away from the coil, which shows up as an increase
in the coils resistance.
• And, just like with the aluminum, the eddy currents
generate their own magnetic field that opposes the coils
magnetic field. However, you will note for the diagram that
the reactance increases.
• This is because the magnetic permeability of the steel
concentrates the coil's magnetic field. This increase in the
magnetic field strength completely overshadows the
magnetic field of the eddy currents. The presence of a crack
or a change in the conductivity will produce a change in the
eddy current signal similar to that seen with aluminum.
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