Chapter 1 Algebra

Fundamentals

Advanced Algebra
Module
WEEK 1-2

Chapter 1: Algebra Fundamentals

Review of Real Numbers and Absolute Value

Operations with Real Numbers
Square and Cube Roots of Real Numbers
Algebraic Expressions and Formulas
Rules of Exponents and Scientific Notation
Polynomials and Their Operations
Solving Linear Equations
Solving Linear Inequalities with One Variable
Chapter 1 Algebra
Fundamentals
1.1 Review of Real Numbers and Absolute Value

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Review the set of real numbers.

2. Review the real number line and notation.
3. Define the geometric and algebraic definition of absolute value.

Real Numbers

Algebra is often described as the generalization of arithmetic. The systematic

use of variables1, letters used to represent numbers, allows us to communicate
and solve a wide variety of real-world problems. For this reason, we begin by
reviewing real numbers and their operations.

A set2 is a collection of objects, typically grouped within braces { }, where each

object is called an element3. When studying mathematics, we focus on special
sets of numbers.

ℕ ={1, 2, 3, 4, 5, …}
W ={0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, Natural Numbers
…} Whole Numbers
ℤ ={…, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …}Integers
1. Letters used to
represent numbers.

2. Any collection of objects. The three periods (…) are called an ellipsis and indicate that the numbers continue
without bound. A subset4, denoted ⊆, is a set consisting of elements that belong
3. An object within a set.
to a given set. Notice that the sets of natural5 and whole numbers6 are both
4. A set consisting of subsets of the set of integers and we can write:
elements that belong to a
given set.

5. The set of counting

numbers:
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, …}. ℕ ⊆ ℤ and W ⊆ ℤ
6. The set of natural numbers
combined with zero: {0, 1, 2,
3, 4, 5, …}.
A set with no elements is called the empty set7 and has its own special notation:
7. A subset with no elements,
denoted Ø or { }.
 { } = Ø Empty Set
a
Rational numbers8, denoted ℚ , are defined as any number of the formb where A
and b are integers and b is nonzero. We can describe this set using set notation9:

a
ℚ= |a, b ∈ ℤ, b ≠ 0 Rational Numbers
{ |b }

The vertical line | inside the braces reads, “such THAT” and the symbol ∈ indicates
set membership and reads, “is AN element of.” The notation above in its entirety
a
reads, “the set of ALL numbers
b
such THAT A AND b ARE elements of the set of integers AND
b is not
EQUAL to zero.” Decimals that terminate or repeat are rational. For example,

5 – 2
0.05 = 100 and 0. 6 = 0.6666 … =3

The set of integers is a subset of the set of rational numbers, ℤ ⊆ ℚ, because

every integer can be expressed as a ratio of the integer and 1. In other words,
any integer can be written over 1 and can be considered a rational number. For
example,

7
7=
8.
a
Numbers of the form b , 1
where A and b are integers
and b is nonzero.

9. Notation used to describe a Irrational numbers10 are defined as any numbers that cannot be written as a
set using mathematical
ratio of two integers. Nonterminating decimals that do not repeat are irrational.
symbols.
For example,
10. Numbers that cannot
be written as a ratio of
two integers.

1.1 Review of Real Numbers and Absolute

Value
 π = 3.14159 … and ⎯
√2 = 1.41421 …

Finally, the set of real numbers11, denoted ℝ, is defined as the set of all
rational numbers combined with the set of all irrational numbers. Therefore, all
the numbers defined so far are subsets of the set of real numbers. In summary,

The set of even integers12 is the set of all integers that are evenly divisible by 2.
We can obtain the set of even integers by multiplying each integer by 2.

{…, −6, −4, −2, 0, 2, 4, 6, …} Even Integers

The set of odd integers13 is the set of all nonzero integers that are not evenly
divisible by 2.

{…, −5, −3, −1, 1, 3, 5, …}Odd Integers

11. The set of all rational

and irrational numbers.
A prime number14 is an integer greater than 1 that is divisible only by 1 and
12. Integers that are divisible by itself. The smallest prime number is 2 and the rest are necessarily odd.
2.

13. Nonzero integers that are

not divisible by 2.

14. Integer greater than 1 that

is divisible only by 1 and
{2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, …}Prime Numbers
itself.
 Any integer greater than 1 that is not prime is called a composite number15 and
can be uniquely written as a product of primes. When a composite number, such as
42, is written as a product, 42 = 2 ⋅ 21, we say that 2 ⋅ 21 is a factorization16
of 42 and that 2 and 21 are factors17. Note that factors divide the number evenly.
We can continue to write composite factors as products until only a product of
primes remains.

Therefore, the prime factorization18 of 42 is 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 7.

Example
1
Determine the prime factorization of 210.

Solution:

Begin by writing 210 as a product with 10 as a factor. Then continue factoring

until only a product of primes remains.

210 = 10 ⋅ 21
=2⋅5⋅3⋅7
=2⋅3⋅5⋅7
15. Integers greater than 1 that
are not prime.

16. Any combination of factors, Since the prime factorization is unique, it does not matter how we choose to
multiplied together, initially factor the number; the end result will be the same.
resulting in the product.

Any of the numbers that form a

Answer: 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 5 ⋅
17.
product.
7
18. The unique factorization of
a natural number written as
a product of primes.
 A fraction19 is a rational number written as a quotient, or ratio, of two integers A
and b where b ≠ 0.

The integer above the fraction bar is called the numerator20 and the integer
below is called the denominator21. Two equal ratios expressed using different
numerators and denominators are called equivalent fractions22. For example,

50 1
=
100 2

Consider the following factorizations of 50 and 100:

50 = 2 ⋅ 25
19. A rational number written as 100 = 4 ⋅ 25
a
a quotient of two integers: ,
b
where b ≠ 0.

20. The number above the The numbers 50 and 100 share the factor 25. A shared factor is called a common
fraction
bar.
factor23. Making use of the fact that = 1, we have
25
21. The number below the
fraction bar. 25

22. Two equal fractions

expressed using different
numerators and ⋅ 2 2
denominators.
50 2 = ⋅ 1 =
= 2 4 4
23. A factor that is shared by 100 4 2
more than one real number. 5
5
24. The process of dividing ⋅
out common factors in the
numerator and the 25
denominator. Dividing 25 and replacing this factor with a 1 is called cancelling24. Together,
these basic steps for finding equivalent fractions define the process of
25. The process of finding
reducing25. Since factors divide their product evenly, we achieve the same
equivalent fractions by
dividing the numerator and result by dividing both the numerator and denominator by 25 as follows:
the denominator by common
factors.
 50 ÷ 25 2
=
100 ÷ 25 4

Finding equivalent fractions where the numerator and denominator are

relatively prime26, or have no common factor other than 1, is called
reducing to lowest terms27. This can be done by dividing the numerator
and denominator by the greatest common factor (GCF).28 The GCF is the
largest number that divides a set of numbers evenly. One way to find the GCF
of 50 and 100 is to list all the factors of each and identify the largest number
that appears in both lists. Remember, each number is also a factor of itself.

{1, 2, 5, 10, 25, 50}

{1, 2, 4, 5, 10, 20, 25, 50, Factors of 50
100}
Factors of 100

Common factors are listed in bold, and we see that the greatest common factor is
50. We use the following notation to indicate the GCF of two numbers: GCF(50, 100) =
50. After determining the GCF, reduce by dividing both the numerator and the
denominator as follows:

50 ÷ 50 1
=
100 ÷ 50 2

26. Numbers that have no

common factor other than 1.

27. Finding equivalent fractions

where the numerator and the
denominator share no
common integer factor other
than 1.

28. The largest shared factor

of any number of
integers.
 Example
2
Reduce to lowest terms: 108 .
72

Solution:

A quick way to find the GCF of the numerator and denominator requires us to
first write each as a product of primes. The GCF will be the product of all the
common prime factors.

72
108==22⋅ ⋅22⋅ ⋅23⋅ ⋅33⋅ ⋅3 }
GCF(108, 72) = 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 3 =
3
36

In this case, the product of the common prime factors is 36.

108 = 108 ÷ 36 = 3
72 ÷ 362 72

We can convert the improper fraction 3 to a mixed number 1 1; however, it

22
is
important to note that converting to a mixed number is not part of the
reducing process. We consider improper fractions, such as 3, to be reduced to 2
lowest terms. In algebra it is often preferable to work with improper
fractions,
although in some applications, mixed numbers are more appropriate.
Answer: 32

Recall the relationship between multiplication and division:

 dividend → 12
divisor → 6 =2 ← quotient because 6 ⋅ 2 = 12

In this case, the dividend29 12 is evenly divided by the divisor30 6 to obtain

the quotient31 2. It is true in general that if we multiply the divisor by the
quotient we obtain the dividend. Now consider the case where the dividend is
zero and the divisor is nonzero:

0
6 = 0 since 6 ⋅ 0 = 0

This demonstrates that zero divided by any nonzero real number must be zero.
Now consider a nonzero number divided by zero:

12
0 = ? or 0 ⋅ ? = 12

Zero times anything is zero and we conclude that there is no real number such that
0 ⋅ ? = 12. Thus, the quotient 12 ÷ 0 is undefined32. Try it on a calculator,
what does it say? For our purposes, we will simply write “undefined.” To
summarize, given any real number a ≠ 0, then

29. A number to be divided

by another number.
0 = 0 zero and a ÷ 0 =
0÷a= undef ined
30. The number that is a 0
divided into the a
dividend.

31. The result of division.

5 interpretation.
32. A quotient such as is
0 and
left without meaning
is not assigned an
We are left to consider
the case where the
dividend and divisor are
both zero.
 0
0 = ? or 0 ⋅ ? = 0

Here, any real number seems to work. For example, 0 ⋅ 5 = 0 and also, 0 ⋅ 3 = 0.
Therefore, the quotient is uncertain or indeterminate33.

0
0÷0=
indeterminate
0

In this course, we state that 0 ÷ 0 is undefined.

The Number Line and Notation

A real number line34, or simply number line, allows us to visually display

real numbers by associating them with unique points on a line. The real
number associated with a point is called a coordinate35. A point on the real
number line that is associated with a coordinate is called its graph36. To
construct a number line, draw a horizontal line with arrows on both ends to
indicate that it continues without bound. Next, choose any point to represent
the number zero; this point is called the origin37.

line that represents zero.

0
33. A quotient such as0 is a
quantity that is uncertain
or ambiguous.

34. A line that allows us to

visually represent real
numbers by associating them
with points on the line.

35. The real number associated

with a point on a number
line.

36. A point on the number line

associated with a
coordinate.

37. The point on the number

Positive real
numbers lie to the
right of the origin
and negative real
numbers lie to the
left. The number
zero (0) is neither
positive nor
negative. Typically,
each tick represents
one unit.

As illustrated
below, the scale
need not always be 7
one unit. In the first
number line, each
tick mark
represents two
units. In the
second, each tick
1
mark represents :
 The graph of each real number is shown as a dot at the appropriate point on the
number line. A partial graph of the set of integers ℤ, follows:

Example
3 { }
5 3
Graph the following set of real numbers:−, 0,, 22. 2

Solution:

Graph the numbers on a number line with a scale where each tick mark
represents 12unit.

Answer:

The opposite38 of any real number A is −A. Opposite real numbers are the same
distance from the origin on a number line, but their graphs lie on opposite sides
of the origin and the numbers have opposite signs.

Given the integer −7, the integer the same distance from the origin and with the
opposite sign is +7, or just 7.

38. Real numbers whose

graphs are on opposite Therefore, we say that the opposite of −7 is −(−7) = 7. This idea leads to what is
sides of the origin with the
same distance to the origin.
often referred to as the double-negative property39. For any real number A,

39. The opposite of a negative

number is positive: −(−A) =
A.
 − (−a) = a

Example
4 (( ))
3
Calculate: − − − 8
.

Solution:

Here we apply the double-negative within the innermost parentheses first.

(( 3 )) () 3
−−− =
8 8
−
=−
8
3

Answer: − 3
8

In general, an odd number of sequential negative signs results in a negative

value and an even number of sequential negative signs results in a positive
value.

When comparing real numbers on a number line, the larger number will always
lie to the right of the smaller one. It is clear that 15 is greater than 5, but it may
not be so clear to see that −1 is greater than −5 until we graph each number on a
number line.

We use symbols to help us efficiently communicate relationships between

numbers on the number line.
 Equality Order Relationships
Relationships
< "is less than"
= "is equal to"
> "is greater than"
≠ "is not equal to"
≈ "is approximately equal to" ≤ "is less than or equal to"
≥ "is greater than or equal to"

The relationship between the integers40 in the previous illustration can be

expressed two ways as follows:

−5 < −1
"Negative f ive is less than negative
one. " or
−1 > −5
"Negative one is greater than negative f ive. "

The symbols < and > are used to denote strict inequalities41, and the symbols ≤ and
≥ are used to denote inclusive inequalities42. In some situations, more than
one symbol can be correctly applied. For example, the following two
statements are both true:

−10 < 0 and − 10 ≤ 0

40. The set of positive and or equal to” and ≥ for

negative whole numbers quantities that are “greater than or equal to” each other.
combined with zero: {…, −3,
−2,
−1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …}.

41. Express ordering relationships

using the symbol < for “less
than” and > for “greater
than.”

42. Use the symbol ≤ to

express quantities that are
“less than
In addition, the “or
EQUAL to” component
of an inclusive
inequality allows
us to correctly
write the following:

−
1
0

−
1
0
 The logical use of the word “or” requires that only one of the conditions need be
true: the “less THAN” or the “EQUAL to.”

Example 5

Fill in the blank with <, =, or >: −2 − 12.

Solution:

Use > because the graph of −2 is to the right of the graph of −12 on a number
line. Therefore, −2 > −12, which reads, “NEGATIVE two is GREATER
THAN NEGATIVE twelve.”

Answer: −2 >
−12

An algebraic inequality43, such as x ≥ 2 , is read, “x is GREATER THAN or EQUAL to 2.”

Here the letter x is a variable, which can represent any real number. However,
the statement x ≥ 2 imposes a condition on the variable. Solutions44 are the
values for x that satisfy the condition. This inequality has infinitely many
solutions for x, some of which are 2, 3, 4.1, 5, 20, and 20.001. Since it is
impossible to list all of the solutions, a system is needed that allows a clear
communication of this infinite set. Common ways of expressing solutions to an
inequality are by graphing them on a number line, using interval notation, or
using set notation.

To express the solution graphically, draw a number line and shade in all the
values that are solutions to the inequality. This is called the graph of the
solution set45. Interval and set notation follow:
43. Algebraic expressions related
with the symbols ≤, <, ≥,
and
>.

44. Values that can be used in

"x is greater than or equal to 2"x ≥ 2
place of the variable to
satisfy the given condition.

45. Solutions to an
algebraic expression
expressed on a number
line.
 Interval notation : [2, ∞)
Set notation : {x ∈ ℝ|x ≥ 2}

In this example, there is an inclusive inequality, which means that the lower-
bound 2 is included in the solution set. Denote this with a closed dot on the
number line and a square bracket in interval notation. The symbol ∞ is read as
“infinity46” and indicates that the set is unbounded to the right on a number
line. If using a standard keyboard, use (inf) as a shortened form to denote
infinity. Now compare the notation in the previous example to that of the strict,
or noninclusive, inequality that follows:

" x is less than 3 " x < 3

Interval notation : (−∞, 3)

Set notation : {x ∈ ℝ|x < 3}

Strict inequalities imply that solutions may get very close to the boundary
point, in this case 3, but not actually include it. Denote this idea with an open
dot on the number line and a round parenthesis in interval notation. The
symbol −∞ is read as “negative infinity47” and indicates that the set is
unbounded to the left on a number line. Infinity is a bound to the real numbers,
but is not itself a real number: it cannot be included in the solution set and thus
is always enclosed with a parenthesis.

46. The symbol ∞ indicates the

interval is unbounded to the
Interval notation is textual and is determined after graphing the solution set on a
right.
number line. The numbers in interval notation should be written in the same
47. The symbol −∞ indicates order as they appear on the number line, with smaller numbers in the set
the interval is unbounded
appearing first. Set notation, sometimes called set-builder notation, allows us to
to the left.
describe the set using familiar mathematical notation. For example,
 {x ∈ ℝ|x ≥ 2}

Here, x ∈ ℝ describes the type of number. This implies that the variable x
represents a real number. The statement x ≥ 2 is the condition that describes
the set using mathematical notation. At this point in our study of algebra, it is
assumed that all variables represent real numbers. For this reason, you can omit
the “∈ ℝ”, and write

{x|x ≥ 2}

Example
6
Graph the solution set and give the interval and set notation equivalents:
x < −20.

Solution:

Use an open dot at −20, because of the strict inequality <, and shade all real
numbers to the left.

Answer: Interval notation: (−∞, −20); set notation: {x|x <

−20}

48. Two or more inequalities in

one statement joined by the
word “and” or by the word A compound inequality48 is actually two or more inequalities in one
“or.” statement joined by the word “and” or by the word “or”. Compound
inequalities with the logical “or” require that either condition must be satisfied.
49. The set formed by joining
the individual solution sets Therefore, the solution set of this type of compound inequality consists of all
indicated by the logical use the elements of the solution sets of each inequality. When we join these
of the word “or” and individual solution sets it is called the
denoted
with the symbol ∪. union49, denoted ∪. For example,
 x < 3 or x ≥ 6

Interval notation : (−∞, 3) ∪ [6, ∞)

Set notation : {x| x < 3 or x ≥ 6}

An inequality such as,

−1 ≤ x < 3

reads, “NEGATIVE one is less THAN or EQUAL to x AND x is less THAN three.” This is actually
a compound inequality because it can be decomposed as follows:

−1 ≤ x and x < 3

The logical “and” requires that both conditions must be true. Both inequalities will
be satisfied by all the elements in the intersection50, denoted ∩, of the
solution sets of each.

50. The set formed by the

shared values of the
individual solution sets that
is indicated by the logical
use of the word “and,”
denoted with the
symbol ∩.
 Example 7

Graph and give the interval notation equivalent: −1 ≤ x < 3.

Solution:

Determine the intersection, or overlap, of the two solution sets to x < 3 and
x ≥ −1. The solutions to each inequality are sketched above the number
line as a means to determine the intersection, which is graphed on the
number line below.

Here, 3 is not a solution because it solves only one of the inequalities.

Alternatively, we may interpret −1 ≤ x < 3 as all possible values for x
between, or bounded by, −1 and 3 where −1 is included in the solution set.

Answer: Interval notation: [−1, 3); set notation: {x| − 1 ≤ x < 3}

In this text, we will often point out the equivalent notation used to express
mathematical quantities electronically using the standard symbols available
on a keyboard.

×"*"
≥ " >= "
÷ "/"
≤ " <= "
≠ " != "

Many calculators, computer algebra systems, and programming languages use

the notation presented above, in quotes.
 Absolute Value

The absolute value51 of a real number A, denoted |a|, is defined as the distance
between zero (the origin) and the graph of that real number on the number line.
Since it is a distance, it is always positive. For example,

|−4| = 4 and |4| = 4

Both 4 and −4 are four units from the origin, as illustrated below:

Also, it is worth noting that,

|0| = 0

The algebraic definition of the absolute value of a real number A follows:

a if a ≥ 0
|a| = { −a if a < 0

This is called a piecewise definition52. The result depends on the quantity A. If A

is nonnegative, as indicated by the inequality a ≥ 0, then the absolute value
The absolute value of a
will be that number A. If A is negative, as indicated by the inequality a < 0,
51.
number represents the
distance from the graph of then the absolute value will be the opposite of that number, − A. The results will
the number to zero on a be the same as the geometric definition. For example, to determine |−4| we
number line. make note that the value is negative and use the second part of the definition.
52. A definition that changes The absolute value will be the opposite of −4.
depending on the value of
the variable.
 |−4|= − (−4)
=4

At this point, we can determine what real numbers have certain absolute values.

Example 8

Determine the values represented by x: | x | =

6.

Solution:

Think of a real number whose distance to the origin is 6 units. There are two
solutions: the distance to the right of the origin and the distance to the left of
the origin, namely {±6} . The symbol ± is read “plus or minus” and
indicates
that there are two answers, one positive and one negative.

|−6| = 6 and |6| = 6

Answer: x = ±6
 Example 9

Determine the values represented by x: | x | =

−6.

Solution:

Here we wish to find a value where the distance to the origin is negative. Since
negative distance is not defined, this equation has no solution. Use the empty
set Ø to denote this.

Answer: Ø

The absolute value can be expressed textually using the notation abs( A). We
often encounter negative absolute values, such as − |3| or −abs(3). Notice that the
negative sign is in front of the absolute value symbol. In this case, work the
absolute value first and then find the opposite of the result.

−| − |−3|
3|
and ⏐
⏐ ↓
↓ = −3
= −3

Try not to confuse this with the double negative property, which states that
− (−3) = + 3.
Example 10

Simplify: − (− |−50|)
.

Solution:
First, find the absolute value of −50 and then apply the double-negative
property.

− (−|−50|)= −
(−50)
= 50

Answer: 50

KEY TAKEAWAYS

• Algebra is often described as the generalization of arithmetic. The

systematic use of variables, used to represent real numbers, allows
us to communicate and solve a wide variety of real-world problems.
Therefore, it is important to review the subsets of real numbers and
their properties.
• The number line allows us to visually display real
numbers by associating them with unique points on a line.
• Special notation is used to communicate equality and
order relationships between numbers on a number line.
• The absolute value of a real number is defined geometrically as the
distance between zero and the graph of that number on a number
line. Alternatively, the absolute value of a real number is defined
algebraically in a piecewise manner. If a real number A is
nonnegative, then the absolute value will be that number A. If A is
negative, then the absolute value will be the opposite of that
number, −A.
 TOPIC EXERCISES

PART A: REAL NUMBERS

Use set notation to list the described elements.

1. Every other positive odd number up to 21.

2. Every other positive even number up to 22.

3. The even prime numbers.

4. Rational numbers that are also irrational.

5. The set of negative integers.

6. The set of negative even integers.

7. Three consecutive odd integers starting with 13.

8. Three consecutive even integers starting with 22.

Determine the prime factorization of the given composite number.

9. 195

10. 78

11. 330

12. 273

13. 180

14. 350

Reduce to lowest terms.

42
15.
30
105
16. 70
84
17. 120
315
18. 420
 60
19.
45
144
20. 120
64
21. 128
72
22. 216
0
23.
25
33
24.
0

PART B: NUMBER LINE AND NOTATION

Graph the following sets of numbers.

25. {−5, 5, 10, 15}

26. {−4, −2, 0, 2, 4}

3 1
27. {− , − , 0, 1, 2}
2 2
3 1 1 3
28. {− 4 , − 4 , 0, 2
,
4
}
29. {−5,−4,−3,−1, 1}

30. {−40, −30, −20, 10, 30}

Simplify.

31. −(−10)
3
32. − (− 5)
33. −(−(−12))
5
34. − (− (− 3 ))
1
35. − (− (− (− 2 )))
3
36. − (− (− (− (− 4 ))))

Fill in the blank with <, =, or >.

37. −10 −15

38. −101 −100

39. −33 0

40. 0 −50

41. −(−(−2)) −(−3)

1 1
42. − (− (− )) −
2 4
2 1
43. − (− (− )) − (− )
3 2
2 2
44. − (− ) − (− (− (− )))
3 3

True or False.

45. 0=0
46. 5≤5
–
47. 1.03 2 is irrational.
48. 0 is a nonnegative number.

49. Any integer is a rational number.

50. The constant π is rational.

Graph the solution set and give the interval notation equivalent.

51. x < −1
52. x > −3
53. x ≥ −8
54. x ≤6
55. −10 ≤x<4
56. 3 <x≤7
57. −40 <x<0
58. −12 ≤ x ≤ −4
59. x < 5 and x ≥ 0
60. x ≤ −10 and x ≥ −40
61. x ≤ 7 and x < 10
62. x < 1 and x > 3
63. x < −2 or x ≥ 5
64. x ≤ 0 or x ≥ 4
65. x < 6 or x > 2
66. x < 0 or x ≤ 5

Write an equivalent inequality.

67. All real numbers less than −15.

68. All real numbers greater than or equal to −7.

69. All real numbers less than 6 and greater than zero.

70. All real numbers less than zero and greater than −5.

71. All real numbers less than or equal to 5 or greater than 10.

72. All real numbers between −2 and 2.

Determine the inequality given the answers expressed in interval

notation.

73. (−∞, 12)

74. [−8, ∞)
75. (−∞, 0]
76. (0, ∞)

77. (−6, 14)

78. (0, 12]

79. [5, 25)
80. [−30, −10]
 81. (−∞, 2) ∪ [3, ∞)
82. (−∞, −19] ∪ [−12, ∞)
83. (−∞, −2) ∪ (0, ∞)
84. (−∞, −15] ∪ (−5, ∞)

PART C: ABSOLUTE VALUE

Simplify.

85. |−9|

86. |14|

87. − |−4|
88. − |8|
5
89. −
|− 8|
7
90. − (− | |)
2
91. − |− (−7)|
92. − |− (−10)|
93. − (− |−2|)

94. − (− |−10|)
95. − (− |− (−5)|)
96. − (− (− |−20|))

Determine the values represented by a.

97. |a| = 10
98. |a| = 7
1
99. |a| =
2
9
1 00. |a| =
4
101. |a| =0
102. |a| = −1

PART D: DISCUSSION BOARD

13. Research and discuss the origins and evolution of algebra.

14. Research and discuss reasons why algebra is a required subject today.

15. Solution sets to inequalities can be expressed using a graph, interval

notation, or set notation. Discuss the merits and drawbacks of each
method. Which do you prefer?

16. Research and discuss the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra. Illustrate its
idea with an example and share your results.

35
1.2 Operations with Real Numbers

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Review the properties of real numbers.

2. Simplify expressions involving grouping symbols and exponents.
3. Simplify using the correct order of operations.

Working with Real Numbers

In this section, we continue to review the properties of real numbers and their
operations. The result of adding real numbers is called the sum53 and the result
of subtracting is called the difference54. Given any real numbers A, b, and c, we
have the following properties of addition:

Additive Identity Property: a+0=0+a=a

Additive Inverse Property: a + (−a) = (−a) + a = 0

Associative Property: (a + b) + c = a + (b + c)

Commutative Property: a+b=b+a

53. The result of adding.

54. The result of subtracting.

55. Given any real number A, 55

a+0=0+a=a.
56. Given any real number A, 56
a + (−a) = (−a) + a = 0.
57. Given real numbers A, b and
5
c, a + b + c = a + b
( ) ( + c) 7.

36
 58

It is important to note that addition is commutative and subtraction is not. In

other words, the order in which we add does not matter and will yield the same
result.
However, this is not true of subtraction.

5 + 10 = 10 + 5 − 10 ≠ 10 − 5
5 −5 ≠ 5
15 = 15

We use these properties, along with the double-negative property for real
numbers, to perform more involved sequential operations. To simplify things,
make it a general rule to first replace all sequential operations with either
addition or subtraction and then perform each operation in order from left to
right.

Example 1

Simplify: −10 − (−10) + (−5) .

Solution:

Replace the sequential operations and then perform them from left to right.

−10 − (−10) + (−5)= −10 + 10 − 5 Replace − (−) with addition (+)

.
Replace + (−) with subtraction (−) .
=0−5
= −5

Answer: −5

58. Given real numbers A and b,

1.2 Operations with Real 36

Numbers
 a + b = b + a.

1.2 Operations with Real 37

Numbers
 Adding or subtracting fractions requires a common denominator59. Assume the
common denominator c is a nonzero integer and we have

a b a+b a b a− b
c + c= c and c − c = c

59. A denominator that is

shared by more than one
fraction.
Example 2

2 1 8
Simplify: 9
− 15
+ 45
.

Solution:

First determine the least common multiple (LCM) of 9, 15, and 45. The least
common multiple of all the denominators is called the least common
denominator60 (LCD). We begin by listing the multiples of each given
denominator:

{9, 18, 27, 36, 45, 54, 63, 72, 81, 90, …}Multiples of 9

{15, 30, 45, 60, 75, 90,

Multiples of 15
…}
Multiples of 45
{45, 90, 135…}

Here we see that the LCM(9, 15, 45) = 45. Multiply the numerator and the
denominator of each fraction by values that result in equivalent fractions with
the determined common denominator.

2 1
9 − 15 + 8 = 2 ⋅ 5 − 1 ⋅ 3 + 8
45 9 5 15 3 45
10 3 8
= − +
45 45 45

Once we have equivalent fractions, with a common denominator, we

can perform the operations on the numerators and write the result
over the common denominator.
60. The least common multiple
of a set of denominators.
 = 10 − 3 +
8 45
= 15
45

And then reduce if necessary,

= 15 ÷
1545 ÷
=115
3

Answer: 13

Finding the LCM using lists of multiples, as described in the previous example,
is often very cumbersome. For example, try making a list of multiples for 12
and 81. We can streamline the process of finding the LCM by using prime
factors.

2
12 = 2 ⋅ 3
4
81 = 3

The least common multiple is the product of each prime factor raised to the
highest power. In this case,

2 4
LCM(12, 81) = 2 ⋅ 3 = 324

1.2 Operations with Real 39

Numbers
Often we will find the need to translate English sentences involving addition
and subtraction to mathematical statements. Below are some common
translations.

n + 2The sum of a number and 2.

2 − nThe dif f erence of 2 and a
number. n − 2Here 2 is subtracted f
rom a number.
 Example
3
What is 8 subtracted from the sum of 3 and 1?2

Solution:

We know that subtraction is not commutative; therefore, we must take care to

subtract in the correct order. First, add 3 and 1 and then subtract 8 as follows:
2

Perform the indicated operations.

( 1) ( 321 )
3+ − 8 =⋅ + −8
2 122
( 6+ )
= −8
1
= 7 − 28 ⋅ 2
212
=7−
16 2

=−
2
9

Answer: − 9
2

The result of multiplying real numbers is called the product61 and the result of
dividing is called the quotient62. Given any real numbers A, b, and c, we have the
61. The result of following properties of multiplication:
multiplying.

62. The result of dividing.

 Zero Factor Property: a⋅0=0⋅a=0

Multiplicative Identity Property: a⋅1=1⋅a=a

Associative Property: (a ⋅ b) ⋅ c = a ⋅ (b ⋅
c)

Commutative Property: a⋅b=b⋅a

63

64

65

66

It is important to note that multiplication is commutative and division is not. In

other words, the order in which we multiply does not matter and will yield the
same result. However, this is not true of division.

5 ⋅ 10 = 10 ⋅ 5 ÷ 10 ≠ 10 ÷ 5
63. Given any real number 5
A,
0.5 ≠ 2
a⋅0=0⋅a=0. 50 = 50
64. Given any real number
A,
a⋅1=1⋅a=a.
We will use these properties to perform sequential operations involving
65. Given any real numbers A, b multiplication and division. Recall that the product of a positive number and a
and c,
negative number is negative. Also, the product of two negative numbers is
(a ⋅ b) ⋅ c = a ⋅ (b ⋅ c) .
positive.
66. Given any real numbers A and
b, a ⋅ b = b ⋅ a.
 Example 4

Multiply: 5 (−3) (−2) (−4) .

Solution:

Multiply two numbers at a time as follows:

Answer: −120

Because multiplication is commutative, the order in which we multiply does not

affect the final answer. However, when sequential operations involve
multiplication and division, order does matter; hence we must work the
operations from left to right to obtain a correct result.
 Example 5

Simplify: 10 ÷ (−2) (−5) .

Solution:

Perform the division first; otherwise the result will be incorrect.

Notice that the order in which we multiply and divide does affect the result.
Therefore, it is important to perform the operations of multiplication and
division as they appear from left to right.

Answer: 25

The product of two fractions is the fraction formed by the product of the
numerators and the product of the denominators. In other words, to multiply
fractions, multiply the numerators and multiply the denominators:

a c ac
b ⋅ d = bd
 Example
6
Multiply: − 4 ⋅ 25 .
512

Solution:

Multiply the numerators and multiply the denominators. Reduce by dividing

out any common factors.

− 4 ⋅ 25 = − 4 ⋅ 25
512 5 ⋅ 12
15
4 ⋅ 25
=
− 5 ⋅ 12
13

=−
3
5

Answer: − 5
3

a b
Two real numbers whose product is 1 are called reciprocals67. Therefore, and
a b a
are reciprocals because ab
b
⋅ a = a
= 1F. or example,
b b

2 3 6
⋅ = =1
3 2 6

2 3
Because their product is 1,3 and are reciprocals. Some other reciprocals are
listed below:
67. Two real numbers
whose product is 1.
 5 8 1 4 5
and 7 and − and −
8 5 7 5 4

This definition is important because dividing fractions requires that you

multiply the dividend by the reciprocal of the divisor.

a a d
a c
d
⋅ a d
b c
b c = = ⋅
b d÷ =c ⋅d
1 b c
d c

In general,

a c a d ad
b ÷ d = b ⋅ c = bc
Example
7
Simplify: 5 ÷ 3 ⋅ 1 .
452

Solution:

Perform the multiplication and division from left to right.

5÷3⋅1=5⋅5⋅1
452432
=5⋅5⋅
1 4⋅3⋅
= 25
2
24

In algebra, it is often preferable to work with improper fractions. In this case,

we leave the answer expressed as an improper fraction.

Answer: 25
24

Try this! Simplify: 1 ⋅ 3 ÷ 1 .

248

Answer: 3
 Grouping Symbols and Exponents

In a computation where more than one operation is involved, grouping symbols

help tell us which operations to perform first. The grouping symbols68
commonly used in algebra are:

( ) Parentheses
[ ] Brackets
{ } Braces

Fraction bar

All of the above grouping symbols, as well as absolute value, have the same
order of precedence. Perform operations inside the innermost grouping symbol
or absolute value first.

68. Parentheses, brackets,

braces, and the fraction bar
are the common symbols
used to group expressions
and mathematical
operations within a
computation.
Example
8 ( )
4
Simplify: 2 − 5
− 215
.

Solution:

Perform the operations within the parentheses first.

( 4 2 ) ( 43 2 )
2− − =2 ⋅−
5 15 53 15
− ( 12 2
=2 −
15 15 )
− () 10
=2
15
−
=2⋅ 3−2
133
=6−
2 3
=4
3

Answer: 43
 Example
9
|−3|−(5−7)
Simplify: 5−|4−(−3)| .

Solution:

The fraction bar groups the numerator and denominator. Hence, they should be
simplified separately.

5 − |4 − (−3)| = 5 − |4 + 3|
|−3| − (5 − 7)
|−3| − (−2)
= 5 − |7|
|−3| +
=52−
7 3+
= −2
2
5
=−
5
2

Answer: − 2
5

If a number is repeated as a factor numerous times, then we can write the

product in a more compact form using exponential notation69. For
n example,
69. The compact notation a
used when a factor A is
repeated n times.

70. The factor A in the

n
exponential notation a . 4
5⋅5⋅5⋅5=5
71. The positive integer n in the
n
exponential notation a
that
indicates the number of times
The base70 is the factor and the positive integer exponent71 indicates the
the base is used as a factor.
number of times the base is repeated as a factor. In the above example, the base
is 5 and the
 exponent is 4. Exponents are sometimes indicated with the caret (^) symbol
found on the keyboard, 5^4 = 5*5*5*5. In general, if A is the base that is
repeated as a factor n times, then

When the exponent is 2 we call the result a square72, and when the exponent
is 3 we call the result a cube73. For example,

2
5 =
3 5 ⋅ 5 = 25 “5 squared”
5 =
5⋅5⋅5= “5 cubed”
125

If the exponent is greater than 3, then the notation an is read, “A RAISED to the nth
power.” The base can be any real number,

2
(2.5) =(2.5) (2.5) = 6.25
− = − − − =−
( 2 )3 ( 2 ) ( 2 ) ( 2 ) 8
3 3 3 3 27
4
(−2) =(−2) (−2) (−2) (−2) = 16
4
−2 = −1 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 2 = −16

Notice that the result of a negative base with an even exponent is positive. The
result of a negative base with an odd exponent is negative. These facts are often
confused when negative numbers are involved. Study the following four
examples carefully:

The BASE is The BASE is

72. The result when the (−3). 3.
exponent of any real
number is 2.
4 4
73. The result when the (−3) =(−3) (−3) (−3) (−3) = +81 −3 = −1 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 3 =
exponent of any real
number is 3. −81
3 3
(−3) =(−3) (−3) (−3) = −27 −3 = −1 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 3 = −27
The parentheses indicate that the negative number is to be used as the base.
Example 10

Calculate:

1 3
a. (− 3 )
4
1
b. (− 3 )

Solution:

1
Here − 3 is the base for both problems.

a. Use the base as a factor three times.

− = − − −
( 1 )3 ( 1) ( 1) ( 1)
3 3 3 3
1
= − 27

b. Use the base as a factor four times.

− = − − − −
( 1 )4 ( 1 ) ( 1 ) ( 1 ) ( 1 )
3 3 3 3 3
1
=+ 81

Answers:

1
a. −
27
b 1
81
.
 Try this!
Simplify:

a. −24
b. (−2)4

Answers:

a. −16
b. 16

Order of Operations

When several operations are to be applied within a calculation, we must follow

a specific order to ensure a single correct result.

1. Perform all calculations within the innermost

parentheses or grouping symbol first.
2. Evaluate all exponents.
3. Apply multiplication and division from left to right.
4. Perform all remaining addition and subtraction operations last
from left to right.

Note that multiplication and division should be worked from left to right. Because
of this, it is often reasonable to perform division before multiplication.
Example
11
Simplify: 53 − 24 ÷ 6 ⋅ 1 + 2.
2

Solution:

First, evaluate 53 and then perform multiplication and division as they

appear from left to right.

53 − 24 ÷ 6 ⋅ 1 + 2 = 53 − 24 ÷ 6 ⋅ 1 +
2 2
2
= 125 − 24 ÷ 6 ⋅ 1 +
2
2
= 125 − 4 ⋅ 1 +
2
2= 125 − 2 +
2
= 123 + 2
= 125

Multiplying first would have led to an incorrect result.

Answer: 125
 Example 12

Simplify: −10 − 52 +
(−3)4 .
Solution:

Take care to correctly identify the base when squaring.

− 10 − 52 + (−3)4 = −10 − 25 +
81
= −35 + 81
= 46

Answer: 46

We are less likely to make a mistake if we work one operation at a time. Some
problems may involve an absolute value, in which case we assign it the same
order of precedence as parentheses.
 Example 13

Simplify: 7 − 5 |−22 + (−3)2 |

.

Solution:

Begin by performing the operations within the absolute value first.

7 − 5 |−22 + (−3)2 |= 7 − 5 |−4 +

9|
= 7 − 5 |5|
=7−5⋅5
= 7 − 25
= −18

Subtracting 7 − 5 first will lead to incorrect

results.

Answer: −18

Try this! Simplify: −62 − [−15 − (−2)3 ] − (−2)4 .

Answer: −45
 KEY TAKEAWAYS

• Addition is commutative and subtraction is not.

Furthermore, multiplication is commutative and division
is not.
• Adding or subtracting fractions requires a common
denominator; multiplying or dividing fractions does not.
• Grouping symbols indicate which operations to perform first. We
usually group mathematical operations with parentheses, brackets,
braces, and the fraction bar. We also group operations within
absolute values. All groupings have the same order of precedence:
the operations within the
innermost grouping are performed first.
n
• When using exponential notation a , the base A is used as a factor n
times. Parentheses indicate that a negative number is to be used as
2 2
the base. For example, (−5) is positive and −5 is negative.
• To ensure a single correct result when applying operations within a
calculation, follow the order of operations. First, perform
operations in the innermost parentheses or groupings. Next,
simplify all exponents. Perform multiplication and division
operations from left to right. Finally, perform addition and
subtraction operations from left to right.
 TOPIC EXERCISES

PART A: WORKING WITH REAL NUMBERS

Perform the operations. Reduce all fractions to lowest terms.

1. 33 − (−15) + (−8)
2. −10 − 9 + (−6)
3. −23 + (−7) − (−10)
4. −1 − (−1) − 1
1 1 1
5. + −
2 3 6
1 1 1
6. − + −
5 2 10
2 1 1
7. − (− ) −
3 4 6
3 2 5
8. − − (− ) −
2 9 6
3 1 5
9. − (− ) −
4 2 8
1 3 7
10. − − − (− )
5 2 10

11. Subtract 3 from 10.

12. Subtract −2 from 16.

5
13. Subtract − from 4.
6
1 3
14. Subtract − from .
2 2

15. Calculate the sum of −10 and 25.

16. Calculate the sum of −30 and −20.

17. Find the difference of 10 and 5.

18. Find the difference of −17 and −3.

 The formula d = |b − a|gives the distance between any two points
on a number line. Determine the distance between the given numbers
on a
number line.

19. 10 and 15

20. 6 and 22

21. 0 and 12

22. −8 and 0

23. −5 and −25

24. −12 and −3

Determine the reciprocal of the following.

1
25.
3
2
26.
5
3
27. −
4

28. −12

29. A where a ≠0
1
30.
a
a
31. where a ≠0
b
1
32.
ab

Perform the operations.

33. −4 (−5) ÷ 2
34. (−15) (−3) ÷ (−9)
35. −22 ÷ (−11) (−2)
36. 50 ÷ (−25) (−4)
2 9
37.
3
(− 10)
 5 16
38. − (− )
8 25
7 6
39.
6
(− 7)
15 9
40. − ( )5
9
4 2 16
41.
5
(− 5 ) ÷ 25
9 3 27
42. (− 2 ) (− 2) ÷ 16
8 5 15
43. ÷ ⋅
5 2 40
3 5 1
44. ÷ ⋅
16 8 2

45. Find the product of 12 and 7.

2
46. Find the product of − and 12.
3

47. Find the quotient of −36 and 12.

3
48. Find the quotient of − and 9.
4

49. Subtract 10 from the sum of 8 and −5.

50. Subtract −2 from the sum of −5 and −3.

51. Joe earns $18.00 per hour and “time and a half” for every hour he works
over 40 hours. What is his pay for 45 hours of work this week?

52. Billy purchased 12 bottles of water at $0.75 per bottle, 5 pounds of

assorted candy at $4.50 per pound, and 15 packages of microwave
popcorn costing $0.50 each for his party. What was his total bill?

53. James and Mary carpooled home from college for the Thanksgiving
holiday. They shared the driving, but Mary drove twice as far as James.
If Mary drove for 210 miles, then how many miles was the entire trip?
3
54. A 6 foot plank is to be cut into 3 pieces of equal length. What will be the
4
length of each piece?

55. A student earned 72, 78, 84, and 90 points on her first four algebra
exams. What was her average test score? (Recall that the average
is calculated by adding all the values in a set and dividing that
result by the number of elements in the set.)
56. The coldest temperature on Earth, −129° F, was recorded in 1983 at Vostok
Station, Antarctica. The hottest temperature on Earth, 136° F, was recorded in
1922 at Al’ Aziziyah, Libya. Calculate the temperature range on Earth.

PART B: GROUPING SYMBOLS AND EXPONENTS

Perform the operations.

57. 7 − {3 − [−6 − (10)]}

58. − (9 − 12) − [6 − (−8 − 3)]
1
59.
2
{5 − (10 − 3)}
2
60. {−6 + (6 −3 9)}
61. 53{2 [3 (4 − )]}
1 1 5
62. {−6 [− ( 2− )]}
2 2 3
5−||5−(−6)||
63.
|−5|−|−3|
|9−12|−(−3)
64. |−16|−3(4)
−|−5−(−7)|−(−2)
65. |−2|+|−3|
1−|9−(3−4)|
66.
−|−2|+(−8−(−10))

Perform the operations.

2
67. 12
2
68. (−12)
2
69. −12
2
70. −(−12)
4
71. −5
4
72. (−5)
1 3
73. (− 2 )
 1 3
74. −(− )
2
3 2
75. −(− )
4
5 3
76. −(− )
2
22
77. (−1)
13
78. (−1)
12
79. −(−1)
5
80. −(−1)
2
81. −10
4
82. −10

PART C: ORDER OF OPERATIONS

Simplify.
2
83. 5 − 3 (4 − 3 )
2
84. 8 − 5 (3 − 3 )
2 2
85. (−5) + 3 (2 − 4 )
2
86. 6 − 2 (−5 + 4 ⋅ 7)
2 2
87. 5 − 3 [3 (2 − 3 ) + (−3) ]
2
88. 10 − 5 [(2 − 5) − 3]
2 2 2
89. [5 − 3 ] − [2 − (5 + (−4) )]
2 2 2
90. −7 − [(2 − 7) − (−8) ]
3 5 1 2
91. ÷ ( − 2 2+ ) ⋅1 42 2
92. 616⋅ ( 12 ) − 2( )
3 ÷ (−2)
[ ]
3 2
3−2⋅5+4
93. (22 −32 )2
3+(−2) ⋅4−3
94. 2
−4 +1
 2 2
−5 +(−3) ⋅2−3
95. 2
8 +6(−10)
2 3
(−4) +(−3)
96. −92 − −12+22 *10
2 (
97. −5 − 2 |−5|
4 4 2
98. −2 + 6 22 − 52
99. − 4− |7| − 8 ||
( )
100. −3 (5 − 2 |−6|)
2 3 2
101. (−3) − |−2 + (−3) | − 4
2 3 4 5
102. −5 − 2 |3 − 2 | − (−2)
3
103. 5 ⋅2|−5| − (2 −3 |−7|)
3
104. 10 + 2 |−5| − 6
( )
4 2
105. 23 − 1 − (− 3) |
| 2
−
106. 10
−24 1
÷
1
|3 2 5|
107. Calculate the sum of the squares of the first three consecutive positive
odd integers.

108. Calculate the sum of the squares of the first three consecutive positive
even integers.

109. What is 6 subtracted from the sum of the squares of 5 and 8?

110. What is 5 subtracted from the sum of the cubes of 2 and 3?

PART D: DISCUSSION BOARD

111. What is PEMDAS and what is it missing?

112. Does 0 have a reciprocal? Explain.

113. Explain why we need a common denominator in order to add or

subtract fractions.
4 4
114. Explain why (−10) is positive and −10 is negative.
1.3 Square and Cube Roots of Real Numbers

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Calculate the exact and approximate value of the square root of a

real number.
2. Calculate the exact and approximate value of the cube root of a
real number.
3. Simplify the square and cube root of a real number.
4. Apply the Pythagorean theorem.

The Definition of Square and Cube Roots

A square root74 of a number is a number that when multiplied by itself yields the
2
original number. For example, 4 is a square root of 16, because 4 = 16. Since
2
(−4) = 16, we can say that −4 is a square root of 16 as well. Every positive real
number has two square roots, one positive and one negative. For this reason, we
use
the radical sign75 √ to denote the principal (nonnegative) square root76
and a negative sign in front of the radical −√ to denote the negative square root.

⎯⎯⎯
√16 = 4 Positive square root of 16
⎯⎯⎯
−√16 = Negative square root of 16
−4

Zero is the only real number with exactly one square root.

77. The number within a radical.

74. That number that when
multiplied by itself yields
the original number.

75. The symbol √ used to

denote a square root.

76. The non-negative square

root.

68
 ⎯
√
0

If the radicand77,
the number inside
the radical sign, is
nonzero and can be
factored as the
square of another
nonzero number,
then the square root
of the number is
apparent. In this
case, we have the
following property:

69
 ⎯2⎯
√ a = a, if a ≥ 0

It i s i m p ortant to point out that A is required to be nonnegative. Note that

⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯2 ≠
√(−3) ⎯⎯⎯ −3
⎯⎯ because the radical denotes the principal square root. Instead,

⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
2 ⎯
(−3) = √9 = 3
√

This distinction will be carefully considered later in the course.

Example
1
Find the square root:

⎯⎯
a.
b.
√1⎯⎯
⎯⎯
√⎯
√0⎯.⎯25
9
c. 2⎯⎯1
4

⎯⎯
Solution:

√
a.121 11⎯2⎯ =
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
⎯⎯ √ ⎯⎯
b.√0.25
= ⎯⎯= ( 11
√ ⎯
9 √⎯ ⎯) 22 = 0.5
√⎯⎯⎯0⎯⎯.⎯5⎯
4 2
c. ⎯⎯⎯= 3
= 23

1.3 Square and Cube Roots of Real 69

Numbers
 Example
2
Find the negative square root:

⎯
a. −√6
⎯
b. ⎯4
−√1
⎯

Solution:

⎯ ⎯
a.− √ 64 = −√8 2= −8
⎯ ⎯⎯
b.− √1 = −√12 = −1
⎯ ⎯

The radicand may not always be a perfect square. If a positive inte g er is not a
perfect square, then its square root will be irrational. Consider √5⎯ , ⎯we can
obtain
an approximation by bounding it using the perfect squares 4 and 9 as follows:

⎯ ⎯ ⎯
√4 < √5 < √9
⎯
2 < √5 < 3

⎯
With this we conclude that √5 is somewhere between 2 and 3. This number is
better approximated on most calculators using the square root button, √ .

⎯
√5 ≈ 2.236because2.236 ^ 2 ≈ 5

Next, consider the square root of a negative number. To determine the square
root of −9, you must find a number that when squared results in −9,
 √−9 =? or ( ? )
⎯ 2
=−9

However, any real number squared always results in a positive number,

2 2
(3) = 9 and (−3) = 9

Th e s quare root of a negative number is currently left undefined. Try calc u l ating
⎯ ⎯ on
√−9 ⎯ your calculator; what does it say? For now, we will state that √−9 ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
is ⎯
not a real number. The square root of a negative number is defined later in the
course.

A cube root78 of a number is a number that when multiplied by itself three

times yields the original number. Furthermore, we denote a cube root using the
symbol
3
√ , where 3 is called the index79. For example,

⎯
3 3
√8 = 2, because 2 = 8

The product of three equal factors will be positive if the factor is positive,
and negative if the factor is negative. For this reason, any real number will
have only one real cube root. Hence the technicalities associated with the
principal root do not apply. For example,

3
⎯ 3

78. The number that when 79. The positive integer n in the notation √
n
that is used to indicate an nth root.
multiplied by itself three
times yields the original
number,
3
denoted by √ .
 √
−
8

−
2
,
b
e
c
a
u
s
e

(
−
2
)
=

−
8

In general, given any real

number A, we have the
following property:
 3 ⎯3⎯
√a = a

When simplifying cube roots, look for factors that are perfect cubes.

Example
3
Find the cube
root:
√3
a.⎯25
1⎯⎯
b. ⎯⎯⎯
√3 8
c. √
27 3
0⎯⎯
⎯⎯
Solution
:
⎯ 3
⎯ 3⎯
a. √125 =
3

⎯ ⎯ =5
b. √ 03 ⎯ = 0
⎯ √ (⎯⎯
√3 ⎯ )3
8 √
3 2= 2
√ 03⎯
c. 3 27 ⎯= = ⎯⎯ 3 3
⎯
⎯ ⎯ ⎯⎯
⎯ 5 ⎯
 Example
4
Find the cube root:

a. √3
⎯
b. √
−2⎯
3

−1 ⎯
Solution: 7
3
⎯
a. √− 27 = (⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯3
3

⎯ 3√⎯⎯⎯
⎯ = −3
= −1 3
√=(−1) √
b.−1
3
−⎯⎯⎯

3⎯⎯)
It may be the case that the radicand is not a p erfect3 cube. If this is the case,
⎯ ⎯ √ 2 is an irrational number,
then its cube root will be irrational. For example,
which can be
√
x

approximated on most calculators using the root

.Depending on the
button
calculator, we typically type in the index prior to pushing the button and then
the radicand as follows:

√
3 x 2 =
⎯
y
⎯
Therefore, we have

3 ⎯

√2 ≈ 1.260, because 1.260 ^ 3 ≈ 2

We will extend these ideas using any integer as an index later in this course. It
is important to point out that a square root has index 2; therefore, the following
are equivalent:
 2 ⎯ ⎯ ⎯⎯
√ a = √a

In other words, if no index is given, it is assumed to be the square root.

Simplifying Square and Cube Roots

It will not always be the case that the radicand is a perfect square. If not, we use the
n ⎯⎯
following
⎯ two properties to simplify the expression. Given real numbers √ A and
n
√B where B ≠ 0,

n ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯ n ⎯
Product Rule for Radicals: √ =√ ⋅
A⋅B A B
√⎯ ⎯A √A
n

=
n
B √n B
Quotient Rule for Radicals:

80

81

A simplified radical82 is one where the radicand does not consist of any factors
n ⎯ that can be written as perfect powers of the index. Given a square root, the idea is
80. Giv e n real numbers √A
√ ⎯ B⎯ , to identify the largest square factor of the ra d icand and then apply the property
n
and
n ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ n ⎯ n ⎯ shown above. As an example, to simplify √12 ⎯ ⎯⎯, notice that 12 is not a perfect
√A ⋅ B = √A ⋅ √B . square. However, 12 does have a perfect square factor, 12 = 4 ⋅ 3. Apply the
n ⎯ property as follows:
81. Given real numbers √A and

n
⎯ ⎯ √
n ⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
A √
B √n
A
√B, n B
= .
√12 = √4 ⋅ Apply the product rule f or radicals.
3
82. A radical where the radicand ⎯ ⎯
does not consist of any perfect the index.
factors that can be written as powers of
= √4 ⋅ √3 Simplif y.
⎯
= 2 ⋅ √3
 ⎯
The number 2√3 is a simplified irrational number. You are often asked to find an
approximate answer rounded off to a certain decimal place. In that case, use a
calculator to find the decimal approximation using either the original problem
or the simplified equivalent.
⎯⎯⎯ ⎯
√12 = 2√3 ≈ 3.46
⎯⎯⎯ ⎯
As a check, calculate √12 and 2√3 on a calculator and verify that the results
are both approximately 3.46.
Example
5
⎯⎯
Simplify: √135.
⎯⎯
⎯
Solution:

Begin by finding the largest perfect square factor of 135.

135 = 33 ⋅ 5
= 32 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 5
= 9 ⋅ 15

Therefore,

√ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ = √
1359 ⋅ 15
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
Apply the product rule f or
=√⎯⋅√ radicals.
⎯⎯⎯915
= 3 ⋅ √15 Simplif y.

⎯⎯⎯
⎯
Answer: 3√15
⎯
⎯
Example
6
√ ⎯⎯
10
Simplify: 169 .
⎯⎯
8
⎯⎯
Solution:

We begin by finding the prime factorizations of both 108 and 169. This will
enable us to easily determine the largest perfect square factors.

108 = 22 ⋅ 33 = 22 ⋅ 32 ⋅
3
169 = 132

Therefore,

⎯1⎯ √ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
√ 22 ⋅ 32 ⋅ 3
⎯0⎯ = ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ Apply the product and quotient rule f or
16
⎯8⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯132
radicals.
⎯9 ⎯ ⎯ ⎯
√ 22 ⋅3√⋅ √3
2
= ⎯ ⎯ Simplif
⎯ y.
√ 132
⎯
=2⋅3⋅ ⎯
√3 13
⎯
= 6√3
13

Answer: 6√3
13
 Example
7
⎯⎯
Simplify: −5√162.
⎯⎯
⎯
Solution:

−5√ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ = −5 ⋅
16
√ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 81 ⋅
2 = −5 ⋅ √2⎯⎯⎯ ⋅
812
=
√ −5
⎯ ⋅ 9 ⋅ √2
=
⎯ −45 ⋅ √2
=
⎯ −45√2
⎯
⎯
Answer: −45√2

⎯⎯
Try this! Simplify:
⎯⎯
4√150.
⎯ ⎯
Answer: 20√6

A cube root is simplified if it does not contain any factors that can be written as
perfect cubes. The idea is to identify the largest cube factor of the radicand and
the3 n apply the product or quotient rule for radicals. As an example, to simplify
√ ⎯⎯80⎯⎯, notice that 80 is not a perfect cube. However, 80 = 8 ⋅ 10 and we can write,
 3 ⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
√80 = √8 ⋅ 10 Apply the product rule f or radicals.
3 ⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯
= √8 ⋅ √10 Simplif y.
3 ⎯⎯⎯
= 2 ⋅ √10

Example
8
⎯⎯
Simplify: √162.
3

⎯⎯
⎯
Solution:

Begin by finding the largest perfect cube factor of 162.

162 = 34 ⋅ 2
= 33 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2
= 27 ⋅ 6

Therefore,

3 ⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯
√ 16 = 27 ⋅ Apply the product rule f or
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯
⎯
2 √ 3 6 radicals.
= √⋅27√ 6
3
⎯ ⎯⎯
⎯ ⎯
= 3 ⋅⎯ 6
3 ⎯Simplif y.
√

⎯
Answer: 3√6
3
 Example
9
√3 ⎯⎯⎯1
Simplify: −
⎯⎯⎯6 .
343

⎯⎯
Solution:

⎯⎯⎯ 3
√3 16 √−1 ⋅ 8 ⋅
−=
⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
34 2 √ 7⎯
⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
3 ⎯3⎯⎯ 3 3 ⎯
√ ⎯⎯
−1
3
⋅ √8 ⋅ √2
=
3
√3⎯
3 ⎯
−1 ⋅ 273⋅⎯ 2
=
√ 7
−2 √⎯3
=
2
7

Answer: −2 √3
7
2

3 ⎯⎯⎯
Try this! Simplify: √−256.
⎯⎯⎯
−2
⎯ ⎯⎯
Answer: 8 √4
3

Consider the following two calculations,

 ⎯⎯⎯⎯2⎯
√81 = √9 = 9
⎯⎯⎯ ⎯ ⎯ 2
√81 = √92 = (√9) = (3)2= 9

Notice that it does not matter if we apply the exponent first or the square root
first. This is true for any positive real number. We have the following,

√a = (√a)
⎯ ⎯ 2
= a, if a ≥ 0
2

83. A triangle with an angle the squares of the lengths of the triangle’s legs.
that measures 90°.

84. The longest side of a right

triangle; it will always be
the side opposite the right
Example
angle. 10
() ⎯⎯
85. The sides of a right Simplify: √10.
triangle that are not the ⎯2
hypotenuse.

86. The hypotenuse of any right Solution:

triangle is equal to the
square root of the sum of
Apply the fact that (√⎯a⎯)2 = a if A is
nonnegative.
 ( ⎯) 2
√10 = 10
⎯
⎯

Pythagorean
Theorem

A right triangle83 is
a triangle where
one of the angles
measures 90°. The
side opposite the
right angle is the
longest side, called
the hypotenuse84,
and the other two
sides are called
legs85. Numerous
real-world
applications involve
this geometric
figure. The
Pythagorean
theorem86 states
that given any right
triangle with legs
measuring A and b
units, the square of
the measure of the
hypotenuse c is
equal to the sum of
the squares of the
measures of the
legs, a + b = c .
2 2 2

In other words,
the hypotenuse of any right triangle is equal to the square root of the sum of the
squares of its legs.
 Example
11
Calculate the diagonal of a square with sides measuring 5 units.

Solution:

The diagonal of a square will form an isosceles right triangle where the two
equal legs measure 5 units each.

We can use the Pythagorean theorem to determine the length of the

hypotenuse.

⎯⎯2⎯⎯
c = √a +
b= ⎯⎯⎯⎯
⎯⎯⎯⎯
522+ 5
⎯⎯⎯⎯
⎯⎯
⎯⎯⎯⎯2⎯
√√25
= +
⎯⎯⎯
√⎯⎯⎯⎯
= 25
⎯⎯⎯50
⎯⎯⎯⎯
=√
25 ⋅
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
= √2⎯⎯⎯ ⋅
⎯⎯
√ ⎯252
= 5 ⋅ √2
⎯
⎯
Answer: 5√2 units

The Pythagorean theorem actually states that having side lengths satisfying the
property a + b = c is a necessary and sufficient condition of right triangles. In
2 2 2

other words, if we can show that the sum of the squares of the lengths of the legs of
the triangle is equal to the square of the hypotenuse, then it must be a right
triangle.

Example
12
Determine whether⎯o⎯r not a triangle with legs a = 1 cm and b = 2
cm and
hypotenuse b = √5 cm is a right
triangle.
Solution:

If the legs satisfy the condition a2 + b2 = c2 then the Pythagorean

theorem guarantees that the triangle is a right triangle.

a2 + b2= c2

2 ?
() ⎯ 2
(1)2+ (2) = √5
1+4
= 5
5
= 5 ✓

Answer: Yes, the described triangle is a right triangle.

 KEY TAKEAWAYS

• The square root of a number is a number that when squared results

in the original number. The principal square root of a positive real
number is the positive square root. The square root of a negative
number is currently left undefined.
• When simplifying the square root of a number, look for perfect
square factors of the radicand. Apply the product or quotient rule
for radicals and then simplify.
• The cube root of a number is a number that when cubed results in
the original number. Every real number has only one real cube
root.
• When simplifying cube roots, look for perfect cube factors of
the radicand. Apply the product or quotient rule for radicals
and then simplify.
• The Pythagorean theorem gives us a necessary and sufficient
2 2
condition of right triangles: a + b = c2 if and only if A, b and c
represent the
lengths of the sides of a right triangle.
 TOPIC EXERCISES

PART A: SQUARE AND CUBE ROOTS

Simplify.
⎯⎯⎯⎯
1. √81
⎯⎯⎯⎯
2. √49
⎯⎯⎯⎯
3. −√16
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
4. −√100
-⎯⎯
√ 251 6
5.
⎯ ⎯ ⎯
√ 9
6.
614
⎯ ⎯
√ 4
7.
⎯⎯ ⎯
√ 1
8. 100

⎯
9. √−1
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
10. √−25
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
11. √0.36
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
12. √1.21
√(⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯)⎯⎯ ⎯
13. −5 2
√(⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯)⎯⎯ ⎯
14. −6 2
⎯⎯⎯⎯
15. 2√64
⎯⎯⎯⎯
16. 3√36
 ⎯⎯
17. −10√4
⎯⎯⎯⎯
18. −8√25
3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯
19. √64
3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
20. √125
3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
21. √−27
3 ⎯
22. √−1
3 ⎯⎯
23. √0
3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
24. √0.008
3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
25. √0.064
3 ⎯
26. −√−8
3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
27. −√1000
√3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯3
28. (−8)
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3
3
29. √ (−15)
⎯⎯ ⎯
3
1
30.
√ 21 ⎯ 27
⎯⎯6
3

√6 4
31.
⎯ ⎯ 1⎯
−8
3
32.
√
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 1⎯⎯⎯
−
3

√ 27
33.
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
3
34. 5 √
343
3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
35. 4 √512
3 ⎯⎯
36. −10
√8
3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
37. −6
√−64
 3⎯
38. 8√−8

Use a calculator to approximate to the nearest hundredth.

⎯⎯
39. √3
⎯⎯⎯⎯
40. √10
⎯⎯⎯⎯
41. √19
⎯⎯
42. √7
⎯⎯
43. 3√5
⎯⎯
44. −2√3
3 ⎯⎯
45. √3
3 ⎯⎯
46. √6
3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯
47. √28
3 ⎯⎯
48. √9
3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯
49. 4
√10
3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯
50. −3
√12
51. Determine the set consisting of the squares of the first twelve positive
integers.

52. Determine the set consisting of the cubes of the first twelve positive
integers.
PART B: SIMPLIFYING SQUARE ROOTS AND CUBE ROOTS
 Simplify.
⎯⎯⎯⎯
53. √18
⎯⎯⎯⎯
54. √50
⎯⎯⎯⎯
55. √24
⎯⎯⎯⎯
56. √40
 -50
⎯⎯
√8 1
57.
⎯ ⎯ ⎯
54
√ 25
58.
⎯⎯⎯⎯
59. 4√72
⎯⎯⎯⎯
60. 3√27
⎯⎯⎯⎯
61. −5√80
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
62. −6√128
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
63. 3√−40
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
64. 5√−160
3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯
65. √16
3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯
66. √54
3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯
67. √81
3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯
68. √24
⎯⎯⎯ ⎯
3
4 8
69.
√ 1 2- ⎯5⎯ ⎯
√3 135
64
70 .
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
3
71. 7 √
500
3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
72. 25 √686
3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
73. −2 √−162
3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
74. 5
√−96
⎯⎯⎯⎯ 2
75. √64
( )
⎯⎯⎯⎯ 2
76. √25
( )
 ⎯⎯ 2

77. √2
( )
⎯⎯ 2

78. √6
( )

PART C: PYTHAGOREAN THEOREM

79. If the two legs of a right triangle measure 3 units and 4 units, then find
the length of the hypotenuse.

80. If the two legs of a right triangle measure 6 units and 8 units, then find
the length of the hypotenuse.

81. If the two equal legs of an isosceles right triangle measure 7 units, then
find the length of the hypotenuse.

82. If the two equal legs of an isosceles right triangle measure 10 units, then
find the length of the hypotenuse.

83. Calculate the diagonal of a square with sides measuring 3 centimeters.

84. Calculate the diagonal of a square with sides measuring 10 centimeters.
⎯⎯
85. Calculate the diagonal of a square with sides measuring √6 centimeters.
⎯⎯⎯⎯
86. Calculate the diagonal of a square with sides measuring √10 centimeters.

87. Calculate the length of the diagonal of a rectangle with

dimensions 4 centimeters by 8 centimeters.

88. Calculate the length of the diagonal of a rectangle with dimensions 8

meters by 10 meters.
⎯⎯
89. Calculate the length of the diagonal of a rectangle with dimensions √3
meters by 2 meters.
⎯⎯
90. Calculate the le n gth of the diagonal of a rectangle with dimensions
√6 ⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯
meters by √10 meters.

91. To ensure that a newly built gate is square, the measured diagonal must
match the distance calculated using the Pythagorean theorem. If the gate
measures 4 feet by 4 feet, what must the diagonal measure in inches?
(Round off to the nearest tenth of an inch.)
 92. If a doorframe measures 3.5 feet by 6.6 feet, what must the diagonal
measure to ensure that the frame is a perfect rectangle?

Determine whether or not the given triangle with legs a and b and
hypotenuse c is a right triangle or not.

93. a = 3, b = 7, and c = 10
94. a = 5, b = 12, and c = 13
95. a = 8, b = 15, and c = 17
96. a = 7, b = 24, and c = 30
⎯⎯⎯⎯
97. a = 3, b = 2, and c = √13
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
98. a = √7, b = 4, and c =
√11
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
99. a = 4, b = √3 , and c =
1 √19
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
00. a = √6, b = √15 , and c =
√21
PART D: DISCUSSION BOARD
1

1. What does your calculator say after taking the square root of a negative
number? Share your results on the discussion board and explain why it
1 says that.

2. Research and discuss the history of the Pythagorean theorem.

3. Research and discuss the history of the square root.

4. Discuss the importance of the principal square root. Why is it that the
same issue does not come up with cube roots? Provide some examples
with your explanation.
1.4 Algebraic Expressions and Formulas

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Identify the parts of an algebraic expression.

2. Apply the distributive property.
3. Evaluate algebraic expressions.
4. Use formulas that model common applications.

Algebraic Expressions and the Distributive Property

In algebra, letters called variables are used to represent numbers. Combinations of

variables and numbers along with mathematical operations form algebraic
expressions87, or just expressions. The following are some examples of
expressions with one variable, x :

⎯ ⎯
2x + 3 x 2 − 1
x +
x 3√ x
x+2
9 +x

Terms88 in an algebraic expression are separated by addition operators and

factors89 are separated by multiplication operators. The numerical factor of a
87. Combinations of variables
term is called the coefficient90. For example, the algebraic expression x y +
2 2
and numbers along with
mathematical operations 6xy − 3 can be thought of as x 2 y2 + 6xy + (−3) and has three terms. The
used to generalize specific first term,
arithmetic operations. x 2 y2 , represents the quantity 1x 2 y2 = 1 ⋅ x ⋅ x ⋅ y ⋅ y where 1 is the
88. Components of an
coefficient and x and y are the variables. All of the variable factors with their
algebraic expression exponents form the variable part of a term 91. If a term is written without a
separated by addition variable factor, then it
is called a constant term92. Consider the components of x y + 6xy − 3 ,
operators. 2 2

89. Components of a term

separated by
multiplication operators.

90. The numerical factor of a

term.

91. All the variable factors

with their exponents.

92. A term written without

a variable factor.

95
 Terms Coefficient VARIABLE PART

x2 1 x 2 y2
y2

6xy 6 xy

−3 −3

The third term in this expression, −3, is called a constant term because it is
written without a variable factor. While a variable represents an unknown
quantity and may change, the constant term does not change.

1.4 Algebraic Expressions and 96

Formulas
 Example 1

List all coefficients and variable parts of each term: 10a2 − 5ab −
b2 .
Solution:

We want to think of the third term in this example −b2 as − 1b2 .

Terms Coefficient VARIABLE PART

10a2 10 a2

−5ab −5 ab

−b2 −1 b2

Answer: Coefficients: {−5, − 1, 10}; Variable parts: {a2 , ab,

b2 }

In our study of algebra, we will encounter a wide variety of algebraic

expressions. Typically, expressions use the two most common variables, x and
y. However, expressions may use any letter (or symbol) for a variable, even
Greek letters, such as alpha (α) and beta (β). Some letters and symbols are
reserved for constants, such as π ≈ 3.14159 and e ≈ 2.71828. Since there
is only a limited number of letters,
you will also use subscripts, x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , …, to indicate different variables.
 The properties of real numbers are important in our study of algebra because a
variable is simply a letter that represents a real number. In particular, the
distributive property93 states that if given any real numbers A, b and c, then,

a (b + c) = ab + ac

This property is one that we apply often when simplifying algebraic

expressions. To demonstrate how it will be used, we simplify 2(5 − 3) in two
ways, and observe the same correct result.

Working PARENTHESIS first. Using the distributive

property.

2 (5 − 3 ) = 2 ⋅ 5 − 2 ⋅
2 (5 − 3 ) = 2 (2)
3
=4
= 10 − 6
=4

Certainly, if the contents of the parentheses can be simplified we should do that

first. On the other hand, when the contents of parentheses cannot be simplified
any further, we multiply every term within it by the factor outside of it using
the distributive property. Applying the distributive property allows us to
multiply and remove the parentheses.

93. Given any real numbers A, b,

and c, a (b+ c)= ab +
ac( or b +) c a = ba +
ca.
 Example 2

Simplify: 5 (−2a + 5b) −

2c.

Solution:
Multiply only the terms grouped within the parentheses for which we are
applying the distributive property.

= 5 ⋅ (−2a) + 5 ⋅ 5b −
2c
= −10a + 25b − 2c

Answer: −10a + 25b −

2c

Recall that multiplication is commutative and therefore we can write the

distributive property in the following manner, b( + c a
) = ba + ca.
 Example 3

Simplify: (3x − 4y + 1) ⋅
3.

Solution:
Multiply all terms within the parenthesis by 3.

(3x − 4y + 1) ⋅ 3 = 3x ⋅ 3 − 4y ⋅ 3 +
1⋅3
= 9x − 12y + 3

Answer: 9x − 12y +
3

Terms whose variable parts have the same variables with the same exponents are
called like terms94, or similar terms95. Furthermore, constant terms are
considered to be like terms. If an algebraic expression contains like terms, apply
the distributive property as follows:

5x + 7x =(5 + 7)x = 12x

4x 2 + 5x 2 − 7x 2 =(4 + 5 − 7)x 2 = 2x 2

94. Constant terms or terms

whose variable parts have the In other words, if the variable parts of terms are EXACTLY the SAME, then we can add
same variables with the same or subtract the coefficients to obtain the coefficient of a single term with the
exponents.
same variable part. This process is called combining like terms96. For example,
95. Used when referring to
like terms.

96. Adding or subtracting like

terms within an algebraic
expression to obtain a
12x 2 y3 + 3x 2 y3 = 15x 2 y3
single term with the same
variable part.
 Notice that the variable factors and their exponents do not change. Combining
like terms in this manner, so that the expression contains no other similar terms,
is called simplifying the expression97. Use this idea to simplify algebraic
expressions with multiple like terms.

Example 4

Simplify: x 2
− 10x + 8 + 5x 2 − 6x −
1.
Solution:

Identify the like terms and add the corresponding coefficients.

1x2− 10x + 8 + 5x −26x − 1 Combine like

– –– –– –– –
– – terms.
= 6x 2 − 16x +
7

Answer: 6x 2
− 16x +
7

97. The process of combining

like terms until the
expression contains no

1.4 Algebraic Expressions and 101

Formulas
 more similar terms.

1.4 Algebraic Expressions and 102

Formulas
 Example 5

Simplify: a2 b2 − ab − 2 (2a2 b2 − 5ab +

1) .

Solution:

Distribute −2 and then combine like terms.

a2 b2 − ab − 2 (2a2 b2 − 5ab + 1)= a2 b2 − ab − 4a2 b2 +

10ab − 2
= −3a2 b2 + 9ab − 2

Answer: −3a2 b2 + 9ab −

2

Evaluating Algebraic Expressions

An algebraic expression can be thought of as a generalization of particular

arithmetic operations. Performing these operations after substituting given
values for variables is called evaluating98. In algebra, a variable represents
an unknown value. However, if the problem specifically assigns a value to a
variable, then you can replace that letter with the given number and evaluate
using the order of operations.

98. The process of performing

the operations of an
algebraic expression for
given values of the
variables.
 Example
6
Evaluate:

a. 5x − 2 where x = 2
3
b. y − y − 6 where y =
2

−4
Solution:

To avoid common errors, it is a best practice to first replace all variables with
parentheses, and then replace, or substitute99, the appropriate given value.

a.

5x − 2 = 5 ( ) −
2
() 2
= −2
3
5
= 10 − 2 ⋅ 3
313
= 10 −
6 3
=4
3

b.

99. The act of replacing a

variable with an equivalent
quantity.

1.4 Algebraic Expressions and 103

Formulas
 y2 − y − 6 =( )2 − ( ) − 6
=(−4)2 − (−4) − 6
= 16 + 4 − 6
= 14

Answer:

4
a. 3
b. 14

Often algebraic expressions will involve more than one variable.

Example
7
Evaluate a3 − 8b3 where a = −1 and b = 1 .
2

Solution:

After substituting in the appropriate values, we must take care to simplify

using the correct order of operations.

a3 − 8b3 =( )3 − 8( )3Replace variables with

parentheses.
() 1 3
3
=(−1) − 8 Substitute in the appropriate
2
values.
() 1
= −1 − Simplif
8
8 y.

= −1 −
1
= −2
Answer: −2
Example 8
x −y 3
Evaluate 2 2 where x = − and y = −3.
2x−1 2

Solution:

x 2 − y 2 ( )2 − ( )2
=
2x − 1 2( ) −1
3 2 2
(− ) − (−3)
= 2 (2− 3 ) − 1
9
− 92
4
=
−3 − 1

At this point we have a complex fraction. Simplify the numerator and then
multiply by the reciprocal of the denominator.

9 9 4
4 − 1 ⋅ 4
=
−4
−27
4
= −4
1

−27 −
= 4 ( 1)
4
27
=
16

27
Answer: 16
 27 11
The answer to the previous example can be written as a mixed number,
16
= 1 16
.
Unless the original problem has mixed numbers in it, or it is an answer to a
real- world application, solutions will be expressed as reduced improper
fractions.

Example
9
2
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 1
Evaluate √b − 4ac where a = , b = −7, and c =.
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 4
−1
⎯⎯⎯
Solution:

Substitute in the appropriate values and then simplify.

⎯⎯2⎯⎯ √ () ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
2
() (⎯⎯⎯
)
√b − 4ac=
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ − 4
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯
⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
√ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯
() 1
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
=(−7) − 24 (−1)
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 4
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ () 1
√
=49 +⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
4
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 4
⎯⎯⎯⎯
= √49 + 1
= √ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
50
⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
=√
25 ⋅
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
⎯⎯5√
= 22

⎯
⎯
Answer: 5√2
 √3πV
Try this! πh
where V = 25π and h =
Evaluate h 3.
Answer: 5

Using Formulas

The main difference between algebra and arithmetic is the organized use of
variables. This idea leads to reusable formulas100, which are mathematical
models using algebraic expressions to describe common applications. For
example, the volume of a right circular cone depends on its radius r and height
h and is modeled by the formula:

1
V = πr2 h
3

In this equation, variables and constants are used to describe the relationship
between volume and the length of the base and height. If the radius of the base
measures 3 meters and the height measures 5 meters, then the volume can be
calculated using the formula as follows:

100. A reusable mathematical

model using algebraic
expressions to describe a
common application.
 1
V= πr2 h
3
1 2
= π ( 3 m) ( 5 m)
3

1 3
=3 π⋅ 9⋅ 5 m
3

= 15π m3
Using π ≈ 3.14, we can approximate the volume: V ≈ 15 (3.14) = 47.1 cubic
meters.

A list of formulas that describe the area and perimeter of common plane figures
follows. The letter P represents perimeter and is measured in linear units. The
letter A represents area and is measured in square units.

A list of formulas that describe the surface area and volume of common figures
follows. Here SA represents surface area and is measured in square units. The
letter V represents volume and is measured in cubic units.
 Example
10
The diameter of a spherical balloon is 10 inches. Determine the volume rounded
off to the nearest hundredth.

Solution:

The formula for the volume of a sphere is

V = 4 πr3
3

This formula gives the volume in terms of the radius, r. Therefore, divide
the diameter by 2 and then substitute into the formula. Here, r =
2
10 =we
and 5inches
have

V=4
3
πr=3 4 π(5

in)33

= 4 π ⋅ 125
3
in3
= 500π in3 ≈ 523.60
3
in3

Answer: The volume of the balloon is approximately 523.60 cubic inches.

101. The distance D after

traveling at an average rate r
Formulas can be found in a multitude of subjects. For example, uniform motion101
for some time t can be is modeled by the formula D = rt, which expresses distance D, in terms of the
calculated using
the formula D = rt.
 average rate, or speed, r and the time traveled at that rate, t. This formula, D =
rt, is used often and is read, “DISTANCE EQUALS RATE times time.”

Example 11

Jim’s road trip took 2 1 hours at an average speed of 66 miles per hour. How
2
far
did he travel?

Solution:

Substitute the appropriate values into the formula and then simplify.

D=r⋅
t ( mi ) ( 1 )
⋅2hr
hr 2
=66
= 66 ⋅ 5 mi
12
= 33 ⋅ 5
mi
= 165 mi

Answer: Jim traveled 165 miles.

Simple interest102 I is given by the formula I = prt, where p represents the

principal amount invested at an annual interest rate r for t years.

102. Modeled by the formula

I = prt, where p represents
the principal amount
invested at an annual
interest rate r for t years.
Example
12
Calculate the simple interest earned on a 2-year investment of $1,250 at an
annual interest rate of 3 3 %.
4

Solution:

Convert 3 3 %to a decimal number before using it in the

4
formula.

r = 3 3 % = 3.75% = 0.0375
4

Use this and the fact that p = $1,250 and t = 2 years to calculate
the simple
interest.

I=
=(1, 250) (0.0375)
prt
(2)
= 93.75

Answer: The simple interest earned is $93.75.

 KEY TAKEAWAYS

• Think of algebraic expressions as generalizations of common

arithmetic operations that are formed by combining numbers,
variables, and
• The property a (b + c) = ab + ac, is used when
distributiveoperations.
mathematical

multiplying grouped algebraic expressions. Applying the

distributive property allows us to remove parentheses.
• Combine like terms, or terms whose variable parts have the same
variables with the same exponents, by adding or subtracting the
coefficients to obtain the coefficient of a single term with the same
variable part. Remember that the variable factors and their
exponents do not change.
• To avoid common errors when evaluating, it is a best practice to
replace all variables with parentheses and then substitute the
appropriate values.
• The use of algebraic expressions allows us to create useful and
reusable formulas that model common applications.
 TOPIC EXERCISES

PART A: ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS AND THE

DISTRIBUTIVE PROPERTY

List all of the coefficients and variable parts of each term.

2
1. −5x +x−1
2
2. y − 9y + 3
3. 5x 2 − 3xy + y 2

4. a2 b2 + 2ab − 4
2
5. x y + xy 2 − 3xy + 9
4
6. x −x3+x2−x+2

Multiply.

7. 5 (3x − 5)
8. 3 (4x − 1)
9. −2 (2x 2 − 5x + 1)

10. −5 (6x 2 − 3x − 1)
2
11.
2 (9y + 12y − 3)
3
3 2
12. − (8y + 20y + 4)
4
1 2 5 7
13. 12 a − a+
(3 6 12)
1 2 5
14. −9 a − a+1
(9 3 )
2 2
15. 9 (a − 2b )
2 2
16. −5 (3x − y )
 2 2
17. (5a − 3ab + b ) ⋅ 6
2 2
18. (a b − 9ab − 3) ⋅ 7
2 2
19. − (5x − xy + y )
2 2
20. − (x y − 6xy − 1)

Combine like terms.

21. 18x − 5x + 3x
22. 30x − 50x + 10x
23. 3y − 4 + 2y − 12
24. 12y + 7 − 15y − 6
2
25. 2x − 3x + 2 + 5x 2 − 6x + 1
2
26. 9x + 7x − 5 − 10x 2 − 8x + 6
3 1 1 4
27. a2 − + a2 +
5
1 2 43 5
1
2 2
28. a + − a −
1 2 62 3 33 19 7
29. y + y−3+ y2+ y−
2 3 5 3 3
5 1 1 3 4
2 2
30. x + x−1− x + x−
2 2 6 28 2 2 4 5
31. a b + 5ab − 2 + 7a b − 6ab + 12
2
32. a − 12ab + 4b2 − 6a2 + 10ab − 5b2
33. 3x 2 y + 12xy − 5xy 2 + 5xy − 8x 2 y + 2xy 2
34. 10x 2 y + 2xy − 4xy 2 + 2x 2 y − 8xy + 5xy 2
35. 7m 2 n − 9mn + mn2 − 6m 2 n + mn −
2mn2 36. m 2 n − 5mn + 5mn2 − 3m 2 n +
5mn + 2mn2 37. x 2n − 3x n + 5 + 2x 2n − 4x
n
−3
2n 2n
38. 5y − 3y n + 1 − 3y − 2yn − 1
 Simplify.

39. 5 − 2 (4x + 8)
40. 8 − 6 (2x − 1)
2
41. 2 (x − 7x + 1) + 3x − 7
2 2
42. −5 (x + 4x − 1) + 8x − 5
43. 5ab − 4 (ab + 5)

44. 5 (7 − ab) + 2ab

45. 2 − a2 + 3 (a2 + 4)

46. 7 − 3y + 2 (y 2 − 3y − 2)
2
47. 8x − 3x − 5 (x 2 + 4x − 1)
48. 2 − 5y − 6 (y 2 − y + 2)
2
49. a b2 − 5 + 3 (a2 b2 − 3ab + 2)
2
50. a − 3ab − 2 (a2 − ab + 1)
2
51. 10y + 6 − (3y 2 + 2y + 4)
2
52. 4m − 3mn − (m 2 − 3mn + n2
2n 2n
) 53. x − 3x n + 5 (x − x n + 1)
2n 2n
54. −3 (y − 2yn + 1) + 4y −5

PART B: EVALUATING ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS

Evaluate.

55. −2x + 3 where x = −2

56. 8x − 5 where x = −1
57. x 2 − x + 5 where x = −5
58. 2x 2 − 8x + 1 where x = 3
x −x+2 1
59. 2
2x−1
where x =−
2

9x +x−2 2
60. 2
3x−4
where x =−
3
2
61. (3y − 2) (y + 5) where y =
3
1
62. (3x + 2) (5x + 1) where x =−
5

63. (3x − 1) (x − 8) where x = −1

64. (7y + 5) (y + 1) where y = −2

65. y 6 − y 3 + 2 where y = −1
66. y 5 + y 3 − 3 where y = −2
67. a2 − 5b2 where a = −2 and b = −1
68. a3 − 2b3 where a = −3 and b = 2
69. (x − 2y) (x + 2y) where x = 2 and y = −5
70. (4x − 3y) (x − y) where x = −4 and y = −3

71. a2 − ab + b2 where a = −1 and b = −2

72. x 2 y 2 − xy + 2 where x = −3 and y = −2
73. a4 − b4 where a = −2 and b = −3
74. a6 − 2a3 b3 − b6 where a = 2 and b = −1
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
2
Evaluate √ given the following values.
b − 4ac
75. a = 6, b = 1 and c = −1
76. a = 15, b = 4 and c = −4
3
77. a= , b = −2 and c = −4
4
1
78. a= , b = −2 and c = −30
2
79. a = 1, b = 2 and c = −1
80. a = 1, b = −4 and c = −50
1
81. a = 1, b = −1 and c = −
16
1
82. a = −2, b = − and c =1
3

PART C: USING FORMULAS

Convert the following temperatures to degrees Celsius given

5
C = (F − 32), where F represents degrees Fahrenheit.
9

83. 95°F

84. 86°F

85. 32°F

86. −40°F

87. Calculate the perimeter and area of a rectangle with dimensions 12 feet
by 5 feet.

88. Calculate the perimeter and area of a rectangle with dimensions 5 meters
by 1 meter.

89. Calculate the surface area and volume of a sphere with radius 6
centimeters.

90. The radius of the base of a right circular cylinder measures 4 inches and
the height measures 10 inches. Calculate the surface area and volume.

91. Calculate the volume of a sphere with a diameter of 18 centimeters.

92. The diameter of the base of a right circular cone measures 6 inches.
1
If the height is 1 feet, then calculate its volume.
2
93. Given that the height of a right circular cylinder is equal to the radius of
the base, derive a formula for the surface area in terms of the radius of
the base.

94. Given that the area of the base of a right circular cylinder is 25π
square inches, find the volume if the height is 1 foot.
 95. Jose was able to drive from Tucson to Phoenix in 2 hours at an average
speed of 58 mph. How far is Phoenix from Tucson?
96. If a bullet train can average 152 mph, then how far can it travel

in
3 4 of an

hour?

97. Margaret traveled for 14 hour at an average speed of 68 miles per hour. How
3

far did she

travel?
hours
98. The trip from Flagstaff, AZ to the Grand Canyon national park took 12
1

at an average speed of 54 mph. How far is the Grand Canyon national

park from Flagstaff?

99. Calculate the simple interest earned on a 3-year investment of $2,500 at an

1
annual interest rate of 5 %.
4
100. Calculate the simple interest earned on a 1-year investment of $5,750 at an
5
annual interest rate of 2 %.
8

101. What is the simple interest earned on a 5-year investment of $20,000

at an annual interest rate of 6%?

102. What is the simple interest earned on a 1-year investment of $50,000

at an annual interest rate of 4.5%?

√s
103. The time t in seconds an object is in free fall is given by the formula t= 4 ,
where s represents the distance in feet the object has fallen. How long
does it take an object to fall 32 feet? (Give the exact answer and the
approximate answer to the nearest hundredth.)
⎯
P
104. The current I measured in amperes, is given by the formula I = √R , where
P is the power usage measured in watts, and R is the resistance
measured in ohms. If a light bulb uses 60 watts of power and has 240
ohms of resistance, then how many amperes of current are required?

PART D: DISCUSSION BOARD

105. Find and post a useful mathematical model. Demonstrate its use with
 some values.

106. Research and discuss the history of the variable. What can we use if we
run out of letters?
 1.5 Rules of Exponents and Scientific Notation

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Review the rules of exponents.

2. Review the definition of negative exponents and zero as an exponent.
3. Work with numbers using scientific notation.

Review of the Rules of Exponents

In this section, we review the rules of exponents. Recall that if a factor is

repeated multiple times, then the product can be written in exponential form
x n . The positive integer exponent n indicates the number of times the base x
is repeated as a factor.

4 6
Consider the product of x and x ,

Expanding the expression using the definition produces multiple factors of the
base which is quite cumbersome, particularly when n is large. For this reason,
we have useful rules to help us simplify expressions with exponents. In this
example, notice that we could obtain the same result by adding the exponents.

x 4 ⋅ x 6 = x 4+6 = x 10 Product rule f or exponents

In general, this describes the product rule for exponents103. In other words, when
m n m+n multiplying two expressions with the same base we add the exponents. Compare
103. x ⋅ x = x ; 4
).
6
the product of two this to raising a factor involving an exponent to a power, such as x
(
expressions with the same
base can be simplified by
adding the exponents.

125
 6
Here we have 4 factors of x , which is equivalent to multiplying the exponents.

4
(x ) = x = x Power rule f or exponents
6 6⋅4 24

This describes the power rule for exponents104. Now we consider raising
grouped products to a power. For example,

4
(x y ) = x y ⋅ x y ⋅ x y ⋅ x y
2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3

= x 2 ⋅ x 2 ⋅ x 2 ⋅ x 2 ⋅ y3 ⋅ y3 ⋅ y3 ⋅
y3 Commutative property
2+2+2+2
=x ⋅ y3+3+3+3

= x 8 y12

After expanding, we are left with four factors of the product x y . This is
2 3

equivalent to raising each of the original grouped factors to the fourth power
and applying the power rule.

2 3 24 3 4
8 12 4
(x y ) = (x ) (y ) = x y

In general, this describes the use of the power rule for a product as well as the
power rule for exponents. In summary, the rules of exponents streamline the
process of working with algebraic expressions and will be used extensively as
m n mn
104. (x ) =x ;a we move through our study of algebra. Given any positive integers m and n
power raised to a power can where x, y ≠ 0 we have
be simplified by multiplying
the exponents.
1.5 Rules of Exponents and Scientific 126
Notation
 Product rule for exponents: x m ⋅ x n = xm+n

Quotient rule for exponents: x m

=xn
xm−n

Power rule for exponents: (xm )n = xm⋅n

n
(xy) = x y
Power rule for a product: n n

= yn
( y)
n
Power rule for a quotient: x xn

105

106

These rules allow us to efficiently perform operations with exponents.

n
105. (xy) = x n yn; if a
product is raised to a power,
then apply that power to each
factor in the product.

xn
106. n
( xy
= yn ; if a quotient is
)
raised to a power, then
apply that power to the
numerator and the
denominator.
 Example
1
Simplify: 104 ⋅1012 .
103

Solution:

104 ⋅ 1012 = 1016

Product
10 103 rule
3 =
1016−3 Quotient
= 1013 rule

Answer: 1013

In the previous example, notice that we did not multiply the base 10 times
itself. When applying the product rule, add the exponents and leave the base
unchanged.
 Example 2

Simplify: (x 5
⋅x4⋅
x)2 .

Solution:

Recall that the variable x is assumed to have an exponent of one, x

=x1.

(x 5 ⋅ x 4 ⋅ x)2 =(x
5+4+1 )2

=(x 10 )2
=x 10⋅2

=x 20

Answer: x
20

The base could in fact be any algebraic expression.

 Example 3

Simplify: (x + y)9 (x + y)13 .

Solution:

Treat the expression (x + y) as the

base.

(x + y)9 (x + y)13 =(x +

y)9+13
=(x + y)22

Answer: (x +
y)22

The commutative property of multiplication allows us to use the product rule

for exponents to simplify factors of an algebraic expression.
 Example 4

Simplify: −8x 5
y ⋅ 3x 7

y3 .
Solution:

Multiply the coefficients and add the exponents of variable factors with the
same base.

−8x 5 y ⋅ 3x 7 y3 = −8 ⋅ 3 ⋅ x 5 ⋅ ⋅ y1 ⋅ y3 Commutative
x 7 y1+3 property
= − 24 ⋅ x 5+7
⋅ Power rule f or
= −24x 12
y4 exponents

Answer: −24x 12

y4

Division involves the quotient rule for exponents.

 Example
5
33x 7y5(x−y)
10
Simplify: 11x 6 y(x−y) 3 .

Solution:

33x 7 y5 (x −
33 ⋅ x ⋅ y5−1 ⋅ (x − y) 10−3
7−6
y)10
=
11x 6 y(x − y)3 11
= 3x 1 y4 (x −
y)7

Answer: 3xy4 (x −
y)7

The power rule for a quotient allows us to apply that exponent to the numerator
and denominator. This rule requires that the denominator is nonzero and so we
will make this assumption for the remainder of the section.
 Example
6
Simplify: ( 3.
−4a2b )
c4

Solution:

First apply the power rule for a quotient and then the power rule for a product.

3 (−4a2 b)3
( −4a ) 2
= () 3 Power rule f or a
cb4 c4
(−4)3 (a2 )3 quotient
(b)3
= ()c4 3 Power rule f or a
product
= −64a6
b3 c12

64a6 b3
Answer: − c12

Using the quotient rule for exponents, we can define what it means to have zero
as an exponent. Consider the following calculation:

25
2
5 =
1 = 25 = 52−2 = 50
52

Twenty-five divided by twenty-five is clearly equal to one, and when the

quotient rule for exponents is applied, we see that a zero exponent results. In
general, given any nonzero real number x and integer n,
 xn n−n 0
1= =x =x
xn

This leads us to the definition of zero as an exponent107,

x0=1x≠0

0
It is important to note that 0 is indeterminate. If the base is negative, then
the result is still positive one. In other words, any nonzero base raised to
the zero power is defined to be equal to one. In the following examples
assume all variables are nonzero.

0
107. x = 1 ; any nonzero base
raised to the 0 power is
defined to be 1.
 Example
7
Simplify:

a. (−2x)0
b. −2x 0

Solution:

a. Any nonzero quantity raised to the zero power is equal to 1.

(−2x)0 = 1

b. In the example, −2x 0

, the base is x, not
−2x.

−2x 0 = −2 ⋅
x0
= −2 ⋅ 1
= −2

0
Noting that 2 = 1 we can write,

1
2 =
0
= 20−3 = 2−3
23
23

In general, given any nonzero real number x and integer n,

 1 x
0 = =x 0−n
=x −n
x≠0
xn xn

This leads us to the definition of negative exponents108:

−n 1
x
= x x≠0
n

An expression is completely simplified if it does not contain any negative

exponents.

−n 1
108. x =
, given any integer
x
n
n, where x is nonzero.
 Example 8

Simplify: (−4x 2
y)
−2 .

Solution:

Rewrite the entire quantity in the denominator with an exponent of 2 and then
simplify further.

(−4x 2 y)−2 = 1
(−4x 2
y)2
=1
(−4)2 (x 2 )2
(y)2
=1
16x 4
y2

Answer: 16 1
x4
y2

Sometimes negative exponents appear in the denominator.

 Example
9
−3
x
Simplify:. y−4

Solution:

x 1 y4y4
−3 x 1
= 3 =⋅=
y−4 1 y4
x 1 x
3 3

Answer: yx4
3

The previous example suggests a property of quotients with negative

exponents109. Given any integers m and n where x ≠ 0 and y ≠ 0, then

x −n 1
1 ym ym
xn
= = ⋅ =
y−m 1 xn 1 xn
ym

This leads us to the property

x −n ym
y−m xn

x
109. ym
y
−n
−m = x n , given any
integers m and n, where
x ≠ 0 and y ≠ 0.
In other words, negative exponents in the numerator can be written as positive
exponents in the denominator and negative exponents in the denominator can
be written as positive exponents in the numerator.

Example
10
− −3
x y3
Simplify 5 z−4 .
:

Solution
:

Take care with the coefficient −5, recognize

() 1 that this is the base and
exponent is actually positive one: −5 = −5. Hence, the rules of
that the
negative
exponents do not apply to this coefficient; leave it in the
numerator.

−5x −3 y3 = −5 x
−3
y−3
z z−
4 = −54y3
z4 x
3

Answer: −5y
x 3
3
z4

In summary, given integers m and n where x, y ≠ 0 we have

Zero exponent: x0=1

Negative exponent: x −n = x1 n
 Quotients with negative exponents:
m
y−
−n
x
=
ym
n
x

Furthermore, all of the rules of exponents defined so far extend to any integer
exponents. We will expand the scope of these properties to include any real
number exponents later in the course.

Try this! 2x −2y)3 .

Simplify: ( −4
z

Answer: x 8
16y1
z4 2

Scientific Notation

Real numbers expressed using scientific notation110 have the form,

a × 10n

where n is an integer and 1 ≤ a < 10.This form is particularly useful when

the numbers are very large or very small. For example,
 15
9,460,000,000,000,000 m= 9.46 × 10 m One light year
−11
0.000000000025 m= 2.5 × 10 m Radius of a hydrogen atom

It is cumbersome to write all the zeros in both of these cases. Scientific

notation is an alternative, compact representation of these numbers. The
n
factor 10 indicates the power of ten to multiply the coefficient by to
110. Real numbers expressed convert back to decimal form:
n
the form a × 10 , where
n is an integer and 1 ≤ a
< 10.
 This is equivalent to moving the decimal in the coefficient fifteen places to
the right.

A negative exponent indicates that the number is very small:

This is equivalent to moving the decimal in the coefficient eleven places to the left.

Converting a decimal number to scientific notation involves moving the

decimal as well. Consider all of the equivalent forms of 0.00563 with factors
of 10 that follow:

−1
0.00563 = 0.0563 × 10
−2
= 0.563 × 10
−3
= 5.63 × 10
−4
= 56.3 × 10
−5
= 563 × 10

−3
While all of these are equal, 5.63 × 10 is the only form expressed in correct
scientific notation. This is because the coefficient 5.63 is between 1 and 10 as
−3
required by the definition. Notice that we can convert 5.63 × 10 back to
decimal form, as a check, by moving the decimal three places to the left.

111

x
111.
x
= xm−n; the quotient of
m
n
two expressions with the
same base can be simplified
by subtracting the exponents.
Example 11

Write 1,075,000,000,000 using scientific

notation.
Solution:

Here we count twelve decimal places to the left of the decimal point to obtain
the number 1.075.

1,075,000,000,000 = 1.075 ×
1012

Answer: 1.075 ×
1012

Example 12

Write 0.000003045 using scientific

notation.
Solution:

Here we count six decimal places to the right to obtain 3.045.

0.000003045 = 3.045 ×
10−6

Answer: 3.045 ×
10−6
Often we will need to perform operations when using numbers in scientific
notation. All the rules of exponents developed so far also apply to numbers in
scientific notation.

Example 13

Multiply: (4.36 × 10−5 ) (5.3 ×

1012 ) .

Solution:

Use the fact that multiplication is commutative, and apply the product rule for
exponents.

(4.36 × 10−5 ) (5.30 × 1012 )= (4.36 ⋅ 5.30) × (10−5 ⋅ 1012

)
= 23.108 × 10−5+12
= 2.3108 × 101 × 107
= 2.3108 × 101+7
= 2.3108 × 108

Answer: 2.3108 ×
108
Example 14

Divide: (3.24 × 108 ) ÷ (9.0 ×

10−3 ) .

Solution:

(3.24 ×
108 ) ( ) ( 108 )
( ) = 3.24 ×
9.0 × −3 9.0 −3
10
10 = 0.36 × 108−(−3)
= 0.36 × 108+3
= 3.6 × 10−1 ×
1011
= 3.6 × 10−1+11
= 3.6 × 1010

Answer: 3.6 ×
1010
Example 15

The speed of light is approximately 6.7 × 108 miles per hour. Express
this speed in miles per second.

Solution:

A unit analysis indicates that we must divide the number by 3,600.

 1 hour 1 minutes 
6.7 × 108 ⋅  ⋅ 
6.7 × 108 miles per  60 minutes  60
miles  
hour= = 6.7 × 108 miles seconds
1 hour
= 3600
( seconds
6.7 )
× 8
360
10
0
≈ 0.0019 × 108rounded to two signif icant
digits
= 1.9 × 10−3 × 108
= 1.9 × 10−3+8
= 1.9 × 105

Answer: The speed of light is approximately 1.9 × 105 miles per second.
Example 16

The Sun moves around the center of the galaxy in a nearly circular orbit. The
distance from the center of our galaxy to the Sun is approximately 26,000
light- years. What is the circumference of the orbit of the Sun around the
galaxy in meters?

Solution:

15
One light-year measures 9.46 × 10 meters. Therefore, multiply this by
4
26,000 or 2.60 × 10 to find the length of 26,000 light years in meters.

15 4 15 4
(9.46 × 10 ) (2.60 × 10 ) = 9.46 ⋅ 2.60 × 10 ⋅ 10
19
≈ 24.6 × 10
1 19
= 2.46 × 10 ⋅ 10
20
= 2.46 × 10

20
The radius r of this very large circle is approximately 2.46 × 10 meters.
Use the formula C = 2πrto calculate the circumference of the orbit.

C = 2πr
20
≈ 2 (3.14) (2.46 × 10 )
20
= 15.4 × 10
1 20
= 1.54 × 10 ⋅ 10
21
= 1.54 × 10

21
Answer: The circumference of the Sun’s orbit is approximately 1.54 × 10
meters.
Try this! Divide: (3.15 × 10−5 ) ÷ (12 × 10−13 ) .

Answer: 2.625 × 107

KEY TAKEAWAYS

• When multiplying two quantities with the same base, add exponents:
m+n
x m
⋅xn=x .
• When dividing two quantities with the same base, subtract exponents:
xx m m−n
n =x . m n m⋅n
• When raising powers to powers, multiply exponents: (x ) =x
.
• When a grouped quantity involving multiplication and division is raised
to a power, apply that power tonall nof the factors in the numerator and
the denominator: (xy) = x y and yn = yn .
n (x ) xn

• Any nonzero quantity raised to the 0 power is defined to be equal to 1:

x0=1.
• Expressions with negative exponents in the numerator can be
rewritten as expressions with positive exponents in the
denominator:
−n 1
x = xn
.
• Expressions with negative exponents in the denominator can be
rewritten as expressions with positive exponents in the
numerator:
1
=xm.
x −m

• Take care to distinguish negative coefficients from negative exponents.

• Scientific notation is particularly useful when working with
numbers that are very large or very small.
 TOPIC EXERCISES

PART A: RULES OF EXPONENTS

Simplify. (Assume all variables represent nonzero numbers.)

4 7
1. 10 ⋅ 10
3 2
2. 7 ⋅7
2 4
10 ⋅ 10
3. 5
10
5 9
7 ⋅7
4.
72
3 2
5. x ⋅x
6. y5⋅y3
a8 ⋅ a6
7.
a5
8. b4 ⋅ b10
b8
x 2n ⋅ x 3n
9.
x n 8n
n
10. x ⋅x
x 3n
5
3
11. (x )
4
3
12. (y )
4
3
13. (x y5)
7
5
14. (x y)
2
4
15. (x y 3 z4 )
2
2
16. (xy z3 )
 2 3
2
17. (−5x yz )
3 4
5
18. (−2xy z )
2 n
19. (x yz5 )
2
2n
20. (xy z3 )
3 2
21. (x ⋅ x ⋅ x
3 2
) 22. (y ⋅y5⋅
2
y)
2
a2 ⋅ ( a4 )
23.
a33
a2 )⋅3 a2
a ⋅(a
24.

4 9
25. (2x + 3) (2x + 3)
7 2
26. (3y − 1) (3y − 1)
3 5
27. (a + b) (a + b)
7 3
28. (x − 2y) (x − 2y)
2
29. 5x y ⋅ 3xy 2
3
30. −10x y 2 ⋅ 2xy
2
31. −6x yz3 ⋅ 3xyz4
2 2 2
32. 2xyz (−4x y z)
33. 3x n y 2n ⋅ 5x 2 y
34. 8x 5n y n ⋅ 2x 2n y
40x 5 y 3 z
35.
4x 2 y 2 z
8x 2 y 5 z3
36.
16x 2 yz
 8 3
10
24a5 b3 (a − 5b)
2
37. 8a b (a − 5b)
7
175m 9 n5 (m + n)
38. 3
25m 8 n(m + n)
6
4 2
39. (−2x y z)5
4 7
40. (−3xy z )
2
41. ( −3ab )3
2c33
42. ( −10a b )2
2
3c 4
43. ( −2xy )4
z39 y )3
( −7x
44.
z4 n
2
45. ( xy )
z3
2 3 n
46. ( 2x y )
0 z
47. (−5x)
2
0
48. (3x y)
0
49. −5x
2 0
50. 3x y
5
2 0 3
51. (−2a b c )
4
4 2 0
52. (−3a b c )
 2
(9x 3 y 2 z0 )
53. 2
( 3xy
0 5
) 3
−5x y z
54.
25y 2 z0
−3
55. −2x
−2
56. (−2x)
4
57. a ⋅ a−5 ⋅ a2
−8
58. b ⋅ b3 ⋅ b4

59. a8 ⋅ a−3
a−6
60. b−10 ⋅ b4
b−2
−3 2
61. 10x y
−5 −2
62. −3x y
−2
63. 3x y 2 z−1
−4 −2
64. −5x y z2
25x −3 y 2
65.
5x −1 y −3
−1
66. −9x y 3 z−5
3x −2 y 2 z−1−3
−3 2
67. (−5x y z)
2 −5 −2 −2
68. (−7x y−3 z )
69. ( 2x z )−5
y 2 −3
( 5 −2 )
70. 5x z
2y3 −32
( 12x y z )3
71.
2x 7 yz8
 8
72. ( 150xy z 2 )2
7
90x y 2z
−3 4 −2
73. ( −9a b c )−4
5
3a3 7b 5c−7 −8
74. ( −15a b c )−3
2
3a−6 b c3
The value in dollars of a new mobile phone can be estimated by using
−1
the formula V = 210(2t + 1) , where t is the number of years after
purchase.

75. How much was the phone worth new?

76. How much will the phone be worth in 1 year?

77. How much will the phone be worth in 3 years?

78. How much will the phone be worth in 10 years?

79. How much will the phone be worth in 100 years?

80. According to the formula, will the phone ever be worthless? Explain.

81. The height of a particular right circular cone is equal to the square of
the radius of the base, h = r2 . Find a formula for the volume in
terms of r.

82. A sphere has a radius r = 3x 2 .Find the volume in terms of x.

PART B: SCIENTIFIC NOTATION

Convert to a decimal number.

8
83. 5.2 × 10
9
84. 6.02 × 10
−6
85. 1.02 × 10
−5
86. 7.44 × 10

Rewrite using scientific notation.

 24
105. The mass of Earth is 5.97 × 10 kilograms and the mass of the Moon is
22
7.35 × 10 kilograms. By what factor is the mass of Earth greater than the
mass of the Moon?
30
106. The mass of the Sun is 1.99 × 10 kilograms and the mass of Earth is
24
5.97 × 10 kilograms. By what factor is the mass of the Sun greater than
the mass of Earth? Express your answer in scientific notation.
5
107. The radius of the Sun is 4.322× 10 miles and the average distance from
5
Earth to the Moon is 2.392 × 10 miles. By what factor is the radius of
the
Sun larger than the average distance from Earth to the Moon?
108. 15
One light year, 9.461 × 10 meters, is the distance that light travels
in a vacuum in one year. If the distance from our Sun to the nearest star,
16
Proxima Centauri, is estimated to be 3.991 × 10 meters, then
calculate the
109. number of years it would take light to travel that distance.

It is estimated that there are about 1 million ants per person on the planet.
If the world population was estimated to be 6.67 billion people in 2007,
110. then estimate the world ant population at that time.
6
The radius of the earth is 6.3 × 10 meters and the radius of the sun is
8
7.0 × 10 meters. By what factor is the radius of the Sun larger than the
111. radius of the Earth?
9 6
A gigabyte is 1 × 10 bytes and a megabyte is 1 × 10 bytes. If the
average song in the MP3 format consumes about 4.5 megabytes of storage,
112. then how many songs will fit on a 4-gigabyte memory card?

Water weighs approximately 18 grams per mole. If one mole is about

23
6 × 10 molecules, then approximate the weight of each molecule of water.

PART C: DISCUSSION BOARD

113.
n
114.
Use numbers to show that (x + y) ≠ x n + yn .
0
115. Why is 0 indeterminate?
2 3 5
116. Explain to a beginning algebra student why 2 ⋅2 ≠4 .
René Descartes (1637) established the usage of exponential form: a2 , a3 ,
and so on. Before this, how were exponents denoted?
 1.6 Polynomials and Their Operations

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Identify a polynomial and determine its degree.

2. Add and subtract polynomials.
3. Multiply and divide polynomials.

Definitions

A polynomial112 is a special algebraic expression with terms that consist

of real number coefficients and variable factors with whole number
exponents. Some examples of polynomials follow:

3 1
3x 2 7xy + 2 x + 3x − 2
x + 6x 2 y − +7
5 3 2
1 4xy3

The degree of a term113 in a polynomial is defined to be the exponent of the

variable, or if there is more than one variable in the term, the degree is the sum
of
their exponents. Recall that x = 1; any constant term can be written as a product
0

0
of x and itself. Hence the degree of a constant term is 0.

Term Degree

112. An algebraic expression

consisting of terms with
real number coefficients 3x 2
2
and variables with whole
number exponents.

113. The exponent of the

variable. If there is more than 6x 2 2+1=3
one variable
in the term, the degree of y
term is the sum their
exponents.

158
 Term Degree

7a2 2+3=5
b3

8 0, since 8 = 8x 0

2x 1, since 2x = 2x
1

The degree of a polynomial114 is the largest degree of all of its terms.

POLYNOMIAL Degree

4x 5 − 3x 3 + 2x − 5
1

6x 2 y − 5xy3 + 7 4, because 5xy3 has degree

4.

1 5 1 1
x+ 1, because x= x1
2 4 2 2

Of particular interest are polynomials with one variable115, where each term is
114. The largest degree of all
of its terms. of the form an xn . Here an is any real number and n is any whole number. Such
polynomials have the standard form:
115. A polynomial where each
n
term has the form an x ,
where an is any real number
and n is any
whole number.

159
 an x n + an−1 xn−1 + ⋯ + a1 x + a0

Typically, we arrange terms of polynomials in descending order based on the

degree of each term. The leading coefficient116 is the coefficient of the
variable with the highest power, in this case, an .

Example 1

Write in standard form: 3x − 4x 2

+ 5x 3 + 7 −
2x 4 .
Solution:

Since terms are defined to be separated by addition, we write the following:

3x − 4x 2 + 5x 3 + 7 − 2x 4

= 3x + (−4) x 2 + 5x 3 + 7 + (−2) x
4

In this form, we can see that the subtraction in the original corresponds to
negative coefficients. Because addition is commutative, we can write the terms
in descending order based on the degree as follows:

= (−2) x 4 + 5x 3 + (−4) x 2 + 3x +
7
= −2x 4 + 5x 3 − 4x 2 + 3x + 7

Answer: −2x 4
+ 5x 3 − 4x 2 + 3x +
7

We classify polynomials by the number of terms and the degree:

116. The coefficient of the
term with the largest
degree.

160
 Expression CLASSIFICATION Degree

5x 7 Monomial (one term) 7

8x 6 − 1 Binomial (two terms) 6

−3x 2 + x − 1 Trinomial (three terms) 2

5x 3 − 2x 2 + 3x − Polynomial (many 3
terms)
6

117

118

119

We can further classify polynomials with one variable by their degree:

POLYNOMIAL NAME

5 Constant (degree 0)

117. Polynomial with one term.

2x + 1 Linear (degree 1)
118. Polynomial with two terms.

119. Polynomial with three terms.

161
 POLYNOMIAL NAME

3x 2 + 5x − 3 Quadratic (degree 2)

x3+x2+x+1 Cubic (degree 3)

7x 4 + 3x 3 − 7x + Fourth-degree
polynomial
8

120

121

122

123

In this text, we call any polynomial of degree n ≥ 4 an nth-degree

polynomial. In other words, if the degree is 4, we call the polynomial a
fourth-degree polynomial. If the degree is 5, we call it a fifth-degree
polynomial, and so on.

120. A polynomial with degree 0.

121. A polynomial with degree 1.

122. A polynomial with degree 2.

123. A polynomial with degree 3.

162
 Example
2
State whether the following polynomial is linear or quadratic and give the
leading coefficient: 25 + 4x − x 2 .

Solution:

The highest power is 2; therefore, it is a quadratic polynomial. Rewriting in

standard form we have

−x 2 + 4x +
25

Here −x 2
= −1x 2 and thus the leading coefficient is
−1.
Answer: Quadratic; leading coefficient: −1

Adding and Subtracting Polynomials

We begin by simplifying algebraic expressions that look like + (a + b)or

− (a + b) .Here, the coefficients are actually implied to be +1 and −1 respectively
and therefore the distributive property applies. Multiply each term within the
parentheses by these factors as follows:

+ (a + b)=+1 (a + b)=(+1) a + (+1) b= a + b

− (a + b)= −1 (a + b)=(−1) a + (−1) b= −a − b

Use this idea as a means to eliminate parentheses when adding and

subtracting polynomials.

163
Example 3

Add: 9x 2
+ (x 2 − 5) .

Solution:

The property + (a + b) = a + ballows us to eliminate the

parentheses, after which we can then combine like terms.

9x 2 + (x 2 − 5)= 9x 2 + x 2 −
5
= 10x 2 − 5

Answer: 10x 2
−
5

164
 Example 4

Add: (3x 2
y2 − 4xy + 9) + (2x 2 y2 − 6xy −
7) .

Solution:
Remember that the variable parts have to be exactly the same before we can
add the coefficients.

(3x 2 y2 − 4xy + 9) + (2x 2 y2 − 6xy

− 7)
= 3x2y2 − 4 xy + 9 + 2x2y2 − 6 xy −
– –– – – –– –
– 7 –
= 5x 2 y2 − 10xy +
2

Answer: 5x 2
y2 − 10xy +
2

When subtracting polynomials, the parentheses become very important.

165
 Example 5

Subtract: 4x 2
− (3x 2 + 5x) .

Solution:

The property − (a + b) = −a − ballows us to remove the

parentheses after subtracting each term.

4x 2 − (3x 2 + 5x)= 4x 2 − 3x 2 −
5x
= x 2 − 5x

Answer: x 2
−
5x

Subtracting a quantity is equivalent to multiplying it by −1.

166
 Example 6

Subtract: (3x 2
− 2xy + y2 ) − (2x 2 − xy +
3y2 ) .

Solution:
Distribute the −1, remove the parentheses, and then combine like terms.
Multiplying the terms of a polynomial by −1 changes all the signs.

= 3x 2 − 2xy + y2 − 2x 2 + xy −
3y2
= x 2 − xy − 2y2

Answer: x 2
− xy −
2y 2

Try this! Subtract: (7a2 − 2ab + b2 ) − (a2 − 2ab + 5b2 ) .

Answer: 6a2 − 4b2

Multiplying Polynomials

Use the product rule for exponents, x m ⋅ x n = x m n , to multiply a monomial

+

times a polynomial. In other words, when multiplying two expressions with the
same base, add the exponents. To find the product of monomials, multiply the
coefficients and add the exponents of variable factors with the same base. For
example,

167
168
 7x 4 ⋅ 8x 3 = 7 ⋅ 8 ⋅ x 4
Commutative property
⋅x3
Product rule f or
= 56x 4+3
exponents
= 56x 7

To multiply a polynomial by a monomial, apply the distributive property,

and then simplify each term.

Example 7

Multiply: 5xy2 (2x 2

y2 − xy +
1) .

Solution:
Apply the distributive property and then simplify.

= 5xy2 ⋅ 2x 2 y2 − 5xy2 ⋅ xy +
5xy2 ⋅ 1
= 10x 3 y4 − 5x 2 y3 + 5xy2

Answer: 10x 3
y4 − 5x 2 y3 +
5xy2

To summarize, multiplying a polynomial by a monomial involves the

distributive property and the product rule for exponents. Multiply all of the
terms of the polynomial by the monomial. For each term, multiply the
coefficients and add exponents of variables where the bases are the same.

169
In the same manner that we used the distributive property to distribute a
monomial, we use it to distribute a binomial.

(a + b) (c + d)=(a + b) ⋅ c + (a + b) ⋅ d
= ac + bc + ad + bd
= ac + ad + bc + bd

Here we apply the distributive property multiple times to produce the final
result. This same result is obtained in one step if we apply the distributive
property to A and b separately as follows:

This is often called the FOIL method. Multiply the first, outer, inner, and then last
terms.

170
 Example 8

Multiply: (6x − 1) (3x − 5)

.

Solution:
Distribute 6x and −1 and then combine like
terms.

(6x − 1) (3x − 5)= 6x ⋅ 3x − 6x ⋅ 5 + (−1) ⋅ 3x − (−1)

⋅5
= 18x 2 − 30x − 3x + 5
= 18x 2 − 33x + 5

Answer: 18x 2
− 33x +
5

Consider the following two calculations:

2 2
(a + b) =(a + b) (a + b) (a − b) =(a − b) (a − b)
= a2 + ab + ba + = a2 − ab − ba +
b2 b2
= a2 + ab + ab + = a2 − ab − ab +
b2 b2
= a2 + 2ab + b2 = a2 − 2ab + b2
This leads us to two formulas that describe perfect square trinomials124:
124. The trinomials obtained
by squaring the
binomials
( )2
a + b = a2 + 2ab + b2
and
2
(a − b) = a − 2ab + b .
2 2

171
 2
(a + b) = a + 2ab + b
2 2

2
(a − b) = a − 2ab + b
2 2

We can use these formulas to quickly square a binomial.

Example 9

Multiply: (3x + 5)2

.

Solution:

Here a = 3x and b = 5. Apply the

formula:

Answer: 9x 2
+ 30x +
25

This process should become routine enough to be performed mentally. Our

third special product follows:

(a + b) (a − b ) = a − ab + ba − b
2 2

= a2 − ab + ab − b2
= a2 − b2
This product is called difference of squares125:

125. The special product

obtained by multiplying
(a + b) (a − b) = a − b
conjugate binomials 2 2

(a + b) (a − b) = a − b .
2 2

172
 The binomials (a + b)and (a − b)are called conjugate binomials126.
When multiplying conjugate binomials the middle terms are opposites and their
sum is zero; the product is itself a binomial.

Example 10

Multiply: (3xy + 1) (3xy −

1) .

Solution:

(3xy + 1) (3xy − 1)=(3xy)2 − 3xy + 3xy

− 12
= 9x 2 y2 − 1

Answer: 9x 2
y2 −
1

Try this! Multiply: (x 2

+ 5y2 ) (x 2 − 5y2 ) .

Answer: (x 4
− 25y4 )

126. The binomials (a + b) and

(a − b) .

173
 Example 11

Multiply: (5x − 2)3

.

Solution:

Here we perform one product at a time.

Answer: 125x 2
− 150x 2 + 60x −
8

Dividing Polynomials

x
Use the quotient rule for exponents,
x = x
m− n
, to divide a polynomial by a
m n

monomial. In other words, when dividing two expressions with the same
base, subtract the exponents. In this section, we will assume that all
variables in the denominator are nonzero.

174
 Example
12
Divide: 24x 7 y5 .
8x 3
y2

Solution:

Divide the coefficients and apply the quotient rule by subtracting the
exponents of the like bases.

24x 7 y5 = 24 x 7−3
y8x
5−2
3 8
y2 = 3x 4

y3

Answer: 3x 4

y3

When dividing a polynomial by a monomial, we may treat the monomial as a

common denominator and break up the fraction using the following property:

a+b a b
= +
c c c
Applying this property will result in terms that can be treated as quotients of
monomials.

175
 Example
13
Divide: −5x 4+25x 3−15x 2 .
5x
2

Solution:

Break up the fraction by dividing each term in the numerator by the monomial
in the denominator, and then simplify each term.

−5x 4 + 25x 3 − 15x 2 = − 5x 4 + 25x 3 −

15x 2 5x 5x 25x 25x 2
2 = − 5 x 4−2 + 25 x 3−2 − 15 x
2−2
5 5 5
= −1x + 5x −
2 1

3x 0
= −x 2 + 5x − 3 ⋅ 1

Answer: −x 2
+ 5x −
3

We can check our division by multiplying our answer, the quotient, by the monomial in the
denominator, the divisor, to see if we obtain the original numerator, the dividend.

The same technique outlined for dividing by a monomial does not work for polynomials with two or more terms
in the denominator. In this section, we will outline a process called polynomial long division127, which is
based on the division algorithm for real numbers. For the sake of clarity, we will assume that all expressions in
the denominator are nonzero.

127. The process of dividing two

polynomials using the
division algorithm.

176
Example 14

x 3+3x 2−8x−4
Divide: x−2 .

Solution:

Here x − 2 is the divisor and x + 3x − 8x − 4 is the dividend. To

3 2

determine the first term of the quotient, divide the leading term of the dividend
by the leading term of the divisor.

Multiply the first term of the quotient by the divisor, remembering

to distribute, and line up like terms with the dividend.

Subtract the resulting quantity from the dividend. Take care to subtract
both terms.

Bring down the remaining terms and repeat the process.

Notice that the leading term is eliminated and that the result has a degree
that is one less. The complete process is illustrated below:

177
 Polynomial long division ends when the degree of the remainder is less than the
degree of the divisor. Here, the remainder is 0. Therefore, the binomial divides
the polynomial evenly and the answer is the quotient shown above the
division bar.

x 3 + 3x 2 − 8x − 4 = x 2 + 5x +
2 x−
2

To check the answer, multiply the divisor by the quotient to see if you obtain
the dividend as illustrated below:

x 3 + 3x 2 − 8x − 4 = (x − 2) (x 2 + 5x +
2)

This is left to the reader as an exercise.

Answer: x 2
+ 5x +
2

Next, we demonstrate the case where there is a nonzero remainder.

178
Just as with real numbers, the final answer adds to the quotient the fraction
where the remainder is the numerator and the divisor is the denominator. In
general, when dividing we have:

Dividen
= Quotient+ Remainder
d Divisor
Divisor
If we multiply both sides by the divisor we obtain,

Dividend = Quotient × Divisor + Remainder

179
Example 15

6x −5x+3
Divide: 2
2x−1 .

Solution:

Since the denominator is a binomial, begin by setting up polynomial long

division.

To start, determine what monomial times 2x − 1 results in a leading term 6x .

2

This is the quotient of the given leading terms: ( 6x ) ÷ (2x) = 3x.

2

Multiply 3x times the divisor 2x − 1, and line up the result with like terms
of the dividend.

Subtract the result from the dividend and bring down the constant term +3.

Subtracting eliminates the leading term. Multiply 2x − 1 by −1 and line up the

result.

Subtract again and notice that we are left with a remainder.

180
 The constant term 2 has degree 0 and thus the division ends. Therefore,

6x 2 − 5x + 3 = 3x − 1 + 2
2x − 2x −
1 1

To check that this result is correct, we multiply as follows:

quotient × divisor + remainder =(3x − 1) (2x − 1)+2

= 6x 2 − 3x − 2x + 1 +2
= 6x 2 − 5x + 2 = dividend✓

Answer: 3x − 1 + 22
x−1

Occasionally, some of the powers of the variables appear to be missing within a

polynomial. This can lead to errors when lining up like terms. Therefore, when
first learning how to divide polynomials using long division, fill in the missing
terms with zero coefficients, called placeholders128.

128. Terms with zero coefficients

used to fill in all missing
exponents within a
polynomial.

181
Example
16
Divide: 27x 3 +64 .
3x+4

Solution:

Notice that the binomial in the numerator does not have terms with degree 2 or
1. The division is simplified if we rewrite the expression with placeholders:

27x 3 + 64 = 27x 3 + 0x 2 + 0x +
64

Set up polynomial long division:

We begin with 27x 3

÷ 3x = 9x 2 and work the rest of the division
algorithm.

Answer: 9x 2
− 12x +
16

182
 Example
17
Divide: 3x 4−2x 3+6x 2+23x−7 .
x2
−2x+5

Solution:

Begin the process by dividing the leading terms to determine the leading term
of the quotient 3x 4 ÷ x 2 = 3x 2 . Take care to distribute and line up the
like terms. Continue the process until the remainder has a degree less than
2.

The remainder is x − 2. Write the answer with the

remainder:

3x 4 − 2x 3 + 6x 2 + 23x − 7 = 3x 2 + 4x − 1 + x − 2
x 2 − 2x + x 2 − 2x +
5 5

Answer: 3x 2
+ 4x − 1 +x 2x−2
−2x+5

Polynomial long division takes time and practice to master. Work lots of
problems and remember that you may check your answers by multiplying the
quotient by the divisor (and adding the remainder if present) to obtain the
dividend.

183
Try this! Divide: 6x 4−13x 3+9x
2 −14x+6 3x−2
.

Answer: 2x 3
− 3x 2 + x − 4 − x−2
3
2

KEY TAKEAWAYS

• Polynomials are special algebraic expressions where the terms are

the products of real numbers and variables with whole number
exponents.
• The degree of a polynomial with one variable is the largest
exponent of the variable found in any term. In addition, the terms
of a polynomial are typically arranged in descending order based
on the degree of each term.
• When adding polynomials, remove the associated parentheses and
then combine like terms. When subtracting polynomials, distribute
the −1, remove the parentheses, and then combine like terms.
• To multiply polynomials apply the distributive property; multiply
each term in the first polynomial with each term in the second
polynomial. Then combine like terms.
• When dividing by a monomial, divide all terms in the numerator by
the monomial and then simplify each term.
• When dividing a polynomial by another polynomial, apply the
division algorithm.

184
 TOPIC EXERCISES

PART A: DEFINITIONS

Write the given polynomials in standard form.

2
1. 1−x−x
2
2. y−5+y
3. y − 3y 2 + 5 − y 3

4. 8 − 12a2 + a3 − a
5. 2 − x 2 + 6x − 5x 3 + x 4

3
6. a − 5 + a2 + 2a4 − a5 + 6a

Classify the given polynomial as a monomial, binomial, or

trinomial and state the degree.
2
7. x −x+2
8. 5 − 10x 3
2
9. x y 2 + 5xy − 6
3 2
10. −2x y
4
11. x −1
12. 5

State whether the polynomial is linear or quadratic and give the

leading coefficient.
2
13. 1 − 9x
2
14. 10x

15. 2x −3
16. 100x
2
17. 5x + 3x − 1

185
18. x −1
19. x − 6 − 2x 2
20. 1 − 5x

PART B: ADDING AND SUBTRACTING POLYNOMIALS

Simplify.
2
21. (5x − 3x − 2) + (2x 2 − 6x + 7)
2
22. (x + 7x − 12) + (2x 2 − x + 3)
2
23. (x + 5x + 10) + (x 2 − 10)
2
24. (x − 1) + (4x + 2)
2
25. (10x + 3x − 2) − (x 2 − 6x + 1)
2
26. (x − 3x − 8) − (2x 2 − 3x − 8)
2 3 1 5 1
27. ( x 2 + x − 1) − ( x 2 + x − )
3 4 6 2 2
4 5 10 3 2 3
28. ( x 2− x + ) − ( x 2− x + )
5 8 6 10 3 5
2
29. (x y 2 + 7xy − 5) − (2x 2 y 2 + 5xy − 4)
2
30. (x − y 2 ) − (x 2 + 6xy + y 2 )
2
31. (a b2 + 5ab − 2) + (7ab − 2) − (4 − a2 b2 )
2
32. (a + 9ab − 6b2 ) − (a2 − b2 ) + 7ab
2
33. (10x y − 8xy + 5xy 2 ) − (x 2 y − 4xy) + (xy 2 + 4xy)
2
34. (2m n − 6mn + 9mn2 ) − (m 2 n + 10mn) − m 2 n
2
35. (8x y 2 − 5xy + 2) − (x 2 y 2 + 5) + (2xy − 3)
2
36. (x − y 2 ) − (5x 2 − 2xy − y 2 ) − (x 2 − 7xy)
1 3 5 4 11
37. ( a2 − 2ab + b2 ) − ( a2 + b2 ) + ab
6 4 3 5 8

186
 5 7 1 7 1
38. ( x 2 − 2y 2 ) − ( x 2 − xy + y 2 ) − xy
2 5 2 3 2
2n
39. (x + 5x n − 2) + (2x 2n − 3x n − 1)
2n
40. (7x − x n + 5) − (6x 2n − x n − 8)
2
41. Subtract 4y − 3 from y + 7y − 10.
42. Subtract x 2 + 3x − 2 from 2x 2 + 4x − 1.
43. A right circular cylinder has a height that is equal to the radius of the
base,
h = r.Find a formula for the surface area in terms of h.

44. A rectangular solid has a width that is twice the height and a length
that is 3 times that of the height. Find a formula for the surface area
in terms of the height.

PART C: MULTIPLYING POLYNOMIALS

Multiply.
2
45. −8x ⋅ 2x
2
46. −10x y ⋅ 5x 3 y 2

47. 2x (5x − 1)
48. −4x (3x − 5)
2
49. 7x (2x − 6)
2 2
50. −3x (x − x + 3)
4 2
51. −5y (y − 2y + 3)
5
52. a3 (24a2 − 6a + 4)
2
2 2
53. 2xy (x − 7xy + y )
2
54. −2a b (a2 − 3ab + 5b2 )
2
(x + x + 1)
n
55. x
2n
56. x
n
(x − x n − 1)

187
57. (x + 4) (x − 5)
58. (x − 7) (x − 6)
59. (2x − 3) (3x − 1)
60. (9x + 1) (3x + 2)
2
61. (3x − y 2 ) (x 2 − 5y 2 )
2
62. (5y − x 2 ) (2y 2 − 3x 2 )
63. (3x + 5) (3x − 5)

64. (x + 6) (x − 6)
2
65. (a − b2 ) (a2 + b2 )

66. (ab + 7) (ab − 7)

67. (4x − 5y 2 ) (3x 2 − y)

68. (xy + 5) (x − y)
69. (x − 5) (x 2 − 3x + 8)

70. (2x − 7) (3x 2 − x + 1)

2 2
71. (x + 7x − 1) (2x − 3x − 1)
2 2
72. (4x − x + 6) (5x − 4x − 3)
2
73. (x + 8)
2
74. (x − 3)
2
75. (2x − 5)
2
76. (3x + 1)
2
77. (a − 3b)
2
78. (7a − b)

188
 2
2 2
79. (x + 2y )2
2
80. (x − 6y)
2
2
81. (a − a + 5)
2
2
82. (x − 3x − 1)
3
83. (x − 3)
3
84. (x + 2)
3
85. (3x + 1)
3
86. (2x − 3)
4
87. (x + 2)
4
88. (x − 3)
4
89. (2x − 1)
4
90. (3x − 1)
2n
91. + 5) (x 2n − 5) 92.
(x 2n
(x − 1) (x + 4x − 3)
n n

2n 2
93. (x − 1)
3n 2
94. (x + 1)
95. Find the product of 3x − 2 and x 2 − 5x − 2.
96. Find the product of x 2 + 4 and x 3 − 1.
3
97. Each side of a square measures 3x units. Determine the area in terms of x.
2
98. Each edge of a cube measures 2x units. Determine the volume in terms of
x.
PART D: DIVIDING POLYNOMIALS

Divide.
125x 5 y 2
99.
25x 4 y 2

189
 256x 2 y 3 z5
100.
64x 2 yz2
20x 3 − 12x 2 + 4x
101.
4x 3 + 18x 2
15x 4 − 75x
102.
3x 2
12a b + 28ab2 − 4ab
2

103.
4ab 2 b2 + 8ab3
−2a4 b3 + 16a
104.
2ab2
x + x 2 − 3x + 9
3

105.
x 3 − 4x 2+−39x + 20
x
106.
6x 3 − 11x−2 5+ 7x − 6
x
107.
9x 3 −29x−2 3
x
−x+1
108.
3x 2−−139x + 17
16x 3 + 8x
109.
4x −
12x 3 − 56x 2 3
+ 55x + 30
110.
6x 4 + 13x2 3 −− 9x
x 5 2
−x+6
111.
25x 4 − 10x 33 ++11x
x 2 2
− 7x + 1
112.
20x 4 + 12x 53 +−9x
x 12
+ 10x + 5
113.
25x 4 − 45x 32− 26x
x+12
+ 36x − 11
114.
3x 54 + −x 22 − 1
x
115.
x 4 +−x2− 3
x
116.
x 3+
x 3
− 10
117.
x−2

190
 1.7 Solving Linear Equations

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Use the properties of equality to solve basic linear equations.

2. Identify and solve conditional linear equations, identities,
and contradictions.
3. Clear fractions from equations.
4. Set up and solve linear applications.

Solving Basic Linear Equations

An equation129 is a statement indicating that two algebraic expressions are equal.

A linear equation with one variable130, x, is an equation that can be written in the
standard form ax + b = 0 where A and b are real numbers and a ≠ 0. For
example,

3x − 12 = 0

A solution131 to a linear equation is any value that can replace the variable to
produce a true statement. The variable in the linear equation 3x − 12 = 0 is x
and the solution is x = 4. To verify this, substitute the value 4 in for x and check
that you obtain a true statement.

3x − 12 = 0
129. Statement indicating that
3(4) − 12 = 0
two algebraic expressions 12 − 12 = 0
are equal.
0=0✓
130. An equation that can be
written in the standard
form
ax + b = 0, where A and b Alternatively, when an equation is equal to a constant, we may verify a solution by
are real numbers and a ≠ 0. substituting the value in for the variable and showing that the result is equal to that
131. Any value that can replace
constant. In this sense, we say that solutions “satisfy the equation.”
the variable in an equation
to produce a true statement.

195
 Example
1
Is a = − 1 a solution to −10a + 5 =
2
25?
Solution:

Recall that when evaluating expressions, it is a good practice to first replace all
variables with parentheses, and then substitute the appropriate values. By
making use of parentheses, we avoid some common errors when working the
order of operations.

( 1)
−10a + 5 = −10− + 5 = 5 + 5 = 10 ≠ 25
2
✗

Answer: No, a = − 1 does not satisfy the

2
equation.

Developing techniques for solving various algebraic equations is one of our

main goals in algebra. This section reviews the basic techniques used for
solving linear equations with one variable. We begin by defining equivalent
equations132 as equations with the same solution set.

3x − 5 = 16
 3x =   Equivalent equations
 
21
132. Equations with the x=7
same solution set.

133. Properties that allow us to

obtain equivalent equations Here we can see that the three linear equations are equivalent because they share
by adding, subtracting, the same solution set, namely, {7}. To obtain equivalent equations, use the
multiplying, and dividing
following properties of equality133. Given algebraic expressions A and B, where
both sides of an equation by
nonzero real numbers. c is a nonzero number:

1.7 Solving Linear 196

Equations
 Addition property of
equality:
If A = B, then A + c = B + c

Subtraction property of
equality:
If A = B, then A − c = B − c

Multiplication property of
equality:
If A = B, then c = cB
A

Division property of
equality:
If A = B, then A
c
= B
c

Note: Multiplying or dividing both sides of an equation by 0 is carefully

avoided. Dividing by 0 is undefined and multiplying both sides by 0 results in
the equation 0
= 0.

We solve algebraic equations by isolating the variable with a coefficient of 1. If

given a linear equation of the form ax + b = c, then we can solve it in two
steps. First, use the appropriate equality property of addition or subtraction to
isolate the variable term. Next, isolate the variable using the equality property
of multiplication or division. Checking the solution in the following examples
is left to the reader.
Example 2

Solve: 7x − 2 =
19.
Solution:

7x − 2 = 19
7x − 2 + 2 = 19 + 2Add 2 to both
sides.
7x = 21 7x =
21 Divide both sides
77
by 7.
x=3

Answer: The solution is 3.

 Example 3

Solve: 56 = 8 +
12y.
Solution:

When no sign precedes the term, it is understood to be positive. In other words,

think of this as 56 = +8 + 12y. Therefore, we begin by subtracting 8 on
both
sides of the equal sign.

56 − 8 = 8 + 12y −
8
4812y
48 = =
12y
1212
4=y

It does not matter on which side we choose to isolate the variable because the
symmetric property134 states that 4 = y is equivalent to y = 4.

Answer: The solution is 4.

134. Allows you to solve for

the variable on either side
of the
equal sign, because x = 5 is
equivalent to 5 = x.
 Example
4
Solve: 53x + 2 = −8.

Solution:

Isolate the variable term using the addition property of equality, and then
multiply both sides of the equation by the reciprocal of the coefficient 5 .
3

5x+2=
3
−8
5 x + 2 − 2 = −8 − Subtract 2 on both
3
sides.
2 5x=
3
−10 −2
35 3 ( )
⋅x =⋅−10 Multiply both sides
53 5 5
by 3 .
1x = 3 ⋅
(−2)
x = −6

Answer: The solution is −6.

In summary, to retain equivalent equations, we must perform the same

operation on both sides of the equation.
 Try this! Solve: 2 x + 1 = − 5 .
3 2 6

Answer: x = −2

General Guidelines for Solving Linear Equations

Typically linear equations are not given in standard form, and so solving them
requires additional steps. When solving linear equations, the goal is to
determine what value, if any, will produce a true statement when substituted in
the original equation. Do this by isolating the variable using the following
steps:

• Step 1: Simplify both sides of the equation using the order of

operations and combine all like terms on the same side of the
equal sign.
• Step 2: Use the appropriate properties of equality to combine like
terms on opposite sides of the equal sign. The goal is to obtain the
variable term on one side of the equation and the constant term on
the other.
• Step 3: Divide or multiply as needed to isolate the variable.
• Step 4: Check to see if the answer solves the original equation.

We will often encounter linear equations where the expressions on each side of
the equal sign can be simplified. If this is the case, then it is best to simplify
each side first before solving. Normally this involves combining same-side like
terms.

Note: At this point in our study of algebra the use of the properties of equality
should seem routine. Therefore, displaying these steps in this text, usually in
blue, becomes optional.
 Example 5

Solve: −4a + 2 − a =
1.
Solution:

First combine the like terms on the left side of the equal sign.

−4a + 2 − a = Combine same-side like

1 terms.
−5a + 2 ==1−1Divide
−5a Subtract 2 on both
both sides by − sides.
5.
a = −1 = 1
−55

Always use the original equation to check to see if the solution is correct.

() 11
−4a + 2 − a = +2−
5 5
−4
=−4+2⋅5−1
5155
= −4 + 10 +
1
5
= 5 = 1✓
5

Answer: The solution is 1 .

5

Given a linear equation in the form ax + b = cx + d, we begin the solving

process by combining like terms on opposite sides of the equal sign. To do this, use
the
addition or subtraction property of equality to place like terms on the same side
so that they can be combined. In the examples that remain, the check is left to
the reader.

Example 6

Solve: −2y − 3 = 5y +
11.
Solution:

Subtract 5y on both sides so that we can combine the terms

involving y on the left side.

−2y − 3 − 5y = 5y + 11 −
5y
−7y − 3 = 11

From here, solve using the techniques developed previously.

−7y − 3 = Add 3 to both

11 sides.
−7yy==14
14 −7 Divide both sides by
− 7.
y=−2

Answer: The solution is −2.

Solving will often require the application of the distributive property.

Example
7
Solve: − 1 (10x − 2) + 3 = 7 (1 − 2x) .
2

Solution:

Simplify the linear expressions on either side of the equal sign first.

− 1 (10x − 2) + 3 = 7 (1 − Distribute.
2
2x) −5x + 1 + 3 = 7 − Combine same-side like
14x terms. Combine opposite-side
−5x + 4 = 7 − 14x like terms. Solve.
9x = 3
x=3=1
93

Answer: The solution is 1 .

3
Example 8

Solve: 5 (3 − a) − 2 (5 − 2a) = 3.

Solution:

Begin by applying the distributive property.

5 (3 − a) − 2 (5 − 2a) = 3
15 − 5a − 10 + 4a = 3
5−a=3
−a = −2

Here we point out that −a is equivalent to −1a; therefore, we choose to

divide both sides of the equation by −1.

−a = −2
−1a −2
=
−1 −1
a=2

Alternatively, we can multiply both sides of −a = −2 by negative one and

achieve the same result.

−a = −2
(−1) (−a) = (−1) (−2)
a=2
 Answer: The solution is 2.

Try this! Solve: 6 − 3 (4x − 1) = 4x − 7.

Answer: x = 1

There are three different types of equations. Up to this point, we have been
solving conditional equations135. These are equations that are true for
particular values. An identity136 is an equation that is true for all possible
values of the variable. For example,

x = x Identity

has a solution set consisting of all real numbers, ℝ. A contradiction137 is an

equation that is never true and thus has no solutions. For example,

x+ 1= x Contradiction

has no solution. We use the empty set, Ø, to indicate that there are no solutions.

If the end result of solving an equation is a true statement, like 0 = 0, then the
equation is an identity and any real number is a solution. If solving results in a
false statement, like 0 = 1, then the equation is a contradiction and there is no
solution.

135. Equations that are true

for particular values.

136. An equation that is true for

all possible values.

137. An equation that is never

true and has no solution.
Example 9

Solve: 4 (x + 5) + 6 = 2 (2x +
3) .

Solution:

4(x + 5) + 6 = 2(2x +
3)
4x + 20 + 6 = 4x + 6
4x + 26 = 4x + 6
26 = 6 ✗

Solving leads to a false statement; therefore, the equation is a contradiction and

there is no solution.

Answer: Ø
 Example 10

Solve: 3 (3y + 5) + 5 = 10 (y + 2) −
y.

Solution:

3(3y + 5) + 5 = 10(y + 2)
−y
9y + 15 + 5 = 10y + 20 −
y
9y + 20 = 9y + 20
9y = 9y
0 = 0✓
Solving leads to a true statement; therefore, the equation is an identity and any
real number is a solution.

Answer: ℝ

The coefficients of linear equations may be any real number, even decimals
and fractions. When this is the case it is possible to use the multiplication
property of equality to clear the fractional coefficients and obtain integer
coefficients in a single step. If given fractional coefficients, then multiply both
sides of the equation by the least common multiple of the denominators
(LCD).
 Example
11
Solve: 1 x + 1 = 1 x − 1.
3 55

Solution:

() common multiple of
Clear the fractions by multiplying both sides by the least
the given denominators. In this case, it is the LCD 3, 5 = 15.

( 1 1) ( 1 )
15 x += 15 ⋅ x− Multiply both sides
3 5 5
⋅ 1 by 15.
15 ⋅ 1 x + 15 ⋅ 1 = 15 ⋅ 1 x − 15 ⋅ Simplif
3 5 5
y.
1 5x + 3 = 3x −
15 Solve.
2x = −18
x = −18 =
2
−9

Answer: The solution is −9.

It is important to know that this technique only works for equations. Do not try to
CLEAR FRACTIONS when simplifying expressions. As a reminder:

Expression Equation

1 x 5 1 x 5 =0
+ +
2 3 2 3
We simplify expressions and solve equations. If you multiply an expression by
6, you will change the problem. However, if you multiply both sides of an
equation by 6, you obtain an equivalent equation.

Incorrect Correct

1 5 1 5
x+ 1 5 1 x +5 = 0
≠26 ⋅ ( 3 x + ) 6 ⋅ ( x + )= 6 ⋅
2 0 3
2 3
2 3
= 3x + 10 ✗
3x + 10 = 0 ✓

Applications Involving Linear Equations

Algebra simplifies the process of solving real-world problems. This is done by

using letters to represent unknowns, restating problems in the form of
equations, and by offering systematic techniques for solving those equations.
To solve problems using algebra, first translate the wording of the problem into
mathematical statements that describe the relationships between the given
information and the unknowns. Usually, this translation to mathematical
statements is the difficult step in the process. The key to the translation is to
carefully read the problem and identify certain key words and phrases.

Key Words Translation

Sum, increased by, more than, plus, added to, total +

Difference, decreased by, subtracted from, less, −

minus
 Key Words Translation

Product, multiplied by, of, times, twice ⋅

Quotient, divided by, ratio, per ÷

Is, total, result =

When translating sentences into mathematical statements, be sure to read the

sentence several times and parse out the key words and phrases. It is important to
first identify the variable, “let x represent…” and state in words what the
unknown quantity is. This step not only makes our work more readable, but also
forces us to think about what we are looking for.
Example
12
When 6 is subtracted from twice the sum of a number and 8 the result is 5. Find
the number.

Solution:

Let n represent the unknown

number.

To understand why we included the parentheses in the set up, you must study
the structure of the following two sentences and their translations:

“twice the sum of A number AND 8” 2 (n + 8)

“the sum of twice a number AND 8” 2n + 8

The key was to focus on the phrase “twice the sum,” this prompted us to
group
the sum within parentheses and then multiply by 2. After
translating the sentence into a mathematical statement we then
solve.
 2 (n + 8) − 6 = 5
2n + 16 − 6 = 5
2n + 10 = 5
2n = −5
n=
−5 2

Check.

( 5 )
2(n + 8) − 6 = 2−+ 8− 6
2
() 11
= −6
2
2
= 11 − 6
= 5✓

Answer: The number is − 5 .

2

General guidelines for setting up and solving word problems follow.

• Step 1: Read the problem several times, identify the key words
and phrases, and organize the given information.
• Step 2: Identify the variables by assigning a letter or expression to
the unknown quantities.
• Step 3: Translate and set up an algebraic equation that models
the problem.
• Step 4: Solve the resulting algebraic equation.
• Step 5: Finally, answer the question in sentence form and make
sure it makes sense (check it).
Example
13
A rectangle has a perimeter measuring 92 meters. The length is 2 meters less
than 3 times the width. Find the dimensions of the rectangle.

Solution:

The sentence “The length is 2 meters less THAN 3 times the

width,” gives us the
relationship between the two variables.

Let w represent the width of the

rectangle.

Let 3w − 2 represent the

length.

The sentence “A RECTANGLE HAS A perimeter MEASURING 92 meters”

suggests an algebraic set up. Substitute 92 for the perimeter and
the expression 3w − 2 for
the length into the appropriate formula as follows:

P= 2l +
⏐↓ ⏐ 2w
↓
92 = 2 (3w − 2)+
2w

Once you have set up an algebraic equation with one variable, solve for the
width, w.
 92 = 2 (3w − 2) + 2w Distribute.
92 = 6w − 4 + 2wCombine like
terms. 92 = 8w − 4Solve f or w.
96 = 8w
12 = w

Use 3w − 2 to find the

length.

l = 3w − 2 = 3 (12) − 2 = 36 − 2 =
34

To check, make sure the perimeter is 92 meters.

P = 2l+ 2w
= 2 (34) + 2 (12)
= 68 + 24
= 92

Answer: The rectangle measures 12 meters by 34 meters.

Example 14

3
Given a 48 %annual interest rate, how long will it take $2,500 to yield
$437.50 in simple interest?

Solution:

3
Let t represent the time needed to earn $437.50 at 84 %.Organize the
information needed to use the formula for simple interest, I = prt.

Given interest for

I = $437.50
the time period:

Given principal: p = $2,500

3
Given rate: r = 4 % = 4.375% = 0.0437 5
8

Next, substitute all of the known quantities into the formula and then
solve for the only unknown, t.

I = prt
437.50 = 2500( 0.04375) t
437.50 = 109.375t
437.50 109.375t
=
109.375 109.375
4=t
Answer: It takes 4 years for $2,500 invested at 4 3 %to earn $437.50 in
8
simple
interest.
Example 15

Susan invested her total savings of $12,500 in two accounts earning simple
interest. Her mutual fund account earned 7% last year and her CD earned
4.5%. If her total interest for the year was $670, how much was in each
account?

Solution:

The relationship between the two unknowns is that they total $12,500. When
a total is involved, a common technique used to avoid two variables is to
represent the second unknown as the difference of the total and the first
unknown.

Let x represent the amount invested in the mutual fund.

Let 12,500 − x represent the remaining amount invested in the

CD. Organize the data.

I = prt
Interest earned in the
= x ⋅ 0.07 ⋅ 1
mutual fund:
= 0.07x

I = prt
Interest earned in the CD: =(12, 500 − x) ⋅ 0.045 ⋅
1
= 0.045(12, 500 − x)

Total interest: $670

The total interest is the sum of the interest earned from each account.

mutual f und CD = total

+0.045 (12,500 − x)
interest+0.07 interest = interest
x 670

This equation models the problem with one variable. Solve for x.

0.07x + 0.045 (12,500 − x) = 670

0.07x + 562.5 − 0.045x = 670
0.025x + 562.5 = 670
0.025x = 107.5

x=
107.5
0.025
x=
4,300

Use 12, 500 − x to find the amount in

the CD.

12,500 − x = 12,500 − 4,300 =

8,200

Answer: Susan invested $4,300 at 7% in a mutual fund and $8,200 at 4.5% in a

CD.
 KEY TAKEAWAYS

• Solving general linear equations involves isolating the variable,

with coefficient 1, on one side of the equal sign. To do this, first
use the appropriate equality property of addition or subtraction to
isolate the variable term on one side of the equal sign. Next, isolate
the variable using the equality property of multiplication or
division. Finally, check to verify that your solution solves the
original equation.
• If solving a linear equation leads to a true statement like 0 = 0, then the
equation is an identity and the solution set consists of all real numbers,
ℝ.
• If solving a linear equation leads to a false statement like 0 = 5,
then the equation is a contradiction and there is no solution, Ø.
• Clear fractions by multiplying both sides of an equation by the
least common multiple of all the denominators. Distribute and
multiply all terms by the LCD to obtain an equivalent equation
with integer coefficients.
• Simplify the process of solving real-world problems by creating
mathematical models that describe the relationship between
unknowns. Use algebra to solve the resulting equations.
 TOPIC EXERCISES

PART A: SOLVING BASIC LINEAR EQUATIONS

Determine whether or not the given value is a solution.

1. −5x + 4 = −1 ; x = −1
2. 4x − 3 = −7 ; x = −1
9
3. 3y − 4 = 5 ;y =
3
5
4. −2y + 7 = 12 ; y = −
2
5. 3a − 6 = 18 − a; a = −3
6. 5 (2t − 1) = 2 − t; t = 2
b
7. ax − b = 0; x =
a
b
8. ax + b = 2b; x =
a

Solve.

9. 5x − 3 = 27
10. 6x − 7 = 47
11. 4x + 13 = 35
12. 6x − 9 = 18
13. 9a + 10 = 10
14. 5 − 3a = 5
15. −8t + 5 = 15
16. −9t + 12 = 33
2 1
17. x+ =1
33 52
3
18. x+ =
81 − 3y4 2
19. =2
5
 2 − 5y
20. = −8
21. 7 − y = 22 6

22. 6 − y = 12
23. Solve for x: ax − b = c
24. Solve for x: ax + b = 0

PART B: SOLVING LINEAR EQUATIONS

Solve.

25. 6x − 5 + 2x = 19
26. 7 − 2x + 9 = 24
27. 12x − 2 − 9x = 5x + 8
28. 16 − 3x − 22 = 8 − 4x
29. 5y − 6 − 9y = 3 − 2y + 8
30. 7 − 9y + 12 = 3y + 11 − 11y
31. 3 + 3a − 11 = 5a − 8 − 2a
32. 2 − 3a = 5a + 7 − 8a
1 3 5 5 1
33. x− + x= x+
3 2 2 6 4
5 1 3 3 1
34. + x− = x−
8 5 4 10 4
35. 1.2x − 0.5 − 2.6x = 2 − 2.4x
36. 1.59 − 3.87x = 3.48 − 4.1x − 0.51
37. 5 − 10x = 2x + 8 − 12x
38. 8x − 3 − 3x = 5x − 3
39. 5 (y + 2) = 3 (2y − 1) + 10
40. 7 (y − 3) = 4 (2y + 1) − 21
41. 7 − 5 (3t − 9) = 22
42. 10 − 5 (3t + 7) = 20
43. 5 − 2x = 4 − 2 (x − 4)
44. 2 (4x − 5) + 7x = 5 (3x − 2)
45. 4 (4a − 1) = 5 (a − 3) + 2 (a − 2)
46. 6 (2b − 1) + 24b = 8 (3b − 1)
2 1
47. (x + 18) + 2 = x − 13
3 3
2 1 4
48. x− (6x − 3) =
5 2 3
49. 1.2 (2x + 1) + 0.6x = 4x
50. 6 + 0.5 (7x − 5) = 2.5x + 0.3

51. 5 (y + 3) = 15 (y + 1) − 10y
52. 3 (4 − y) − 2 (y + 7) = −5y
1 1 1 1
53. (2a + 3) − = a +
5 2 3 10
3 3 1
54. a = (1 + 2a) − (a + 5)
2 4 5
55. 6 − 3 (7x + 1) = 7 (4 − 3x)
56. 6 (x − 6) − 3 (2x − 9) = −9
3 2
57.
4
(y − 2) + 3(2y + 3) = 3
5 1 2
58. − (4y − 3) = (y − 1)
4 2 5
59. −2 (3x + 1) − (x − 3) = −7x + 1
60. 6 (2x + 1) − (10x + 9) = 0
61. Solve for w: P = 2l + 2w
62. Solve for A: P =a+b+c
63. Solve for t: D = rt
64. Solve for w: V = lwh
1
65. Solve for b: A = bh
2
 1
66. Solve for A: s = at2
2
1
67. Solve for A: A = h ( a + b)
2
1
68. Solve for h: V = πr2 h
3
5
69. Solve for F: C = (F − 32)
9
70. Solve for x: ax +b=c

PART C: APPLICATIONS

Set up an algebraic equation then solve.

Number Problems

71. When 3 is subtracted from the sum of a number and 10 the result is 2.
Find the number.

72. The sum of 3 times a number and 12 is equal to 3. Find the number.

73. Three times the sum of a number and 6 is equal to 5 times the number.
Find the number.

74. Twice the sum of a number and 4 is equal to 3 times the sum of the number
and
1. Find the number.

75. A larger integer is 1 more than 3 times another integer. If the sum of
the integers is 57, find the integers.

76. A larger integer is 5 more than twice another integer. If the sum of the
integers is 83, find the integers.

77. One integer is 3 less than twice another integer. Find the integers if their
sum is 135.

78. One integer is 10 less than 4 times another integer. Find the integers
if their sum is 100.

79. The sum of three consecutive integers is 339. Find the integers.

80. The sum of four consecutive integers is 130. Find the integers.

81. The sum of three consecutive even integers is 174. Find the integers.

82. The sum of four consecutive even integers is 116. Find the integers.
83. The sum of three consecutive odd integers is 81. Find the integers.

84. The sum of four consecutive odd integers is 176. Find the integers.

Geometry Problems

85. The length of a rectangle is 5 centimeters less than twice its width. If
the perimeter is 134 centimeters, find the length and width.

86. The length of a rectangle is 4 centimeters more than 3 times its width. If
the perimeter is 64 centimeters, find the length and width.

87. The width of a rectangle is one-half that of its length. If the

perimeter measures 36 inches, find the dimensions of the
rectangle.

88. The width of a rectangle is 4 inches less than its length. If the
perimeter measures 72 inches, find the dimensions of the rectangle.

89. The perimeter of a square is 48 inches. Find the length of each side.

90. The perimeter of an equilateral triangle is 96 inches. Find the length

of each side.

91. The circumference of a circle measures 80π units. Find the radius.

92. The circumference of a circle measures 25 centimeters. Find the

radius rounded off to the nearest hundredth.

Simple Interest Problems

1
93. For how many years must $1,000 be invested at 5 % to earn $165 in simple
2
interest?
1
94. For how many years must $20,000 be invested at 6 % to earn $3,125 in
simple
4
interest?

95. At what annual interest rate must $6500 be invested for 2 years to yield
$1,040 in simple interest?

96. At what annual interest rate must $5,750 be invested for 1 year to yield
$333.50 in simple interest?

97. If the simple interest earned for 5 years was $1,860 and the annual interest
rate was 6%, what was the principal?

98. If the simple interest earned for 2 years was $543.75 and the annual
3
interest rate was 3 %, what was the principal?
4
1 10. James and Martin were able to drive the 1,140 miles from Los Angeles
to Seattle. If the total trip took 19 hours, then what was their average
speed?

PART D: DISCUSSION BOARD

111. What is regarded as the main business of algebra? Explain.

112. What is the origin of the word ALGEBRA?

113. Create an identity or contradiction of your own and share it on the

discussion board. Provide a solution and explain how you found it.

114. Post something you found particularly useful or interesting in this

section. Explain why.

115. Conduct a web search for “solving linear equations.” Share a link to
website or video tutorial that you think is helpful.
 1.8 Solving Linear Inequalities with One Variable

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Identify linear inequalities and check solutions.

2. Solve linear inequalities and express the solutions
graphically on a number line and in interval notation.
3. Solve compound linear inequalities and express the
solutions graphically on a number line and in interval
notation.
4. Solve applications involving linear inequalities and interpret the results.

Linear Inequalities

A linear inequality138 is a mathematical statement that relates a linear

expression as either less than or greater than another. The following are some
examples of linear inequalities, all of which are solved in this section:

5x + 7 < −2 (x + 8) + 6 ≥ −2 (4x − 5) < 9 − 2 (x −

22 20 2)

A solution to a linear inequality139 is a real number that will produce a true

statement when substituted for the variable. Linear inequalities have either
infinitely many solutions or no solution. If there are infinitely many solutions,
graph the solution set on a number line and/or express the solution using
interval notation.

138. Linear expressions related

with the symbols ≤, <, ≥, and
>.

139. A real number that produces

a true statement when its
value is substituted for the
variable.

232
 Example 1

Are x = −4 and x = 6 solutions to 5x + 7 <

22?
Solution:

Substitute the values in for x, simplify, and check to see if we obtain

a true
statement.

Check x = −4 Check x =6

5 (−4) + 7 < 5 (6) + 7 <

22 22
−20 + 7 < 22 30 + 7 < 22
−13 < ✓ 37 < 22 ✗
22

Answer: x = −4 is a solution and x = 6 is

not.

All but one of the techniques learned for solving linear equations apply to
solving linear inequalities. You may add or subtract any real number to both
sides of an inequality, and you may multiply or divide both sides by any
positive real number to create equivalent inequalities. For example:

10 > −5
10 − 7 > −5 − 7
3 > −12 ✓ Subtract 7 on both sides.
True

1.8 Solving Linear Inequalities with One 233

Variable
 10 >
−5
Divide both sides by 5.
10
−5 >
5 5
2 > −1 ✓ True

Subtracting 7 from each side and dividing each side by positive 5 results in an
inequality that is true.
Example 2

Solve and graph the solution set: 5x + 7 <

22.
Solution:

5x + 7 < 22
5x + 7 − 7 < 22 −
7
5x5x
<<15
15
55
x<3

It is helpful to take a minute and choose a few values in and out of the solution
set, substitute them into the original inequality, and then verify the results. As
indicated, you should expect x = 0 to solve the original inequality and that
x = 5 should not.

Check x =0 Check x =5

5 (5) + 7 < 22
5 (0) + 7 < 22
25 + 7 < 22
7 < 22 ✓
32 < 22 ✗
 Checking in this manner gives us a good indication that we have solved the
inequality correctly.

We can express this solution in two ways: using set notation and interval
notation.

{x |(x < ) Set notation

3} −∞, Interval
3 notation

In this text we will choose to present answers using interval notation.

Answer: (−∞, 3)

When working with linear inequalities, a different rule applies when

multiplying or dividing by a negative number. To illustrate the problem,
consider the true statement 10 > −5 and divide both sides by −5.

10 >
−5
Divide both sides by − 5.
10 −5
−5 > −5
−2 > 1 ✗ False

Dividing by −5 results in a false statement. To retain a true statement, the

inequality must be reversed.
 10 >
−5
Reverse the inequality.
10 −5
−5 < −5
−2 < 1 ✓ True

The same problem occurs when multiplying by a negative number. This leads to
the following new rule: when multiplying or dividing by A NEGATIVE number, reverse
the INEQUALITY. It is easy to forget to do this so take special care to watch for
negative coefficients. In general, given algebraic expressions A and B, where c is
a positive nonzero real number, we have the following properties of
inequalities140:

Addition property of
inequalities:
If A < B then, A + c < B + c

Subtraction property of
inequalities:
If A < B, then A − c < B − c

If A < B, then cA < cB

Multiplication property of
inequalities:
If A < B, then − cA > −cB

A B
If A < B, then <
c c
Division property of
inequalities: A B
If A < B, then >
−c −c

the same solution set.

140. Properties used to obtain
equivalent inequalities and
used as a means to solve
them.

141. Inequalities that share

We use these
properties to
obtain an
equivalent
inequality141, one
with the same
solution set, where
the variable is
isolated. The
process is similar
to solving linear
equations.
Example 3

Solve and graph the solution set: −2 (x + 8) + 6 ≥

20.
Solution:

−2 (x + 8) + 6 ≥ Distribute.
20 Combine like terms.
−2x − 16 + 6 ≥ Solve f or x.
20 Divide both sides by
−2x −−2x
10 ≥≤2030 − 2.
−2x ≥−2−2
30 Reverse the
x ≤−15 inequality.

Answer: Interval notation (−∞, − 15]

Example 4

Solve and graph the solution set: −2 (4x − 5) < 9 − 2 (x −

2) .

Solution:

−2 (4x − 5)< 9 − 2 (x −
2)
−8x + 10 < 9 − 2x + 4
−8x + 10 < 13 − 2x
−6x < 3
−6x > 3
Reverse the
−6−6
inequality.
x>−
2
1

( )
1
Answer: Interval notation −, ∞2
Example
5 ( )
1 17
Solve and graph the solution set:x 2− 2 ≥ 24 x − 9 + 1.

Solution:

1 17( )
x−2 x − 9+ 1
2 24
≥
1x−2≥7x−9+
282
1
1 x − 7 x ≥− 7 + 2
2 82
− 3 x ≥− 3
8 2
( 8) ( 3 )() ( 8 3)
− −x≤− − Reverse the
3 8 3 2
inequality.
x≤
4

Answer: Interval notation: (−∞, 4]

Try this! Solve and graph the solution set: 10 − 5 (2x + 3) ≤

25.

Answer: [−3, ∞);

 Compound Inequalities

Following are some examples of compound linear inequalities:

−13 < 3x − < 17 4x + ≤ −15 or 6x − >7

7 5 11

These compound inequalities142 are actually two inequalities in one statement

joined by the word AND or by the word or. For example,

−13 < 3x − 7 < 17

is a compound inequality because it can be decomposed as follows:

−13 < 3x − 7 and 3x − 7 < 17

We can solve each inequality individually; the intersection of the two solution
sets solves the original compound inequality. While this method works, there is
another method that usually requires fewer steps. Apply the properties of this
section to all three parts of the compound inequality with the goal of ISOLATING the
VARIABLE in the middle of the statement to determine the bounds of the solution set.

142. Two or more inequalities

in one statement joined by
the word “and” or by the
word “or.”
Example 6

Solve and graph the solution set: −13 < 3x − 7 <

17.
Solution:

−13 < 3x − 7 < 17

−13 + 7 < 3x − 7 + 7 < 17 + 7
−6 < 3x < 24
−6 < 3x < 24
3 3 3
−2 < x < 8

Answer: Interval notation: (−2, 8)

 Example
7 ( )
511
Solve and graph the solution set:≤ 632 x + 4< 2.

Solution:

5 11( )
≤ x + 4< 2
6 32

5≤1x+4<2
66 3
() 5 ( 1 4)
6 ≤6⋅ x < 6 ⋅ (2)
6 6+ 3
⋅
5 ≤ x + 8 < 12
5 − 8 ≤ x + 8 − 8 < 12 −
8
−3 ≤ x < 4

Answer: Interval notation [−3, 4)

It is important to note that when multiplying or dividing all three parts of a

compound inequality by a negative number, you must reverse all of the
inequalities in the statement. For example:

−10 < −2x < 20

−10 −2x 20
> >
−2 −2 −2
5 > x > −10

The answer above can be written in an equivalent form, where smaller

numbers lie to the left and the larger numbers lie to the right, as they appear
on a number line.
 −10 < x < 5

Using interval notation, write: (−10, 5) .

Try this! Solve and graph the solution set: −3 ≤ −3 (2x − 3) <
15.

Answer: (−1, 2];

For compound inequalities with the word “or” you work both inequalities
separately and then consider the union of the solution sets. Values in this
union solve either inequality.
 Example 8

Solve and graph the solution set: 4x + 5 ≤ −15 or 6x − 11 >

7.
Solution:

Solve each inequality and form the union by combining the solution sets.

4x + 5 ≤−15 6x − 11 > 7
4x ≤−20 or 6x >
18
x ≤−5 x>3

Answer: Interval notation (−∞, −5] ∪ (3, ∞)

( the solution
Try this! Solve and graph )
5 x − 3) < −20 or 2 5 − 3 x < 1.
set:
(
( ) ( )
3
Answer: − ∞, −1 ∪, ∞ 2;

Applications of Linear Inequalities

Some of the key words and phrases that indicate inequalities are
summarized below:
Key Phrases Translation

A number is at least 5.

x≥5
A number is 5 or more inclusive.

A number is at most 3.

x≤3
A number is 3 or less inclusive.

A number is strictly less than 4.

x<4
A number is less than 4, noninclusive.

A number is greater than 7.

x>7
A number is more than 7, noninclusive.

A number is in between 2 and 10. 2 < x < 10

A number is at least 5 and at most 15. 5 ≤ x ≤ 15

 Key Phrases Translation

A number may range from 5 to 15.

As with all applications, carefully read the problem several times and look for
key words and phrases. Identify the unknowns and assign variables. Next,
translate the wording into a mathematical inequality. Finally, use the properties
you have learned to solve the inequality and express the solution graphically or
in interval notation.
Example
9
Seven less than 3 times the sum of a number and 5 is at most 11. Find all
numbers that satisfy this condition.

Solution:

First, choose a variable for the unknown number and identify the key words
and phrases.

Let n represent the unknown indicated by “A

number.”

Solve for n.

3 (n + 5) − 7 ≤
11
3n + 15 − 7 ≤
11
3n + 8 ≤ 11
3n ≤ 3
n≤1

Answer: Any number less than or equal to 1 will satisfy the statement.
 Example
10
To earn a B in a mathematics course the test average must be at least 80% and
less than 90%. If a student earned 92%, 96%, 79%, and 83% on the first four tests,
what must she score on the fifth test to earn a B?

Solution:

Set up a compound inequality where the test average is between 80% and 90%.
In this case, include the lower bound, 80.

Let x represent the score on the fifth

test.

80 ≤ test < 90
80 ≤ 92 + 96 + 79 + 83 + x < 90
average
5
5 ⋅ 350 +
5 ⋅ 80 <5⋅
5 x
≤ 90
350 +
400 ≤ x < 450
50 ≤ x < 100

Answer: She must earn a score of at least 50% and less than 100%.

In the previous example, the upper bound 100% was not part of the solution
set. What would happen if she did earn a 100% on the fifth test?

92 + 96 + 79 + 83 + 100
average= 5
450
=
5
= 90
As we can see, her average would be 90%, which would earn her an A.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

• Inequalities typically have infinitely many solutions. The solutions

are presented graphically on a number line or using interval
notation or both.
• All but one of the rules for solving linear inequalities are the
same as solving linear equations. If you divide or multiply an
inequality by a negative number, reverse the inequality to
obtain an equivalent inequality.
• Compound inequalities involving the word “or” require us to
solve each inequality and form the union of each solution set.
These are the values that solve at least one of the given
inequalities.
• Compound inequalities involving the word “and” require the
intersection of the solution sets for each inequality. These are the
values that solve both or all of the given inequalities.
• The general guidelines for solving word problems apply to
applications involving inequalities. Be aware of a new list of key
words and phrases that indicate a mathematical setup involving
inequalities.
 TOPIC EXERCISES

PART A: LINEAR INEQUALITIES

Determine whether or not the given value is a solution.

1. 5x − 1 < −2; x = −1
2. −3x + 1 > −10; x = 1
3. 2x − 3 < −5; x = 1
4. 5x − 7 < 0; x = 2
5. 9y − 4 ≥ 5 ; y = 1
6. −6y + 1 ≤ 3 ; y = −1
1
7. 12a + 3 ≤ −2; a = −
3
4
8. 25a − 2 ≤ −22; a = −
5
1
9. −10 < 2x − 5 < −5 ; x = −
2

10. 3x + 8 < −2 or 4x − 2 > 5 ; x = 2

Graph all solutions on a number line and provide the corresponding

interval notation.

11. 3x + 5 > −4
12. 2x + 1 > −1
13. 5 − 6y < −1
14. 7 − 9y > 43
15. 6 −a≤6
16. −2a +5>5
5x+6
17. ≤7
3
4x+11 1
18. 6 ≤ 2
 1 5 1
19. y+ ≥
2 4 4
1 2 5
20. y+ ≤
12 3 6
21. 2 (3x + 14) < −2
22. 5 (2y + 9) > −15
23. 5 − 2 (4 + 3y) ≤ 45
24. −12 + 5 (5 − 2x) < 83
25. 6 (7 − 2a) + 6a ≤ 12
26. 2a + 10 (4 − a) ≥ 8
27. 9 (2t − 3) − 3 (3t + 2) < 30
28. −3 (t − 3) − (4 − t) > 1
1 5 4
29.
2
(5x + 4) + 6 x > − 3
2 1 1
+ (2x − 3) ≥ 30.
5 6 15
31. 5x − 2 (x − 3) < 3 (2x − 1)
32. 3 (2x − 1) − 10 > 4 (3x − 2) − 5x
33. −3y ≥ 3 (y + 8) + 6 (y − 1)
34. 12 ≤ 4 (y − 1) + 2 (2y + 1)

35. −2 (5t − 3) − 4 > 5 (−2t + 3)

36. −7 (3t − 4) > 2 (3 − 10t) − t
37.
1 (x + 5) − 1 (2x + 3) > 7 x + 3
2 3 6 2
1 1 1 3
38. − (2x − 3) + ( x − 6 ) ≥ x −
3 4 12 4
39. 4 (3x + 4) ≥ 3 (6x + 5) − 6x

40. 1 − 4 (3x + 7) < −3 (x + 9) − 9x

41. 6 − 3 (2a − 1) ≤ 4 (3 − a) + 1
42. 12 − (2a + ≥ 2 (5 − 4a) a
5 6) −
PART B: C O M P O U N D INEQUALITIES

Graph all solutions on a number line and provide the corresponding

interval notation.

43. −1 < 2x + 1 < 9

44. −4 < 5x + 11 < 16
45. −7 ≤ 6y − 7 ≤ 17
46. −7 ≤ 3y + 5 ≤ 2
3x+1
47. −7 < ≤8
2
2x+7
48. −1 ≤ <1
3
49. −4 ≤ 11 − 5t < 31
50. 15 < 12 − t ≤ 16
1 1 1 1
51. − ≤ a+ ≤
13 61 35 23
52. − < a+ <
6 3 6 2
53. 5x + 2 < −3 or 7x − 6 > 15
54. 4x + 15 ≤ −1 or 3x − 8 ≥ −11
55. 8x − 3 ≤ 1 or 6x − 7 ≥ 8
56. 6x + 1 < −3 or 9x − 20 > −5
57. 8x − 7 < 1 or 4x + 11 > 3
58. 10x − 21 < 9 or 7x + 9 ≥ 30
59. 7 + 2y < 5 or 20 − 3y > 5
60. 5 − y < 5 or 7 − 8y ≤ 23
61. 15 + 2x < −15 or 10 − 3x > 40
1 1
62. 10 − x ≤ 5 or 5 − x ≤ 15
3 2
63. 9 − 2x ≤ 15 and 5x − 3 ≤ 7
64. 5 − 4x > 1 and 15 + 2x ≥ 5
65. 7y − 18 < 17 and 2y − 15 < 25
66. 13y + 20 ≥ 7 and 8 + 15y > 8
67. 5 − 4x ≤ 9 and 3x + 13 ≤ 1
68. 17 − 5x ≥ 7 and 4x − 7 > 1
69. 9y + 20 ≤ 2 and 7y + 15 ≥ 1
70. 21 − 6y ≤ 3 and − 7 + 2y ≤ −1
71. −21 < 6 (x − 3) < −9
72. 0 ≤ 2 (2x + 5) < 8

73. −15 ≤ 5 + 4 (2y − 3) < 17

74. 5 < 8 − 3 (3 − 2y) ≤ 29
75. 5 < 5 − 3 (4 + t) < 17
76. −3 ≤ 3 − 2 (5 + 2t) ≤ 21

77. −40 < 2 (x + 5) − (5 − x) ≤ −10

78. −60 ≤ 5 (x − 4) − 2 (x + 5) ≤ 15
1 1 1
79. − < (x − 10) <
21 30 1 13
80. − ≤ (x − 7) ≤
5 a 15
+ 2 (a − 2) 3
81. −1 ≤ ≤0
5
5 + 2 (a − 1)
82. 0 < <2
6
PART C: APPLICATIONS

Find all numbers that satisfy the given condition.

 83. Three less than twice the sum of a number and 6 is at most 13.

84. Five less than 3 times the sum of a number and 4 is at most 10.

85. Five times the sum of a number and 3 is at least 5.

86. Three times the difference between a number and 2 is at least 12.

87. The sum of 3 times a number and 8 is between 2 and 20.

88. Eight less than twice a number is between −20 and −8.

89. Four subtracted from three times some number is between −4 and 14.

90. Nine subtracted from 5 times some number is between 1 and 11.

Set up an algebraic inequality and then solve.

91. With a golf club membership, costing $120 per month, each round of golf
costs only $35.00. How many rounds of golf can a member play if he
wishes to keep his costs $270 per month at most?

92. A rental truck costs $95 per day plus $0.65 per mile driven. How many
miles can be driven on a one-day rental to keep the cost at most $120?

93. Mark earned 6, 7, and 10 points out of 10 on the first three quizzes. What
must he score on the fourth quiz to average at least 8?

94. Joe earned scores of 78, 82, 88 and 70 on his first four algebra exams.
What must he score on the fifth exam to average at least 80?

95. A gymnast scored 13.2, 13.0, 14.3, 13.8, and 14.6 on the first five
events. What must he score on the sixth event to average at least 14.0?

96. A dancer scored 7.5 and 8.2 from the first two judges. What must her
score from the third judge come in as if she is to average 8.4 or
higher?

97. If two times an angle is between 180 degrees and 270 degrees, then
1
what are the bounds of the original angle?

98. The perimeter of a square must be between 120 inches and 460 inches.
PART D: DISCUSSION BOARD

1. 1 students reverse the inequality when solving 5x + 2 < −18 ?

Often
Why do you think this is a common error? Explain to a beginning algebra
student why we do not.

2. Conduct a web search for “solving linear inequalities.” Share a link to

website or video tutorial that you think is helpful.

3. Write your own 5 key takeaways for this entire chapter. What did you
find to be review and what did you find to be new? Share your thoughts
on the discussion board.