Chapter 1

Project Introduction

1.1 Intoduction

A public address system is an electronic amplification system used for communication in public
areas. Simply means it allows you to spread/broadcast information to a large group of people,
whether you are giving a speech or doing a live performance (i.e singing/playing live)[1].

A public Address system consist of input sources, preamplifiers, control and monitoring
equipments, and loudspeakers. Input sources refer to the microphones that provides a sound
input for the sytem[2]. A microphone is a device that converts sound waves into electrical waves.
These sound waves/input sources are fed into the preamplifier. The preamplifier signals are
passed into the audio power amplifier. This amplifier will amplify the audio signal to an
adequate speaker line level, since a wireless microphone is used in this project; A wireless
microphone is one in which communication is not limited by cable. A transmitter is extremely
important in a wireless public address system. Its purpose is to produce radio waves for
transmission into space. The important components of a transmitter are microphone, audio
amplifier, oscillator and modulator. It usually sends its signal using a small FM radio transmitter
to a nearby receiver connected to the sound system, but it can also use infared light if the
transmitter and receiver are within a close range of each other. The transmitter is responsible for
taking in the signal from the microphone, modulating it, and transmitting it to the receiver using
radio waves[1][2].

In general this project is specified on audio power amplifier. Audio power amplifiers are
those amplifiers which are designed to drive loud speakers.

1.2 Problem Statement

This project is designed to overcome and solve problems that usually occur in classrooms and
large auditoriums. If the classroom does not have a wireless public address system to help the
lecturer to make a clear speech and announcement while moving freely and easily from one end
of the classroom to the other. Secondly large wireless public address system use a lot of setting
and time to configure it. The third problem is large public address system use a lot of space in the
classroom besides the noisy situation sometimes may cause the lecturer not to be heard properly
especially for students at the back of the classroom[3].
1.3 Objectives

The Objective of this project is to study, design and develop an amplifier, First to design and
make a simple amplifier that can be used in the classroom. Secondly to integrate the public
address system into a PC(personal computer) casing. Thirdly is to design the amplifier that uses
power from the PC power supply and have a backup power source. Fourthly is to build a wireless
microphone thay connects to the public address system circuit. Lastly is to design useful audio
equipment that is easy to use.

1.4 Scope of Project

The following list is the scope work of this project to design a power amplifier, designing a
suitable pre-amp, design a cordless microphone, select suitable loudspeaker, and a rechargeable
power supply.

The project will include the etching process, drilling and soldering the circuit .

1.5 Report Structure

Chapter 1 (i.e. Introduction) discussed the public address system, the objectives of the
project, and also assumption of the project

Chapter 2 (i.e. Literature Review) will discuss the many types of device and components that
can be used to construct an amplifier, preamp, cordless microphone and power supply. The
literature review is very important in determining the best components that have been proposed
to be used in this project.

Chapter 3 (i.e. Methodology) will discuss the methodology/ methods that were used to
complete this project. The outer look of the portable amplifier and the circuit layout is also
discussed.

Chapter 4 (i.e. The Result and Analysis) will discuss the hardware development and analysis.
All the output from this system can be observed

Chapter 5 (i.e. Conclusion) will discuss the analysis and findings from the project. This will
determine if the project was successful or not.
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Ancient Medium of information Transmission

In ancient means of communication, they used very less technology and depended upon manual
work. The ancient means of communication were slow[4].

Information transmission is the process of sending information or message from person to

another or from one source to another source. Information transmission has two modes.
TRANSMITTING is the act of transferring something (message) from one spot to another, from
one person to another or from one device to another. Eg radio or television broadcast, or a
disease[4]. Phone conversation, Internet Chatting etc
There are two modes of information transmission
Synchronous and Asynchronous
Ancient method of transmitting information
• town crier
• oral
• news paper
• beating drums
• magazines
• telephone
• Fire lighting

TOWN CRIER: A town crier is a person employed to make public announcements in the streets
or marketplace of a town. This is a from of oral method in the olden days people that do it uses
loud voice to transmitting information to people . He shouts with loud voices so that people from
distance can get the information
ORAL: this is the era of our great grandfather, when information is been sent to people by
verbal. Someone will be going to one society to another to give them the latest news in town, this
method needs no shouting
BEATING DRUM: In the olden days people use drum to transmitted information to the villages
MAGAZINES AND NEWSPAPERS: are paper media that allows communication to circulate
through the nook and cranny of the world .people that does not have money stop by the vendors
spot to read paper and drop it after reading.

CLASSIFICATION OF INFORMATION TRANSMISSION

 Electronic And Non-Electronic
1. ELECTRONIC: is all the muscle method of transmitting information are electronic, except
text book, newspaper and magazines, which are paper media, example includes radio, internet,
telecommunication, GSM, fax machine, telephone etc.
2. NON-ELECTRONIC: is the method of transmitting information are the newspaper and
magazines and text book are non-electronic examples oral, town crier, newspaper, beating
drum, magazines, drawing diagrams etc

2.2 Modern medium approach

modern means of communication use more technology and less manual work. Modern also
means fast and sometimes instantaneous
Computer is very useful in our society now; its usefulness has made it relevant in the society. It
has contributed immensely to the growth and development of the society. One may say that
computer is used in every field of human endeavors because of its importance. We are now in
computerized word, so everybody should at least have little knowledge of computer. Diverse
ways which the computer has contributed in our society are in education, teleconferencing, video
conferencing, medicine, sports, research, business, aviation, banking sector and lots of more[5].
• COMPUTER IN EDUCATION; PC have become an essential tool in education at all levels
from grammar school to universities. Many school children are given laptop computers to help
with schoolwork and homework. Classroom of all kinds commonly use computer.
• TELECONFERENCING: Teleconferencing is an important form of enterprise collaboration.
Session are heal in real time, with major participant being televised while participant at remote
place may only take part with voice, input of question and response.
• VIDEO CONFERECING: Videoconferencing afford new ways for communication and
collaboration between people at almost any location within the world. It involves the
transmission of visual and sound to two or more separate location through the use of cameras,
speakers and microphones.
• DISTANCE LEARNING: Distance learning is the method of learning at a distance rather
than in a classroom. The term distance learning was coined within the context of a continuity
communication revolution, largely replacing a hitherto confusing mixed nomenclature – home
study, independent study, external study, and, most common, though restricted in pedagogic
means, correspondence study.
• MESSAGING: Text messaging, methods of communication allowing cellular, or mobile,
phone user to exchange brief note typically up to 160 characters in length. In the United
Kingdom alone, nearly 2 billion messages are sent every month. This equates to one per person
per day, although teenagers account for the vast majority (five per day per person, on average).
• E-MAIL: (ELECTRONIC MAIL): Transmission of electronic messages between computers
via network. Millions of e-mails are exchanged every day-virtually every business relies on it
and many people see it as their preferred method of communication. For its ubiquity and
importance e-mail is very simple and has humble roots.
• TELECOMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING: Telecommunications, communications
over a distance using technology to overcome that distance. It usually means the transmission
 of words, sounds, pictures, or data in form of electronic signals or impulses, sent either as an
individual message between two parties or as a broadcast to be received at any location.
• TELEPRESENCE: This is the virtual presence of someone whose action are transmitted by
electronic signals to a physically remote site, example is in telesurgery (remote surgery) is a
surgery carried out by a surgeon who is not physically present at the site of the operation, using
specialized electronic communications and robots.
• COMPUTER IN MEDICAL SECTOR: Before the invention of computer, doctor and nurses
have strained themselves in routine work connected with clinical diagnosis, they can carry out
investigations using computer, reporting laboratory tests, and printed out hard copies.
• COMPUTER IN BANKING SECTOR: Banking has now become almost totally dependent
on the computer system. The Computer has taken care of the huge work that would have been
needed in today’s file recording and book keeping. The introduction of ATM system has
almost increased the output of some banks to 90%[5].

2.3 Public Address system

As confirmed above (i.e in the introduction) A public address system is an electronic
amplification system used for communication in public areas. Simply means it allows you to
spread/broadcast information to a large group of people, whether you are giving a speech or
doing a live performance (i.e singing/playing live)[1]. It consist of two working systems that
make it not just a public address system but a wireless public Address system. They are The
Transmitter system and The Reciever system..

2.3.1The input source

The input source is any device that provides a suitable audio signal to the transmitter. "Suitable
audio signal" means an electrical signal within a certain frequency range (audio), voltage range
(microphone level or line level), and impedance range (low or high) that can be handled by the
transmitter. Though this places some limits on input sources, it will be seen that almost any type
of audio signal can be used with one system or another. The most common input source is a
microphone, which may take any one of a variety of forms: handheld, lavaliere, headworn,
instrument-mounted, etc. The audio signal provided by this source is audio frequency,
microphone level, and usually low impedance. Since the "wireless" part of the wireless
microphone only serves to replace the cable, ideally, the characteristics and performance of a
particular microphone should not change when used as part of a wireless microphone system.
Therefore, the selection of microphone type for a wireless microphone system should be made
following the same guidelines as for wired microphones. The usual choices of operating
principle (dynamic/condenser), frequency response (flat/shaped), directionality (omnidirectional/
unidirectional), electrical output (balanced/ unbalanced, low or high impedance), and physical
design (size, shape, mounting, etc.) must still be made correctly. Problems that result from
improper microphone choice will only be aggravated in a wireless application[6]. Another
widely encountered input source is an electronic musical instrument, such as an electric guitar,
electric bass, or portable electronic keyboard. The signal from these sources is again audio
frequency, microphone or line level, and usually high impedance. The potentially higher signal
levels and high impedances can affect transmitter choice and operation. Finally, general audio
signal sources such as mixer outputs, portable music players, laptop computers, etc. may be
considered. These exhibit a wide range of levels and impedances. However, as long as these
characteristics are within the input capabilities of the transmitter they may be successfully used.

2.3.1 The Transmitter System

Transmitters can be either fixed or portable as mentioned earlier. Regardless of type, transmitters
usually feature a single audio input (line or microphone type), various controls and indicators
and a single antenna. Internally, they are also functionally the same, except for the power
supply: AC power for fixed types and battery power for portable models. The important features
of transmitter design will be presented in the context of portable units. Portable transmitters are
available in three principal forms: bodypack, handheld, and plug-on. (See Figure 2-1.) Each of
these has further variations of inputs, controls, indicators, and antennas. The choice of
transmitter type is often dictated by the choice of input source: handheld microphones usually
require handheld or plug-on transmitters while nearly all other sources are used with bodypack
types. Bodypack (sometimes called beltpack) transmitters are typically packaged in a shirt-
pocket sized rectangular housing. They are often provided with a clip that secures the transmitter
to clothing or a belt, or may be placed in a pocket or pouch. In theater and some other
applications they may be concealed underneath clothing. Input is made from the source to the
bodypack via a cable, which may be permanently attached or detachable at a connector. This
connector may allow a variety of input sources to be used with one transmitter. Bodypack
transmitter controls include at least a power switch and sometimes a separate mute switch,
allowing the audio input to be silenced without interrupting the radio signal. Other controls may
include gain adjustment, attenuators, limiters and of course a provision for transmitter frequency
selection. Indicators for power-on and battery condition are typical, as well as some form of
frequency indication. A few transmitters are equipped with audio "peak" indicators. High
performance transmitters may feature menu-driven displays that offer customization of the
transmitter operation. Finally, the antenna for a bodypack transmitter may be in…
(fig2-1).

the form of a flexible attached wire, a detachable short "rubber ducky" type, or the input source
cable itself, such as a guitar cable or lavaliere microphone cable. In some models the antenna is
internal to the unit. Handheld transmitters, as the name implies, consist of a handheld vocal
microphone element integrated with a transmitter built into the handle. The complete package
appears only slightly larger than a wired handheld microphone. It may be carried in the hand or
mounted on a microphone stand using an appropriate swivel adapter. Input from the microphone
element is direct via an internal connector or wires. Some models have removable or
interchangeable microphone elements. Handheld transmitter controls typically include power,
gain adjustment, frequency selection and sometimes a mute function. Indicators are comparable
to those in bodypack transmitters: power status, battery condition, frequency. Again, high
performance models may feature menu-driven displays. Handheld transmitter antennas are
usually concealed internally, though certain types (primarily UHF) may use a short external
antenna. "Plug-on" transmitters are a special type designed to attach directly to a typical
handheld microphone, effectively allowing many standard microphones to become "wireless."
The transmitter is contained in a small rectangular or cylindrical housing with an integral female
XLR-type input connector. Controls and indicators are comparable to those found in bodypack
types and the antenna is usually internal. Two additional transmitter types are those integrated
with a gooseneck microphone or with a boundary microphone. These are frequently found in
conference and meeting room applications when it is not practical to use traditional wired
versions. The transmitter circuitry is the same as is used in bodypack types but the antenna is
internal. Again, the microphone characteristics are dictated by the application requirements.
While transmitters vary considerably in their external appearance, internally they all must
accomplish the same task: use the input audio signal to modulate a radio carrier and transmit the
resulting radio signal effectively. Though there are many different ways to engineer wireless…
 (fig2-2) general Transmitter block diagram

transmitters, certain functional elements are common to most current designs, whether analog or
digital. It is useful to describe these elements to gain some insight to the overall performance and
use of wireless audio systems. (See Figure 2-2.) The similarities and differences between analog
and digital approaches will be noted where appropriate

2.3.2 Transmitter Audio Circuit

The first part of the typical transmitter is the input circuitry. This section makes the proper
electrical match between the input source and the rest of the transmitter. It must handle the
expected range of input levels and present the correct impedance to the source. Gain controls and
impedance switches allow greater flexibility in some designs. In certain cases, the input circuitry
also provides an electrical voltage to the source (for condenser microphone elements). Note that
this “bias” voltage (typically about 5vdc) is only intended to operate the impedance converter in
a miniature condenser element. It is not the same as phantom power that is used to operate a
complete condenser microphone. However, some plug-on transmitters are capable of providing
phantom power to use with standard design condenser microphones. The signal from the input
stage passes to the signal processing section, which optimizes the audio signal in several ways
for the constraints imposed by radio transmission. While the input stage is generally an
analog…….circuit, the signal processing which follows may be either analog or digital,
depending on whether the transmitter is fully analog, fully digital, or a hybrid type. In a fully
analog transmitter, the first process is a special equalization called pre-emphasis, that is
employed to minimize the level of high frequency noise (hiss) that occurs during the FM
transmission process. The "emphasis" is a specifically tailored boost of the high frequencies.
When this is coupled with an equal (but opposite) "de-emphasis" in the receiver, the effect is a
reduction of high frequency noise by up to 30 dB. The second process in a fully analog
transmitter is called "companding" (compress/expand), which is designed to compensate for the
limited dynamic range of analog radio transmission. The part of the process performed by the
transmitter is "compression," in which the dynamic range of the audio signal is reduced or
compressed, typically by a fixed ratio of 2:1. Again, when this is coupled with an equal but
opposite (1:2) "expansion" in the receiver, the original dynamic range of the audio signal is
restored. A voltagecontrolled-amplifier (VCA) is the circuit element that provides both dynamic
functions: gain is decreased in the compressor mode and increased in the expander mode. The
gain change is proportional to the signal level change. Nearly all current analog wireless audio
systems employ some form of companding, allowing a potential dynamic range greater than 100
dB. A limitation of fixed-ratio companders is that the same amount of signal processing is
applied regardless of signal level. Dynamics processors perform compression or expansion
functions based on an evaluation of the average signal level, which fluctuates continuously.
Because this process is not instantaneous, the compander action is not completely transparent.
With good design, audible artifacts are minimal but may become more apparent when the signal
level is extremely low. This accounts for occasional "modulation" noise or background noise
intrusion that accompanies low-level audio signals, especially when the radio signal itself is
weak or noisy. The performance of full-band companding systems can be improved by first
optimizing the measurement of the average signal level. A "true RMS" detector is preferred,
since this technique most closely tracks the amplitude of a full range audio signal, regardless of
frequency response. Further improvement can be realized by using level dependent companding.
For low level audio signals, little or no processing is applied so there are no audible effects. As
the audio signal level increases, processing levels are increased, so that potentially audible
artifacts are masked. Implementation of this scheme requires a high performance VCA and close
tolerance in the audio sections of transmitters and receivers. A variation that is found in a few
compander designs is to divide the audio signal into two or more frequency bands. Each band is
then pre-emphasized and compressed independently. In the receiver, de-emphasis and expansion
are applied separately to these same bands before combining them back into a full-range audio
signal. Though more expensive, multi-band companding systems may have better ability to
improve dynamic range and apparent signal-to-noise ratio across the entire audio range. In many
transmitters, an additional process called limiting is applied to the audio signal. This is to prevent
overload and distortion in subsequent audio stages or to prevent "over modulation" (excessive
frequency deviation) of the FM radio signal. The "limiter" automatically prevents the audio
signal level from exceeding some preset maximum level and is usually applied after pre-
emphasis and companding. In a hybrid transmitter, the audio processing described above is
implemented using digital signal processing (DSP). These "hybrid" systems transmit an analog
RF signal but the audio path in the transmitter and/or receiver passes through DSP circuitry. DSP
can overcome many of the limitations of analog signal processing noted above, resulting in even
better frequency response, wider dynamic range, and lower distortion than a fully analog system.
A fully digital transmitter does not attempt to duplicate any of these analog processes. Rather,
the analog signal from the input stage is passed directly to an analog-to digital converter (ADC).
The resulting digital data stream passes to a DSP that performs multiple steps. The digital data is
processed into a stream of digital "words" that contain the coded audio as well as timing and
error correction values. Additional data may include battery level, audio gain settings, and other
transmitter information. This processed data stream is then passed to the radio transmitter section

2.3.3 Transmitter Radio Circuit

In a fully analog transmitter or in a hybrid transmitter, the processed audio signal is sent to a
voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO). This is the section that actually converts the audio signal to
a radio signal by the technique called frequency modulation (FM). The (relatively) low
frequency audio signal controls a high frequency oscillator to produce a radio signal whose
frequency "modulates" or varies in direct proportion to the audio signal. The modulation rate is
equal to the audio frequency and the modulation amount is equal to the audio amplitude. The
maximum value of modulation is called the deviation and is usually specified in kilohertz (KHz).
(See Figures 2-3 a & b.) Though an un-modulated carrier occupies only a “single” frequency, the
modulated carrier occupies a range of frequencies defined by the deviation of the signal. If the
deviation is +/- 45 kHz, then the minimum occupied bandwidth of the signal is 90 kHz. Allowing
for some operating area around the FM signal the effective occupied bandwidth is approximately
twice the deviation or about 180 kHz. Ultimately, the maximum allowable bandwidth of an FM
signal is restricted by regulations in each specific radio frequency band. In the US for example,
the maximum occupied bandwidth of an FM signal in the UHF range is less than 200 kHz. The
amount of deviation produced by the audio signal is a function of the design of the transmitter.
Systems with

(Fig 2-3a) Unmodulated FM Signal

 (Fig 2-3b) Modulated FM Signal

deviation greater than the modulating frequency are called wideband, while systems with
deviation less than the modulating frequency are called narrow band. Typical deviation for FM
wireless audio systems is +/- 45 kHz. Since the highest modulating frequency is perhaps 20 kHz,
most high performance analog wireless audio transmitters fall into the lower end of the wideband
category. Narrowband systems are primarily used in intercom, IFB and speech only applications.
The smaller occupied bandwidth of the narrowband design allows a greater number of
simultaneous systems with some reduction in audio fidelity. The “base” or unmodulated
frequency of the VCO for most tunable systems is adjustable by a technique known as frequency
synthesis. A control circuit called a phase locked-loop (PLL) is used to calibrate the transmitter
frequency to a reference "clock" frequency through an adjustable frequency divider. By changing
the divider in discrete steps, the transmitter base frequency can be precisely varied or tuned over
the desired range. Frequency synthesized designs allow the audio signal to modulate the VCO
directly at the transmitter frequency. (See Figure 2-4.) For a digital transmitter, the data stream
must pass through a DAC (digital-to-analog converter) to provide a series of discrete control
voltages to the modulating circuit of the transmitter. The transmitter itself may produce ASK,
FSK, PSK or other discrete value output as needed and it is again tunable by means of a
frequency-synthesized VCO. (See Figure 2-5.)……..

fig 2-4 frequency-synthesized transmitter

 fig 2-5 frequency-synthesized digital transmitter

As noted earlier, the principal difference between the output of an analog (or hybrid) transmitter
and a digital transmitter is in the nature of the modulation. The analog modulation is continuous
within its limits while the digital modulation has only discrete values within its limits. A
consequence of this difference is that an analog signal is only fully modulated when an audio
signal is present while a digital signal is fully modulated whether audio is present or not. Thus
the occupied bandwidth of a digital signal is constant while the occupied bandwidth of an analog
signal varies with the amplitude of the analog signal. The final stage of both analog and digital
transmitters is a radio frequency (RF) power amplifier. Typical output power values may range
from about 1mW up to 250mW, though this is usually restricted by regulatory agencies. It is
often dependent on the modulation scheme and on the frequency band of operation. The last
internal element of the transmitter is the power supply. For portable transmitters, power is
generally supplied by batteries. Since the voltage level of batteries falls as they are discharged, it
is necessary to design the device to operate over a wide range of voltage or to employ voltage-
regulating circuitry. Designs requiring a 9 V battery typically use the battery voltage directly.
Transmitters using 1.5 V cells use DC to-DC converters that maintain constant internal voltage
levels by increasing battery current as the battery voltage decreases. This technique yields stable
operation during the entire battery discharge cycle and permits very efficient battery operation.
Units equipped with such voltage regulation must have a suitable protection circuit to avoid
battery damage due to excess current draw. In addition, battery run-time indicators can be made
more accurate since they monitor both current and voltage throughout operation. In practice,
battery life varies widely among transmitters, from just a few hours up to perhaps twenty hours,
depending on output power, battery type, and overall circuit efficiency

2.3.4 Receiver System:

General Description Receivers are available in both fixed and portable designs. Portable
receivers resemble portable transmitters externally: they are characterized by small size, one or
two outputs (microphone/line, headphone), minimal controls and indicators (power, level), and
(usually) a single antenna. Internally they are functionally similar to fixed receivers, again with
the exception of the power supply (battery vs. AC). The important features of receivers will be
presented in the context of fixed units, which exhibit a greater range of choices. Fixed receivers
offer various outward features: units may be free standing or rack-mountable; outputs may
include balanced/unbalanced microphone or line level as well as…

(Fig 2-6) frequency synthesized Digital Receiver

headphones; indicators for power and audio/radio signal level may be present; controls for power
and output level are usually offered; antennas may be removable or permanently attached. Like
transmitters, receivers can vary greatly in packaging, but inside they must achieve a common
goal: receive the radio signal efficiently and convert it into a suitable audio signal output. Once
again it will be useful to look at the main functional elements of the typical receiver. for digital
receivers. (See Figure 2-6.) Above.

Receiver Radio Circuit

The first section of receiver circuitry is the "front end." Its function is to provide a first stage of
radio frequency (RF) filtering to prevent unwanted radio signals from causing interference in
subsequent stages. It should effectively reject signals that are substantially above or below the
operating frequency of the receiver. For a single frequency receiver the front end can be fairly
narrow. For a tunable receiver it must be wide enough to accommodate the desired range of
frequencies if the front end filter itself is not tunable. In order to accommodate very wide tuning
ranges, a track-tuned front-end filter is sometimes used. This is a relatively narrow filter that is
automatically centered on the tuned frequency to prevent excessive off-channel radio energy
from entering the receiver.

The second receiver section is the "local oscillator" (usually abbreviated as "LO"). This circuit
generates an unmodulated radio frequency that is related to the frequency of the received radio
signal but differs by some "defined amount." A typical value of this “defined amount” is 10.7
MHz. For example, if the desired receiver frequency is 200 MHz, the required LO frequency
would be 210.7 MHz. A tunable (frequency agile) receiver has an adjustable LO, which
generally uses a frequency synthesis design. The receiver is tuned to a desired frequency by
tuning the LO to the desired frequency plus the “defined amount”. In the above example, in order
to tune the receiver to a frequency of 180 MHz, the LO would be set to 190.7 MHz (180 MHz +
10.7 MHz). Next, the (filtered) received signal and the local oscillator output are input to the
"mixer" section. The mixer, in a radio receiver, is a circuit that combines these signals by a
process called "heterodyning." This process produces multiple output signals: one signal is at a
frequency that is the sum of the received signal frequency and the local oscillator frequency,
while another is at a frequency that is the difference between the received signal frequency and
the local oscillator frequency. Additionally, integral multiples of the LO frequency and the
received signal frequency are generated in the mixer. Note that in the heterodyning process, any
output signal that is related to the received (modulated) signal also contains the modulation
information. Specifically, both the sum and the difference signals contain the audio information
carried by the received signal. All of the signals produced by the mixer are then sent to a band-
pass filter stage that is tuned to the frequency of the difference signal. This frequency is the
"intermediate frequency" (IF), so-called because it is lower than the received radio frequency but
still higher than the final audio frequency. It is also the "defined amount" used to determine the
local oscillator frequency of the previous section. The narrowly tuned IF filters are designed to
completely reject the sum signal, as well as the LO frequency (and its multiples), the original
received signal (and its multiples), and any other higher frequency radio signals that may have
passed through the front end filter. The IF filter allows only the difference signal to pass through.
Since the IF signal still contains the modulation information, this effectively converts the
received radio frequency (RF) signal to the much lower intermediate frequency (IF)

signal and makes subsequent signal processing more efficient. This overall process is called
"down conversion." If only one LO and one mixer stage are used then only one intermediate
frequency is produced and the receiver is said to be a "single conversion" type. In a "double
conversion" receiver the incoming signal is converted to the final IF in two successive stages,
each with its own LO and mixer. This technique can provide increased stability and interference
rejection, though at significantly higher design complexity and cost. Double conversion is more
common in UHF receiver designs where the received signal frequency is extremely high. It
should be noted that the LO frequency can be above or below the received frequency and still
yield the same difference frequency when combined in the mixer. When the LO frequency is
lower than the received frequency the design is called "low-side injection." When it is above it is
called "high-side injection." In an analog (or hybrid) receiver, the IF signal is finally input to the
"detector" stage which "demodulates" or extracts the audio signal by one of several methods.
One standard technique is known as "quadrature." When two signals are out of phase with each
other by exactly 90 degrees they are said to be in quadrature. When such signals are multiplied
together and low-pass filtered the resulting output signal consists only of the frequency
variations of the original input signal. This effectively eliminates the (high-frequency) carrier
frequency leaving only the low-frequency modulation information (the original audio signal). In
an analog quadrature FM detector the IF signal passes through a circuit which introduces a 90
degree phase shift relative to the original IF signal. The phase-shifted IF signal is then multiplied
by the straight IF signal. A lowpass filter is applied to the product, which results in a signal that
is now the audio signal originally used to modulate the carrier in the transmitter. In a digital
receiver, the demodulation of the IF signal is generally accomplished in the digital domain. The
resulting information is FSK, ASK, PSK or other discrete value output.

Receiver Audio Circuit

The demodulated audio signal still exhibits the results of the signal processing that was done in
the transmitter. Regardless of whether the transmitter processing was fully analog, hybrid, or
fully digital the receiver must provide appropriate complementary signal processing to accurately
recover the original signal. For fully analog systems, a fixed (or signal-dependent) expansion is
applied, followed by a high-frequency de-emphasis. If a multi-band process was used in the
transmitter, the received audio is divided into the corresponding bands, each band is expanded,
the high frequency band is de-emphasized, and finally the bands are recombined to yield the full-
range audio signal. A hybrid receiver may use digital signal processing of the audio signal to
complement the processing (analog or digital) that was done in the transmitter.

A fully digital receiver also implements a “complementary” process that reconstructs the original
audio signal. This process begins with stream of discrete values coming from the demodulating
step. This data stream is eventually passed through a digital-to-analog converter (DAC) to re-
generate the original audio signal. Finally, an output amplifier supplies the necessary audio
signal characteristics (level and impedance) for connection to an external device such as a mixer
input, a recorder, headphones, etc. Typically, better receivers will include a balanced output that
can be switched between line level and microphone level. Unbalanced outputs are usually
provided as well. Note that many digital receivers (and some hybrid receivers) are also able to
output a digital signal directly to subsequent devices such as digital mixers.

Receiver Squelch:

One additional circuit that is important to proper receiver behavior is called "squelch" or muting.
The function of this circuit is to mute or silence the audio output of the receiver in the absence of
the desired radio signal. When the desired signal is lost (due to multi-path dropout, excessive
distance, loss of power to the transmitter, etc.) the "open" receiver may pick up another signal or
background radio "noise." In analog systems, this may be heard as "white" noise and is often
much louder than the audio signal from the desired source…….The traditional squelch circuit is
an audio switch controlled by the radio signal level using a fixed or manually adjustable
threshold (level). When the received signal strength falls below this level the output of the
receiver is muted. Ideally, the squelch level should be set just above the background radio noise
level or at the point where the desired signal is becoming too noisy to be acceptable. Higher
settings of squelch level require higher received signal strength to unmute the receiver. Since
received signal strength decreases as transmission distance increases, higher squelch settings will
decrease the operating range of the system. One refinement of the standard squelch circuit is
referred to as "noise squelch." This technique relies on the fact that the audio from undesirable
radio noise has a great deal of high frequency energy compared to a typical audio signal. The
noise squelch circuit compares the high frequency energy of the received signal to a reference
voltage set by the squelch adjustment. In this system the squelch control essentially determines
the "quality" of signal (signal-to-noise ratio) required to unmute the receiver. This allows
operation at lower squelch settings with no likelihood of noise if the desired signal is lost. A
further refinement is known as "tone-key" or "tone-code" squelch. It enables the receiver to
identify the desired radio signal by means of a supra- or sub-audible tone that is generated in the
transmitter and sent along with the normal audio signal. The receiver will unmute only when it
picks up a radio signal of adequate strength and also detects the presence of the tone-key. This
effectively prevents the possibility of noise from the receiver when the desired transmitter signal
is lost, even in the presence of a (non-tone-key) interfering signal at the same frequency. Turn-on
and turn-off delays are incorporated in the transmitter tone-key circuits so that the transmitter
power switch operates silently. When the transmitter is switched on, the radio signal is activated
immediately but the tonekey is briefly delayed, keeping the receiver muted until the signal is
stable. This masks any turn-on noise. When the transmitter is switched off, the tone-key is
deactivated instantly, muting the receiver, but actual turn-off of the transmitted signal is delayed
slightly. This masks any turnoff noise. As a result, the need for a separate mute switch is
eliminated. Finally, the tone-key signal is often used to transmit additional information to the
receiver. This may include battery voltage, transmitter audio gain settings, transmitter type, and
transmitter power level. In a fully digital wireless system, the squelch process is not directly
related to the RF signal level, or to the signal-to noise ratio or even to a specific tone-key
frequency. Rather, the squelch circuit is activated whenever the error rate of the detected digital
data stream exceeds some preset threshold that could cause an audible artifact. This error rate
dependence takes into account most of the audio and radio factors that can degrade the signal
quality and can generally respond more quickly and accurately than the standard squelch
mechanisms of analog or hybrid systems. Receiver: Antenna Configuration Fixed receivers are
offered in two basic external configurations: diversity and non-diversity. Non-diversity receivers
are equipped with a single antenna while diversity receivers generally have two antennas. Both
systems may offer otherwise similar outward features: units may be free standing or rack-
mountable; outputs may include balanced/unbalanced microphone or line level as well as
headphones; indicators for power and audio/radio signal level may be present; controls for power
and audio output level are provided; antenna(s) may be removable or permanently attached.
Though diversity receivers tend to include more features than non-diversity types, the choice of
diversity vs. non-diversity receiver is usually dictated by performance and reliability
considerations. Diversity receivers can significantly improve both qualities by minimizing the
effect of variations in radio signal strength in a given reception area due to fading or due to
multi-path. Fading is a loss of signal strength at excessive distance or because of shadowing or
blocking of the radio wave. Multi-path is a more complex phenomenon but both mechanisms can
adversely affect radio reception.

Multipath:

A necessary element in the concept of diversity radio reception is the occurrence of "multi-path"
effects in radio transmission. In the simplest case, radio waves proceed directly from the
transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna in a straight line. The received signal strength is
only a function of the transmitter power and the distance between the transmitting and receiving
antennas. In practice, this situation could only occur outdoors on level, unobstructed terrain. In
most situations, however, there are objects that attenuate radio waves and objects that reflect
them. Since both the transmitting and receiving antennas are essentially omni directional, the
receiving antenna picks up a varying combination of direct and reflected radio waves. The
reflected waves and direct waves travel different distances (paths) to arrive at the receiving
antenna, hence the term multi-path. (See Figure 2-7.) In an analog (or hybrid) receiver, the
audible effects of such signal strength variation range from a slight swishing sound ("noise-up"),
to severe noises ("hits"), to complete loss of audio ("dropout"). Similar effects are sometimes
noted in automobile radio reception in areas with many tall buildings. The "size" of a dropout
region is related to wavelength: in the VHF range (long wavelength) drop out

(fig 2-7) Multi path

areas are larger but farther apart, while in the UHF range (short wavelength) they are smaller but
closer together. For this reason, multi-path effects tend to be more severe in the UHF range.
These effects are unpredictable, uncomfortable, and ultimately unavoidable with single antenna
(non-diversity) receivers.

Receiver Diversity Techniques:

 Diversity refers to the general principle of using multiple (usually two) antennas to take
advantage of the very low probability of simultaneous dropouts at two different antenna
locations. "Different" means that the signals are statistically independent at each location. This is
also sometimes called "space diversity," referring to the space between the antennas. For radio
waves, this "de-correlation" is a function of wavelength: a separation of one wavelength results
in nearly complete de-correlation. In most cases, at least one-quarter wavelength separation
between antennas is necessary for significant diversity effect: about 40 cm for VHF systems and
about 10 cm for UHF systems. Some increased benefit may be realized by increasing separation
to at least one wavelength. Spacing beyond three or four wavelengths does not significantly
improve diversity performance, but large or unusually shaped areas may be covered with
somewhat greater antenna separation. There are a number of diversity techniques that have had
some degree of success. The term "true" diversity has come to imply those systems which have
two receiver sections, but technically, any system which samples the radio field at two (or more)
different locations, and can "intelligently" select or combine the resulting signals is a true
diversity system. The simplest technique, called "passive antenna combining" utilizes a single
receiver with a passive combination of two or three antennas. Antennas combined in this manner
create an "array," which is essentially a single antenna with fixed directional characteristic. In its
most effective form (three antennas, each at right angles to the other two) it can avoid complete
dropouts, but with a reduction of maximum range. This is because the array output will almost
always be less than the output of a single antenna at the optimum location. If only two antennas
are used, dropouts can still occur in the event of an out-of-phase condition between them. Cost is
relatively low but setup of multiple antennas can be somewhat cumbersome. This is not a "true"
diversity design. A diversity variation of this technique is "antenna phase diversity." It also
employs two antennas and a single receiver but provides an active combining circuit for the two
antennas. This circuit can switch the phase of one antenna relative to the other, eliminating the
possibility of phase cancellation between them. However, switching noise is possible as well as
other audible effects if switching is incorrect. Range is sometimes greater with favorable antenna
combinations. Cost is relatively low. Setup requires somewhat greater antenna spacing for best
results. The next variation, "antenna switching diversity," again consists of a single receiver with
two antennas. The receiver includes circuitry that selects the antenna with the better signal
according to an evaluation of the radio signal. Switching noise is possible but this system avoids
the possibility of phase cancellation between antennas because the antennas are never combined.
Range is the same as for a single antenna system. Cost is relatively low and setup is convenient.
In both of these active antenna diversity approaches, the switching decision is based on the
received signal quality of a single receiver section. When the signal quality falls below some
preset threshold, switching occurs immediately. If the new antenna (or antenna combination)
doesn’t improve the reception, the receiver must switch back to the original state. The lack of
"predictive" ability often causes unnecessary switching, increasing the chance of noise. The
switching speed is also critical: too fast and audible noise occurs, too slow and a dropout may
occur. A variation of the antenna switching method offers predictive diversity capability using a
microcontroller to optimize switching characteristics. A running average signal level and a
maximum signal level are calculated by analyzing the change in signal level over time.
Comparing the current average signal level to the most recent maximum signal level determines
the switch action, based on typical dropout characteristics. Small declines at high signal levels
indicate impending dropout, causing a switch to occur. At moderate signal levels, larger
decreases are allowed before switching. At very low signal levels switching is curtailed to avoid
unnecessary noise. Of course, if the signal level is increasing, no switching occurs. The onset of
dropout can be more accurately recognized and countered, while eliminating switching when
there is little likelihood for improvement. "Receiver switching diversity" is a widely used
diversity system. It consists of two complete receiver sections, each with its own associated
antenna, and circuitry that selects the audio from the receiver that has the better signal. Switching
noise is possible but when properly designed these systems can have very good dropout
protection with little chance of other audible effects due to incorrect selection. This is because
the system continuously compares the signal condition at each receiver output before switching
occurs. Range is the same as with single antenna systems. Cost is higher, but setup is convenient.
"Ratio combining diversity" also uses two complete receiver sections with associated antennas.
This design takes advantage of the fact that, most of the time, the signal at both antennas is
useable. The diversity circuitry combines the outputs of the two receiver sections by
proportionally mixing them rather than switching between them. At any given moment, the
combination is proportional to the signal quality of each receiver. The output will usually consist
of a mix of the two audio sections. In the case of loss of reception at one antenna, the output is
chosen from the other section. Excellent dropout protection is obtained with no possibility of
switching noise since the diversity circuit is essentially an intelligent panpot, not a switch.
Signal-to-noise is improved by up to 3 dB. Range can be greater than with single antenna
systems. Cost is somewhat higher, setup is convenient. A properly implemented diversity system
can yield measurable improvements in reliability, range, and sign alto-noise ratio. This is
particularly true if the RF environment is severe (multipath), troubleshooting time is minimal (no
rehearsal), or dropout-free performance is required (ideally always). The majority of wireless
microphone systems today, both analog and digital, employ diversity designs at nearly all
performance levels. In some fully digital systems, it is possible to actively combine the bit
streams from multiple antenna/receiver sections to compensate for data losses in individual bit
streams. As long as sufficient data can be assembled from this combination, reception can be
maintained even in the event of significant data losses in an individual channel. Some products
can combine up to four individual antenna/receiver sections in this manner to create a four-way
digital diversity system. Such a system can provide reliable audio even in reception conditions
where an analog system would likely fail. An additional method for improving signal reliability
in the presence of interference is called "Frequency Diversity". This technique relies on the low
likelihood of simultaneous interference on two different radio frequencies. To set up a frequency
diversity system requires two transmitters, each set to a different frequency, and two matching
receiver channels. The two received signals are connected to an audio mixer on two separate
channels. If the signal from either transmitter is interrupted, the audio engineer can continue with
the remaining signal. Presently, this is practical only by using two bodypack transmitters on a
single individual, typically with lavaliere or headworn microphones. They may be connected to a
single microphone or possibly two closely-spaced microphones. Frequency diversity is generally
reserved for the primary user in critical situations where the cost of

"double-packing" is justified. However, handheld transmitters are now available that can
transmit simultaneously on two different frequencies. In addition, the matching receivers can
automatically transition between the two signals when interference occurs so that only a single
mixer channel is required and no manual intervention is necessary to maintain signal continuity.

2.4 Antennas:

In addition to the circuitry contained inside transmitters and receivers, one critical circuitry
element is often located outside the unit: the antenna. An antenna is electrically “resonant”
(tuned) at a particular frequency or range of frequencies. Since frequency is inversely related to
wavelength (via the Wave Equation), the size of the antenna is directly related to the
corresponding radio wavelength(s). Lower radio frequencies require larger antennas, while
higher frequencies use smaller antennas. Another characteristic of antennas is their relative
efficiency at converting electrical power into radiated power and vice versa. An increase of 6 dB
in radiated power, or an increase of 6 dB in received signal strength can correspond to a 50%
increase in range. Likewise, a loss of 6 dB in signal may result in 50% decrease in range. Finally,
antennas are said to be “reciprocal”. That is, they can generally operate in a transmitting mode or
in a receiving mode with exactly the same characteristics. The exception is an “active”
(amplified) antenna which can be used only in a receiving mode due to its built-in receive-only
amplifier. The function of an antenna is to act as the interface between the internal circuitry of
the transmitter (or receiver) and the external radio signal. In the case of the transmitter, it must
radiate the desired signal as efficiently as possible, that is, at the desired strength and in the
desired direction. Since the output power of most transmitters is limited by regulatory agencies
to some maximum level, and since battery life is a function of power output, antenna efficiency
is critical. At the same time, size and portability of transmitters is usually very important. This
results in only a few suitable designs for transmitter antennas. The smallest simple antenna that is
consistent with reasonable transmitter output is an antenna that is physically (and electrically)
one quarter as long as the wavelength of the radio wave frequency being transmitted. This is
called a "1/4 wave" antenna. It takes different forms depending on the type of transmitter being
used. For some bodypack transmitters, the antenna is a trailing wire cut to an appropriate length.
In other designs the cable that attaches the microphone to the transmitter may be used as the
antenna. In either case, the antenna must be allowed to extend to its proper length for maximum
efficiency. The effective bandwidth of this antenna type is great enough that only about three
different lengths are required to cover the UHF range. For transmitter applications requiring even
smaller antenna size a short "rubber duckie" antenna is sometimes used. This type is still
(electrically) a 1/4 wave antenna, but it is wound in a helical coil to yield a shorter package.
There is some loss in efficiency due to the smaller "aperture" or physical length. In addition,
these antennas have a narrower bandwidth. Handheld transmitters generally conceal the antenna
inside the body of the unit, or use the outer metal parts of the case as the antenna. In either
design, the antenna is rarely a true 1/4 wave long. This results in somewhat less radiated power
for a handheld transmitter with an internal antenna than a comparable bodypack design with an
external antenna. However, antenna output is somewhat reduced when placed close to the body
of the user. Since the antenna of a hand-held transmitter is usually at some distance from the
body, though, the practical difference may be small. Plug-on type transmitters normally use the
microphone body and the transmitter case itself as the antenna, though some manufacturers
models have used an external antenna. In practice the typical VHF transmitter antenna is less
than 10% efficient. UHF types may be significantly better because the shorter wavelength of
these frequencies is more consistent with the requirement for a small antenna. In all of these
designs, the radio wave pattern emitted by the antenna is omnidirectional in the plane
perpendicular to the axis of the antenna. For a vertically oriented antenna the radiation pattern is
omnidirectional in the horizontal plane, which is the typical case for a trailing wire antenna.
There is very little output along the axis of the antenna. A threedimensional representation of the
field strength from a vertical antenna would resemble a horizontal doughnut shape with the
antenna passing through the center of the hole. Recall that a radio wave has both an electric field
component and a magnetic field component. A vertically oriented transmitter antenna radiates an
electric field component that is also vertical (while the magnetic field

component is horizontal). This is said to be a "vertically polarized" wave. Horizontal orientation

of the antenna produces a "horizontally polarized" wave. In receiver applications, the antenna
must pick up the desired radio signal as efficiently as possible. Since the strength of the received
signal is always far less than that of the transmitted signal this requires that the antenna be very
sensitive to the desired signal and in the desired direction. However, since the size and location
of the receiver are less restrictive, and since directional pickup may be useful, a much greater
selection of antenna types is generally available for receivers. Again, the minimum size for
adequate reception is 1/4 wavelength. A whip or telescoping antenna of this size is supplied with
most receivers, and it too is omni directional in the horizontal plane when it is vertically oriented.
An important consideration in the performance of a 1/4 wave receiving antenna is that its
efficiency depends to some extent on the presence of a "ground plane," that is, a metal surface at
least 1/4 wave long in one or both dimensions and electrically connected to the receiver ground
at the base of the antenna. Typically, the receiver chassis or receiver PC board to which the
antenna is attached acts as a sufficient ground plane. If more sensitivity is desired, or if it is
necessary to mount an omni directional antenna remotely from the receiver, 1/2 wave or 5/8
wave antennas are often used. These antennas have a theoretical "gain" (increase of sensitivity)
up to 3 dB greater than the 1/4 wave antenna in some configurations. This can translate into
increased range for the system. However, the 5/8 wave antenna, like the 1/4 wave type, only
achieves its performance with an appropriate ground plane. Without a ground plane
unpredictable effects may occur resulting in asymmetric pickup patterns and potential signal loss
due to the non-ideal cable/antenna interface. A properly designed 1/2 wave antenna does not
require a ground plane, allowing it to be remotely mounted with relative ease. It can also
maintain proper impedance at the cable/antenna interface or can be directly attached to a receiver
or antenna distribution system. In addition, it is resistant to the effects of electrical noise that
might otherwise be picked up at the interface. Both 1/4 wave and 1/2 wave antennas are
unidirectional in the horizontal plane when mounted vertically. In a transmit mode, a vertically
oriented antenna produces a vertically polarized radio wave. In the receive mode, a vertically
oriented antenna is most sensitive to a vertically polarized radio wave. For maximum efficiency,
transmit and receive antennas should be oriented in the same direction. Efficiency is reduced
when the receive antenna is rotated away from the polarization angle of the incoming wave.
Minimum efficiency occurs when the receive antenna is at 90 degrees relative to the wave
polarization angle. This condition is called cross-polarization and may result in signal reduction
of up to about 12dB in some cases. Because the polarization angle of a radio wave changes with
the orientation of the transmit antenna and with reflection, it is inevitable that there will be some
fluctuation in received signal strength when the transmitter orientation is changed. Using a
diversity receiver, it is recommended to orient the two receiving antennas at a 90 degree angle to
each other. This insures that at least one of the receiving antennas is never more than 45 degrees
off from the polarization angle of the incoming radio wave. Unidirectional antennas are also
available for wireless microphone systems. These designs are comprised of a horizontal boom
with multiple transverse elements and are of the same general type as long range antennas for
television reception. They can achieve high gain (up to 10 dB compared to the 1/2 wave type) in
one direction and can also reject interfering sources coming from other directions by as much as
30 dB. Two common types are the Yagi and the log-periodic. The Yagi consists of a dipole
element and one or more additional elements: those located at the rear of the boom are larger
than the dipole element and reflect the signal back to the dipole while those located at the front
are smaller than the dipole and act to direct the signal on to the dipole. The Yagi has excellent
directivity but has a fairly narrow bandwidth and is usually tuned to cover just one TV channel
(6 MHz). The log-periodic achieves greater bandwidth than the Yagi by using multiple dipole
elements in its array. The size and spacing between the dipoles varies in a logarithmic
progression so that at any given frequency

one or more dipoles are active while the others are functioning as reflecting or directing
elements, depending on their size and location relative to the active element(s). The longer the
boom and the greater the number of elements the greater is the bandwidth and the directivity. A
typical log-periodic antenna has 6-8 dB of forward gain and a horizontal coverage angle of about
120 degrees. Because both the Yagi antenna and the log periodic antenna are constructed from
dipole elements, they exhibit the same polarization angle properties as a single dipole. For
example, when oriented vertically, they transmit (or receive) vertically polarized radio waves.
The helical antenna is a special type of directional antenna. It is a broadband antenna with up to
12 dB of forward gain but with a conical coverage angle of only about 60 degrees. However, the
helical antenna does not have a preferred polarization angle. That is, when used as a receive
antenna it is equally sensitive to incoming signals polarized at any angle. Likewise, when used as
a transmit antenna, the radiated signal can be picked up equally well by receive antennas oriented
at any angle. This makes the helical antenna particularly useful when a high-gain transmit
antenna is needed for use with non-diversity receivers such as in-ear monitor packs. Although
these directional antennas are somewhat large (3-5 ft. wide for VHF) and may be mechanically
cumbersome to mount, they can provide increased range and greater rejection of interfering
sources for certain applications. It should also be noted here that these antennas should be
oriented with the transverse elements in the vertical direction rather than the horizontal direction
(as would be used for television reception), again because the transmitting antennas are usually
also vertical.

2.4 Introduction to Amplifier

The purpose of a power amplifier, in very simple terms, is to take a signal from a source device
and make it suitable for driving a loudspeaker. Ideally, the only thing different between the input
signal and the output signal is the strength of the signal itself. The output signals of all amplifiers
contain additional and unwanted components that are not present in the input signal. This
additional characteristics is genrally known as distortion. Amplifiers also generate a certain
amount of unwanted noise.

Power amplifier ability is measured by its power rating. The unit that is used is watts. The
power rating of an amplifier may be used for various load impedances…The unit for load
impedance is ohms. The main characteristics of an amplifier are linearity, efficiency, output
power and signal gain..An Amplifier is said to be linear if it preserves the details of the signal
waveform, referring to the equation

Vo(t) = AVi(t) (2.0)

Where, Vi and Vo are the input and output signals respectively, and A is a constant gain
representing the amplifier gain.

The amplifier’s efficiency is a measure of its ability to convert the dc power of the supply into
the signal power delivered to the load. This is represented in the equation below

n = Signal power delivered to load / DC power supplied to output circuit

(2.1)
2.4.1 Classes of Amplifier

Amplifiers can be specified according to their input and output properties [1]. There are many
classes used for audio amps. The class of an amplifier refers to the design of the circuitry within
the amplifier. These classes range from entirely linear with low efficiency to entirely non-linear
with high efficiency

2.4.1.1 Class A Amplifier

Class A Amplifiers have very low distortion; however they are very inefficient and are rarely
used for high power designs. The distortion is low because the transistors in the amp are biased
such that they are half “on” when the amp is idling. As a result of being half on at idle, a lot of
power is dissipated in the devices even when the amp has no input. Class A amps are often used
for signal level circuits where power requirements are small because they maintain low
distortion. High end Class A audio amplifiers are sometimes used by the most discriminating
audiophiles. Distortion for Class A amps increases as the signal approaches clipping. As the
signal is reaching the limits of the voltage swing for the circuit. Some class A amps have
speakers connected via compacting coupling. The disadvantages of class A amplifier is higher dc
power loss at its output. It also has poor efficiency and poor impedance matching.

Chapter 3

Methodology

3.1 Power supply unit design

The performance of each and every electronic system or electronic circuit depends upon the
power supply that energizes the circuit or system. It provides required current to the circuit. Any
disturbance noise in this power supply can cause problem in working or operation of circuit. If
there is any deviation in this power supply level the circuit may not work properly. The accuracy
and precision of circuit operation depends upon it. In some of the circuits all the calibration are
done at this voltage level. So all these calibrations becomes false if there is fluctuation in supply
level.

There are two types of power supplies

1) Unregulated power supply
2) Regulated power supply
1. Unregulated Linear Power Supply

Unregulated power supplies contain four basic

components: a transformer, rectifier, filter capacitor, and a bleeder resistor.
This type of power supply, because of its simplicity, is the least costly and most reliable for low
power requirements. The disadvantage is that the output voltage is not constant. It will vary with
the input voltage and the load current, and the ripple is not suitable for electronic applications.
The ripple can be reduced by changing the filter capacitor to an IC (inductor-capacitor) filter but
the cost to make this change would make use of the regulated linear power supply a more
economical choice.

2. Regulated Linear Power Supply

A regulated linear power supply is identical to the

unregulated linear power supply except that a 3-terminal regulator is used in place of the bleeder
resistor.
The regulated linear power supply solves all of the problems of the unregulated supply, but is not
as efficient because the 3-terminal regulator will dissipate the excess power in the form of heat
which must be accommodated in the design of the supply. The output voltage has negligible
ripple, very small load regulation, and high reliability, thus making it an ideal choice for use in
low power electronic applications.

3.2 Transmitter design

The Transmitter used in this project is the RF Transmitter (Radio frequency transmitter)
A radio transmitter is an electronic device which, when connected to an antenna, produces
an electromagnetic signal such as in radio and television broadcasting, two way communications
or radar. Heating devices, such as a microwave oven, although of similar design, are not usually
called transmitters, in that they use the electromagnetic energy locally rather than transmitting it
to another location.
 Design issues
A radio transmitter design has to meet certain requirements. These include the frequency of
operation, the type of modulation, the stability and purity of the resulting signal, the efficiency of
power use, and the power level required to meet the system design objectives. High-power
transmitters may have additional constraints with respect to radiation safety, generation of X-
rays, and protection from high voltages.
Typically a transmitter design includes generation of a carrier signal, which is
normally sinusoidal, optionally one or more frequency multiplication stages, a modulator, a
power amplifier, and a filter and matching network to connect to an antenna. A very simple
transmitter might contain only a continuously running oscillator coupled to some antenna
system. More elaborate transmitters allow better control over the modulation of the emitted
signal and improve the stability of the transmitted frequency. For example, the Master Oscillator-
Power Amplifier (MOPA) configuration inserts an amplifier stage between the oscillator and the
antenna. This prevents changes in the loading presented by the antenna from altering the
frequency of the oscillator.

Fixed frequency systems

For a fixed frequency transmitter one commonly used method is to use
a resonant quartz crystal in a Crystal oscillator to fix the frequency. Where the frequency has to
be variable, several options can be used.
Variable frequency systems

• An array of crystals – used to enable a transmitter to be used on several different frequencies;

rather than being a truly variable frequency system, it is a system which is fixed to several
different frequencies (a subset of the above).
• Variable-frequency oscillator (VFO)
• Phase-locked loop frequency synthesizer
• Direct digital synthesis

Frequency doublers Frequency Tripler

A push-push frequency doubler. The output is A push-pull frequency Tripler. The output is
tuned to two times the input frequency. tuned to three times the input frequency.

Frequency multiplication
While modern frequency synthesizers can output a clean stable signal up through UHF, for many
years, especially at higher frequencies, it was not practical to operate the oscillator at the final
output frequency. For better frequency stability, it was common to multiply the frequency of the
oscillator up to the final, required frequency. This was accommodated by allocating the short
wave amateur and marine bands in harmonically related frequencies such as 3.5, 7, 14 and
28 MHz. Thus one crystal or VFO could cover several bands. In simple equipment this approach
is still used occasionally.
If the output of an amplifier stage is simply tuned to a multiple of the frequency with which the
stage is driven, the stage will give a large harmonic output. Many transmitters have used this
simple approach successfully. However these more complex circuits will do a better job. In a
push-push stage, the output will only contain even harmonics. This is because the currents which
would generate the fundamental and the odd harmonics in this circuit are canceled by the second
device. In a push-pull stage, the output will contain only odd harmonics because of the canceling
effect.

Adding modulation to the signal

The task of a transmitter is to convey some form of information using a radio signal (carrier
wave) which has been modulated to carry the intelligence. The RF generator in a microwave
oven, electro surgery, and induction heating are similar in design to transmitters, but usually not
considered as such in that they do not intentionally produce a signal that will travel to a distant
point. Such RF devices are required by law to operate in an ISM band where interference to radio
communications will not occur. Where communications is the object, one or more of the
following methods of incorporating the desired signal into the radio wave is used.

AM modes

When the amplitude of a radio frequency wave is varied in amplitude in a manner which follows
the modulating signal, usually voice, video or data, we have Amplitude modulation(AM).

Low level and High Level

In low level modulation a small audio stage is used to modulate a low power stage. The output of
this stage is then amplified using a linear RF amplifier. The great disadvantage of this system is
that the amplifier chain is less efficient, because it has to be linear to preserve the modulation.
Hence high efficiency class C amplifiers cannot be employed, unless a Doherty amplifier, EER
(Envelope Elimination and Restoration) or other methods of predistortion or negative
feedback are used. High level modulation uses class C amplifiers in a broadcast AM transmitter
and only the final stage or final two stages are modulated, and all the earlier stages can be driven
at a constant level. When modulation is applied to the plate of the final tube, a large audio
amplifier is needed for the modulation stage, equal to 1/2 of the DC input power of the
modulated stage. Traditionally the modulation is applied using a large audio transformer.
However many different circuits have been used for high level AM modulation. See Amplitude
Modulation.
Types of AM Modulators
A wide range of different circuits have been used for AM. While it is perfectly possible to create
good designs using solid-state electronics, valved (tube) circuits are shown here. In general,
valves are able to easily yield RF powers far in excess of what can be achieved using solid state.
Most high-power broadcast stations below 3 MHz use solid state circuits, but higher power
stations above 3 MHz still use valves.
Plate AM modulators

Anode modulation using a transformer. The valve anode sees the vector sum of anode volts and
audio voltage.

A series modulated stage. In modern transmitters the series regulator will use PWM switching
for high efficiency. Historically the series regulator would have been a tube in analog mode.
High level plate modulation consists of varying the voltage on the plate (anode) of the valve so
that it swings from nearly zero to double the resting value. This will produce 100% modulation
and can be done by inserting a transformer in series with the high voltage supply to the anode so
that the vector sum of the two sources, (DC and audio) will be applied. A disadvantage is the
size, weight and cost of the transformer as well as its limited audio frequency response,
especially for very powerful transmitters.
Alternatively a series regulator can be inserted between the DC supply and the anode. The DC
supply provides twice the normal voltage the anode sees. The regulator can allow none or all of
the voltage to pass, or any intermediate value. The audio input operates the regulator in such a
way as to produce the instantaneous anode voltage needed to reproduce the modulation envelope.
An advantage of the series regulator is that it can set the anode voltage to any desired value.
Thus the power output of the transmitter can be easily adjusted, allowing the use of Dynamic
Carrier Control. The use of PDM switching regulators makes this system very efficient, whereas
the original analog regulators were very inefficient and also non linear. Series PDM modulators
are used in solid state transmitters also, but the circuits are somewhat more complex, using push
pull or bridge circuits for the RF section.
These simplified diagrams omit such details as filament, screen and grid bias supplies, and the
screen and cathode connections to RF ground.
Screen AM modulators

Screen AM modulator. Grid bias not shown

Under carrier conditions (no audio) the stage will be a simple RF amplifier where the screen
voltage is set lower than normal to limit the RF output to about 25% of full power. When the
stage is modulated the screen potential changes and so alters the gain of the stage. It takes much
less audio power to modulate the screen, but final stage efficiency is only about 40%, compared
to 80% with plate modulation. For this reason screen modulation was used only in low power
transmitters and is now effectively obsolete.
AM related modes
Several derivatives of AM are in common use. These are

Single-sideband modulation
SSB, or SSB-AM single-sideband full carrier modulation, is very similar to single-sideband
suppressed carrier modulation (SSB-SC). It is used where it is necessary to receive the audio on
an AM receiver, while using less bandwidth than with double sideband AM. Due to high
distortion, it is seldom used. Either SSB-AM or SSB-SC are produced by the following methods.
Filter method
Using a balanced mixer a double side band signal is generated, this is then passed through a very
narrow bandpass filter to leave only one side-band.[5] By convention it is normal to use the upper
sideband (USB) in communication systems, except for amateur radio when the carrier frequency
is below 10 MHz. There the lower side band (LSB) is normally used.
Phasing method

Phasing method of SSB generation

The phasing method for the generation of single sideband signals uses a network which imposes
a constant 90° phase shift on audio signals over the audio range of interest. This was difficult
with analog methods but with DSP is very simple.
These audio outputs are each mixed in a linear balanced mixer with a carrier. The carrier drive
for one of these mixers is also shifted by 90°. The outputs of these mixers are added in a linear
circuit to give the SSB signal by phase cancellation of one of the sidebands. Connecting the 90°
delayed signal from either the audio or the carrier (but not both) to the other mixer will reverse
the sideband, so either USB or LSB is available with a simple DPDT switch.

Vistegial-sideband modulation
Vestigial-sideband modulation (VSB, or VSB-AM) is a type of modulation system commonly
used in analogue TV systems. It is normal AM which has been passed through a filter which
reduces one of the sidebands. Typically, components of the lower sideband more than 0.75 MHz
or 1.25 MHz below the carrier will be heavily attenuated.
Morse
Morse code is usually sent using on-off keying of an unmodulated carrier (Continuous wave). No
special modulator is required.
This interrupted carrier may be analyzed as an AM-modulated carrier. On-off keying produces
sidebands, as expected, but they are referred to as "key-clicks". Shaping circuits are used to turn
the transmitter on and off smoothly instead of instantly in order to limit the bandwidth of these
sidebands and reduce interference to adjacent channels.
FM modes
Angle modulation is the proper term for modulation by changing the instantaneous frequency or
phase of the carrier signal. True FM and phase modulation are the most commonly employed
forms of analogue angle modulation.

Direct FM
Direct FM (true Frequency modulation) is where the frequency of an oscillator is altered to
impose the modulation upon the carrier wave. This can be done by using a voltage-controlled
capacitor (Varicap diode) in a crystal-controlled oscillator or frequency synthesiser. The
frequency of the oscillator is then multiplied up using a frequency multiplier stage, or is
translated upwards using a mixing stage, to the output frequency of the transmitter. The amount
of modulation is referred to as the deviation, being the amount that the frequency of the carrier
instantaneously deviates from the centre carrier frequency.

Indirect FM

Indirect FM solid state circuit.

Indirect FM employs a varicap diode to impose a phase shift (which is voltage-controlled) in a
tuned circuit that is fed with a plain carrier. This is termed phase modulation. In some indirect
FM solid state circuits, an RF drive is applied to the base of a transistor. The tank circuit (LC),
connected to the collector via a capacitor, contains a pair of varicap diodes. As the voltage
applied to the varicaps is changed, the phase shift of the output will change.
Phase modulation is mathematically equivalent to direct Frequency modulation with a
6 dB/octave high-pass filter applied to the modulating signal. This high-pass effect can be
exploited or compensated for using suitable frequency-shaping circuitry in the audio stages
ahead of the modulator. For example, many FM systems will employ pre-emphasis and de-
emphasis for noise reduction, in which case the high-pass equivalency of phase modulation
automatically provides for the pre-emphasis. Phase modulators are typically only capable of
relatively small amounts of deviation while remaining linear, but any frequency multiplier stages
also multiply the deviation in proportion.
Digital modes
Transmission of digital data is becoming more and more important. Digital information can be
transmitted by AM and FM modulation, but often digital modulation consists of complex forms
of modulation using aspects of both AM and FM. COFDM is used for DRM broadcasts. The
transmitted signal consists of multiple carriers each modulated in both amplitude and phase. This
allows very high bit rates and makes very efficient use of bandwidth. Digital or pulse methods
also are used to transmit voice as in cell phones, or video as in terrestrial TV broadcasting. Early
text messaging such as RTTY allowed the use of class C amplifiers, but modern digital modes
require linear amplification.
Amplifying the signal
Valves

For high power, high frequency systems it is normal to use valves, please see [Valve RF
amplifier] for details of how valved RF power stages work. Valves are electrically very robust,
they can tolerate overloads which would destroy bipolar transistor systems in milliseconds. As a
result, valved amplifiers may resist mistuning, lightning and power surges better. However, they
require a heated cathode which consumes power and will fail in time due to loss of emission or
heater burn out. The high voltages associated with valve circuits are dangerous to persons. For
economic reasons, valves continue to be used for the final power amplifier for transmitters
operating above 1.8 MHz and with powers above about 500 watts for amateur use and above
about 10 Kw for broadcast use.
Solid state
Solid state devices, either discrete transistors or integrated circuits, are universally used for new
transmitter designs up to a few hundred watts. The lower level stages of more powerful
transmitters are also all solid state. Transistors can be used at all frequencies and power levels,
but since the output of individual devices is limited, higher power transmitters must use many
transistors in parallel, and the cost of the devices and the necessary combining networks can be
excessive. As new transistor types become available and the price drops, solid state may
eventually replace all valve amplifiers.

Linking the transmitter to the aerial

The majority of modern transmitting equipment is designed to operate with a resistive load fed
via coaxial cable of particular characteristic impedance, often 50 ohms. To connect the
power stage of the transmitter to this coaxial cable transmission line a matching network is
required. For solid state transmitters this is typically a broadband transformer which steps up the
low impedance of the output devices to 50 ohms. A tube transmitter will contain a tuned output
network, most commonly a PI network that steps the load impedance which the tube requires
down to 50 ohms. In each case the power producing devices will not transfer power efficiently if
the network is detuned or badly designed or if the antenna presents other than 50 ohms at the
transmitter output. Commonly an SWR meter and/or directional wattmeter are used to check
the extent of the match between the aerial system and the transmitter via the transmission line
(feeder). A directional wattmeter indicates forward power, reflected power, and often SWR as
well. Each transmitter will specify a maximum allowable mismatch based on efficiency,
distortion, and possible damage to the transmitter. Many transmitters have automatic circuits to
reduce power or shut down if this value is exceeded.
Transmitters feeding a balanced transmission line will need a balun. This transforms the single
ended output of the transmitter to a higher impedance balanced output. High power short wave
transmission systems typically use 300 ohm balanced lines between the transmitter and antenna.
Amateurs often use 300-450 ohm balanced antenna feeders.
EMC matters

Many devices depend on the transmission and reception of radio waves for their operation. The
possibility for mutual interference is great. Many devices not intended to transmit signals may do
so. For instance a dielectric heater might contain a 2000 watt 27 MHz source within it. If the
machine operates as intended then none of this RF power will leak out. However, if due to poor
design or maintenance it allows RF to leak out, it will become a transmitter or unintentional
radiator.

RF leakage & shielding

All equipment using RF electronics should be inside a screened conductive box and all
connections in or out of the box should be filtered to avoid the passage of radio signals. A
common and effective method of doing so for wires carrying DC supplies, 50/60 Hz AC
connections, audio and control signals is to use a feedthrough capacitor, whose job is to short
circuit any RF on the wire to ground. The use of ferrite beads is also common.

If an intentional transmitter produces interference, then it should be run into a dummy load; this
is a resistor in a screened box or can which will allow the transmitter to generate radio signals
without sending them to the antenna. If the transmitter continues to cause interference during this
test then a path exists by which RF power is leaking out of the equipment and this can be due to
bad shielding. Such leakage is most likely to occur on homemade equipment or equipment that
has been modified or had covers removed. RF leakage from microwave ovens, while rare, may
occur due to defective door seals, and may be a health hazard.

Spurious emissions

Early in the development of radio technology it was recognized that the signals emitted by
transmitters had to be 'pure'. Spark-gap transmitters were outlawed once better technology was
available as they give an output which is very wide in terms of frequency. The term spurious
emissions refer to any signal which comes out of a transmitter other than the wanted signal. In
modern equipment there are three main types of spurious emissions: harmonics, out of
band mixer products which are not fully suppressed and leakage from the local oscillator and
other systems within the transmitter.

Harmonics

These are multiples of the operation frequency of the transmitter, they can be generated in any
stage of the transmitter which is not perfectly linear and must be removed by filtering.
This push pull wide band amplifier uses ferrite core
transformers for matching and coupling. The two
NPN transistors can be biased to class A, AB or C,
and will still have very weak harmonics at even
multiples of the design frequency. The odd This single ended amplifier uses a
harmonics will be stronger, but still manageable. narrowly tuned anode circuit to reduce
Class C will have the most harmonics. harmonics when operating class AB or C.

Avoiding harmonic generation

The difficulty of removing harmonics from an amplifier will depend on the design. A push-pull
amplifier will have fewer harmonics than a single ended circuit. A class A amplifier will have
very few harmonics, class AB or B more, and class C the most. In the typical class C amplifier,
the resonant tank circuit will remove most of the harmonics, but in either of these examples, a
low pass filter will likely be needed following the amplifier.

Removal of harmonics with filters

A simple low pass filter suitable for harmonic reduction.

In addition to the good design of the amplifier stages, the transmitter's output should be filtered
with a low pass filter to reduce the level of the harmonics. Typically the input and output are
interchangeable and match to 50 ohms. Inductance and capacity values will vary with frequency.
Many transmitters switch in a suitable filter for the frequency band being used. The filter will
pass the desired frequency and reduce all harmonics to acceptable levels.
The harmonic output of a transmitter is best checked using an RF spectrum analyzer or by tuning
a receiver to the various harmonics. If a harmonic falls on a frequency being used by another
communications service then this spurious emission can prevent an important signal from being
received. Sometimes additional filtering is used to protect a sensitive range of frequencies, for
example, frequencies used by aircraft or services involved with protection of life and property.
Even if a harmonic is within the legally allowed limits, the harmonic should be further reduced.

Oscillators and mix product

Simple but poor mixer. A diode is shown but any non-linear device can be used.

A double balanced mixer using matched diodes. It is also possible to use active devices such as
transistors or valves.
When mixing signals to produce a desired output frequency, the choice of Intermediate
frequency and local oscillator is important. If poorly chosen, a spurious output can be generated.
For example, if 50 MHz is mixed with 94 MHz to produce an output on 144 MHz, the third
harmonic of the 50 MHz may appear in the output. This problem is similar to the Image
response problem which exists in receivers.
One method of reducing the potential for this transmitter defect is the use of balanced and double
balanced mixers. A simple mixer will pass both of the input frequencies and all of their
harmonics along with the sum and difference frequencies. If the simple mixer is replaced with a
balanced mixer then the number of possible products is reduced. If the frequency mixer has
fewer outputs the task of making sure that the final output is clean will be simpler

Instability and Parasitic

If a stage in a transmitter is unstable and is able to oscillate then it can start to generate RF at
either a frequency close to the operating frequency or at a very different frequency. One good
sign that it is occurring is if an RF stage has a power output even without being driven by an
exciting stage. Output power should increase smoothly as input power is increased, although
with Class C, there will be a noticeable threshold effect. Various circuits are used for parasitic
suppression in a good design. Proper neutralization is also important.

3.3 demodulation

The process of separating the original information or signal from the modulated career. In the
case of Amplitude or Frequency modulator it involves a device, called a demodulator, which
produces a signal corresponding to the instantaneous changes in amplitude or frequency,
respectively. This signal corresponds to the original modulating signal.

In radio TRANSMISSION this process is a major function of a RECEIVER, in order to retrieve

the desired signal

3.4 audio power amplifiers

Audio Speakers

Audio speakers convert electrical signals into mechanical motion. The electric signal is passed
through a coil of wire (the “voice” coil), which is suspended a strong magnetic field provided by
a permanent magnet. A time-varying current in the coil leads to a mechanical deflection relative
to the magnet. The coil is attached to a lightweight conical membrane (usually made from a
heavy-grade paper) that couples the mechanical motion of the coil to the surrounding air
molecules. If you look through catalogs of audio-speakers, you will find many different sizes
and price ranges. High-quality audio speakers can be quite expensive, and are designed for a
flat, Omni-directional frequency response in the specified operating range. Small inexpensive
speakers, such as the ones used in this lab, have poor low-frequency response and limited power-
handling capacity. Speakers are commonly specified by their frequency response, impedance
level, and power-handling capacity. Typical speaker impedances are “8” or “4” or “16”. This is
often a source of confusion because it suggests the speaker is modeled by a constant resistance of
this value. In reality there is a significant reactive component of impedance and hence a strong
variation of impedance with frequency, as shown in the figure above. The impedance can also
depend strongly on the surroundings. For example, a speaker measured in isolation (the “free-
air” response) will have a different impedance than one mounted in a wooden enclosure.

Why the LM386?

At first glance this project looks simple; all we need is an amplifier to drive an audio speaker,
right? Why not just use a simple op-amp gain stage? Well, one immediate challenge is that
speakers have a low impedance, typically 8-Ohm. Even for a low-power 0.5W audio amplifier,
2 /2 P I R requires that the amplifier must be able to source a peak AC current of around 350 mA
with an 8-Ohm load. This is a lot more than a typical op-amp is designed to provide. For
example, the LM358 and LF353 (two op-amps used in this lab) can source around 20-40mA at
most. So we need a device that can handle higher currents. We also want a device that can be
operated from a single supply voltage (a battery in this case). It is possible to make a suitable
amplifier using an op-amp and a couple of external power transistors, but we went with a simpler
solution, and chose a chip that was specifically designed as an audio driver, the LM386. This is
an old chip that has been a popular choice for low-power audio applications for many years.
There are many other audio amp ICs on the market (LM380 and LM383 are similar but higher-
power amps from National), but the LM386 is sufficient for our purposes. It comes in three-
flavors, the LM386-1, LM386-2, and LM386-3, which can provide 0.3W, 0.5W, and 0.7W
respectively, more than adequate for this lab. Another nice thing about the LM386 is that the
gain-frequency curve can be shaped with some external feedback components, so it is a very
flexible device. If you do a web search on “LM386”, you will find many examples of clever
circuits that people have come up with over the years. The one in this lab is a minor
modification of a circuit described in the data sheet.

3.4.1 Assemble Amplifier on vero board

We will first construct this amplifier using your plastic solder less breadboard and bench power
supply. Once you debug the circuit and demonstrate that it works properly, you will “hard-wire”
it onto a vector board and power it from a 9V battery. The idea of vero boarding the circuit first
is not to create more work! It is good practice in general, since it allows you to debug your
design more easily, allows you to experiment with component values, and most importantly will
help preserve your battery in the event of a wiring error! The battery is in fact one of the most
expensive components in this lab.

Schematic of LM386 Amplifier.

First study the schematic carefully, and locate all the necessary parts in your kit.

• Configure your vero board with connections to the power supply and appropriate wiring
to the power busses, then add the LM386 IC and make the power (pin 6) and ground
(pin 4) connections as shown in the schematic. Add the 100μF and 10μF bias/bypass
capacitors.
□ With reference to the schematic, add in the resistor and capacitor elements. Note the role of
each component:

1. 1F capacitor: DC blocking, AC couples the input signal

2. 10k trim pot: voltage-divider for volume control

3. 10F capacitor: Internal AC bypass (see data sheet).

4. 10k resistor and 33nF capacitor between pins 1-5: bass-boost feedback circuit (see data sheet),
helps compensate for the poor low-frequency response of our speaker

5. 470F capacitor: DC blocking (why is this so large compared with other blocking/bypass
capacitors?)

6. 10 resistor and 0.1F capacitor: a “snubber” circuit for high-frequency stabilization prevents
potential oscillation due to inductive loading.

• Add in the back-to-back diodes at the input terminal of the device. These diodes clamp
the input voltage on pin 3 at +/- 0.7 V, to insure that excessive voltage is never applied
to this pin, which could damage the circuit.
• Add the speaker. You will need to first solder wire jumper leads to the speaker
terminals.

You are now ready to test the circuit

• First connect your bench function generator to the oscilloscope and adjust for a 1kHz
sine wave with a 0.2 V amplitude, and verify on the oscilloscope. Then apply this signal
to your amplifier along with the +9V bias. If all goes well, you should hear a tone.
Adjust the volume control as necessary.

With the volume adjusted to a reasonable level, sweep the frequency to determine the lowest and
highest audible tones and record your data.

• Observe the output waveform at pin 5 on the oscilloscope for a 0.5V amplitude input at
1 kHz. Note that the output is level shifted to approximately half the power supply
voltage. Can you see distortion as the volume is increased? Why is this happening?
• Remove the LM386 temporarily and apply a ±1V sinusoid at 1 kHz to the amplifier
input and observe the waveform at pin 3 under full-volume conditions. You should
observe the clamping or limiting action of the input diodes. Record this waveform.
• Reconnect the IC and speaker and insert the bench multimeter in series with the power
supply as shown above to measure the DC current flow into the amplifier. Record the
current under the operating conditions.