● Introduction to Strain Gages ●

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 Strain Gages
Have you ever seen the Birdman Contest, an annual event held at Lake Biwa
near Kyoto? Many people in Japan know the event since it is broadcast every year
on TV. Cleverly designed airplanes and gliders fly several hundred meters on human
power, teaching us a great deal about well-balanced airframes.
However, some airframes have their wings regrettably broken upon flying and
crash into the lake. Such crashes provoke laughter and cause no problem since
airplane failures are common in the Birdman Contest.
Today, every time a new model of an airplane, automobile or railroad vehicle is
introduced, the structure is designed to be lighter to attain faster running speed and
less fuel consumption. It is possible to design a lighter and more efficient product by
selecting lighter materials and making them thinner for use. But the safety of the
product is compromised unless the required strength is maintained. By the same
token, if only the strength is taken into consideration, the weight of the product
increases and the economic feasibility is impaired.
Thus, harmony between safety and economics is an extremely important factor
in designing a structure. To design a structure which ensures the necessary strength
while keeping such harmony, it is significant to know the stress borne by each
material part. However, at the present scientific level, there is no technology which
enables direct measurement and judgment of stress. So, the strain on the surface is
measured in order to know the internal stress. Strain gages are the most common
sensing element to measure surface strain.
Let’s briefly learn about stress and strain and strain gages.

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 Stress and Strain

1
Stress is the force an object generates inside by

External force, P
responding to an applied external force, P. See Fig. Fig. 1
1. If an object receives an external force from the
top, it internally generates a repelling force to main-
tain the original shape. The repelling force is called
internal force and the internal force divided by the
cross-sectional area of the object (a column in this

Internal force
example) is called stress, which is expressed as a
unit of Pa (Pascal) or N/m2. Suppose that the cross-
sectional area of the column is A (m2) and the ex-
ternal force is P (N, Newton). Since external force
= internal force, stress, σ (sigma), is: Cross-sectional area, A

σ = P (Pa or N/m2)
A
Since the direction of the external force is vertical
to the cross-sectional area, A, the stress is called
vertical stress.

When a bar is pulled, it elongates by ∆L, and thus

2 it lengthens to L (original length) + ∆L (change in

length). The ratio of this elongation (or contrac-
tion), ∆L, to the original length, L, is called strain,
which is expressed in ε (epsilon):
Fig. 1 d0

d0 – ∆d

ε1 = ∆L (change in length)
L (original length)
Strain in the same tensile (or compressive) direc- L ∆L
tion as the external force is called longitudinal
strain. Since strain is an elongation (or contrac-
tion) ratio, it is an absolute number having no unit.
Usually, the ratio is an extremely small value, and
thus a strain value is expressed by suffixing “x10–6
(parts per million) strain,” “µm/m” or “µε.”

Hooke’s law (law of elasticity)

In most materials, a proportional relation is found between stress and strain borne, as
long as the elastic limit is not exceeded. This relation was experimentally revealed by
Hooke in 1678, and thus it is called “Hooke’s law” or the “law of elasticity.” The stress
limit to which a material maintains this proportional relation between stress and strain
is called the “proportional limit” (each material has a different proportional limit and
elastic limit). Most of today’s theoretical calculations of material strength are based on
this law and are applied to designing machinery and structures.
Robert Hooke (1635-1703)
English scientist.Graduate of Cambridge University.Having an excellent talent especially
for mathematics, he served as a professor of geometry at Gresham College.He
experimentally verified that the center of gravity of the earth traces an ellipse around
the sun, discovered a star of the first magnitude in Orion, and revealed the renowned
“Hooke’s law” in 1678.

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 The pulled bar becomes thinner while lengthen-
ing. Suppose that the original diameter, d0, is made
thinner by ∆d. Then, the strain in the diametrical
direction is:

ε2 = –∆d
d0
Strain in the orthogonal direction to the external
force is called lateral strain. Each material has a
certain ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal strain,
with most materials showing a value around 0.3.
This ratio is called Poisson’s ratio, which is
expressed in ν (nu):

ν = ε2 = 0.3
ε1

3
With various materials, the relation between strain Fig. 3
and stress has already been obtained experimen-
Elastic region Plastic region
tally. Fig. 3 graphs a typical relation between stress
and strain on common steel (mild steel). The re- Proportional
limit
gion where stress and strain have a linear relation
Stress, σ
is called the proportional limit, which satisfies the
Hooke’s law.

σ = E . ε or σ
ε =E
The proportional constant, E, between stress and
strain in the equation above is called the modulus
of longitudinal elasticity or Young’s modulus, the Strain, ε
value of which depends on the materials.

As described above, stress can be known through

measurement of the strain initiated by external
force, even though it cannot be measured directly.

Siméon Denis Poisson (1781-1840)

French mathematician/mathematical physicist. Born in Pithiviers, Loiret, France
and brought up in Fontainebleau. He entered l’Ecole Polytechnique in 1798 and
became a professor following Fourier in 1806. His work titled “Treaté du méchanique
(Treatise on Mechanics)” long played the role of a standard textbook.
Especially renowned is Poisson’s equation in potential theory in mass. In the
mathematic field, he achieved a series of studies on the definite integral and the
Fourier series. Besides the abovementioned mechanics field, he is also known in
the field of mathematical physics, where he developed the electromagnetic theory,
and in astronomy, where he published many papers.
Late in life, he was raised to the peerage in France. He died in Paris.

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 Strain
Magnitude of Strain

1 How minute is the magnitude of strain? To under-

stand this, let’s calculate the strain initiated in an
iron bar of 1 square cm (1 x 10–4m2) which verti-
cally receives an external force of 10kN (approx.
Fig. 4 10kN
(approx. 1020kgf)

1020kgf) from the top.

First, the stress produced by the strain is:

σ = P = 10kN–4(1020kgf) = 10 x 103N
2 2 –4 2
A 1 x 10 m (1cm ) 1 x 10 m
= 100MPa (10.2kgf/mm2)
Substitute this value for σ in the stress-strain rela-
Iron bar (E = 206GPa)
of 1 x10–4m2 (1 sq.cm)
tional expression (page 5) to calculate the strain:

ε = σ = 100MPa = 100 x 10 9 = 4.85 x 10–4

6
Prefixes meaning powers of 10
E 206GPa 206 x 10
Symbol Name Multiple
Since strain is usually expressed in parts per mil- G Giga- 109
lion, M Mega- 106
485 k Kilo- 103
ε= = 485 x 10–6
Hecto- 102
1000000 h
da Daka- 101
The strain quantity is expressed as 485µm/m,
485µε or 485 x10–6 strain.
d Deci- 10–1
c Centi- 10–2
m Milli- 10–3
µ Micro- 10–6

2
Polarity of Strain
There exist tensile strain (elongation) and compres-
sive strain (contraction). To distinguish between
them, a sign is prefixed as follows:
Plus (+) to tensile strain (elongation)
Minus (–) to compressive strain (contraction)

Young’s modulus
Also called modulus of elasticity in tension or modulus of longitudinal elasticity. With materials obeying Hooke’s law,
Young’s modulus stands for a ratio of simple vertical stress to vertical strain occurring in the stress direction within the
proportional limit. Since this modulus was determined first among various coefficients of elasticity, it is generally expressed
in E, the first letter of elasticity. Since the 18th century, it has been known that vertical stress is proportional to vertical
strain, as long as the proportional limit is not exceeded. But the proportional constant, i.e. the value of the modulus of
longitudinal elasticity, had been unknown. Young was first to determine the constant, and thus it was named Young’s
modulus in his honor.
Thomas Young (1773-1829)
English physician, physicist and archaeologist. His genius early asserted itself and he has been known as a pioneer in
reviving the light wave theory. From advocating the theory for several years, he succeeded in discovering interference of
light and in explaining Newton’s ring and diffraction phenomenon in the wave theory. He is especially renowned for
presenting Young’s modulus and giving energy the same scientific connotation as used at the present.

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 Strain Gages

1
Structure of Strain Gages
There are many types of strain gages. Among them,
a universal strain gage has a structure such that a
grid-shaped sensing element of thin metallic
resistive foil (3 to 6µm thick) is put on a base of
thin plastic film (15 to 16µm thick) and is laminated
with a thin film.

Laminate film

Metallic resistive foil

(sensing element)

Plastic film (base)

2
Principle of Strain Gages
The strain gage is tightly bonded to a measuring
object so that the sensing element (metallic resistive
foil) may elongate or contract according to the strain
borne by the measuring object. When bearing
mechanical elongation or contraction, most metals
undergo a change in electric resistance. The strain
gage applies this principle to strain measurement
through the resistance change. Generally, the
sensing element of the strain gage is made of a
copper-nickel alloy foil. The alloy foil has a rate of
resist-ance change proportional to strain with a
certain constant.

Types of strain measuring methods

There are various types of strain measuring methods, which may roughly be
classified into mechanical, optical, and electrical methods. Since strain on a
substance may geometrically be regarded as a distance change between two
points on the substance, all methods are but a way of measuring such a distance
change. If the elastic modulus of the object material is known, strain
measurement enables calculation of stress. Thus, strain measurement is often
performed to determine the stress initiated in the substance by an external
force, rather than to know the strain quantity.

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Let’s express the principle as follows:
∆R = K . ε
R
where, R: Original resistance of strain gage, Ω (ohm)
∆R: Elongation- or contraction-initiated resistance change, Ω (ohm)
K: Proportional constant (called gage factor)
ε: Strain
The gage factor, K, differs depending on the metallic
materials. The copper-nickel alloy (Advance)
provides a gage factor around 2. Thus, a strain
gage using this alloy for the sensing element enables
conversion of mechanical strain to a corresponding
electrical resistance change. However, since strain
is an invisible infinitesimal phenomenon, the
resistance change caused by strain is extremely
small.
For example, let’s calculate the resistance change
on a strain gage caused by 1000 x10–6 strain.
Generally, the resistance of a strain gage is120Ω,
and thus the following equation is established:
∆R = 2 x 1000 x10–6
120 (Ω)
∆R = 120 x 2 x 1000 x10–6 = 0.24Ω
The rate of resistance change is:
∆R = 0.24 = 0.002 = 0.2%
R 120
In fact, it is extremely difficult to accurately meas-
ure such a minute resistance change, which can-
not be measured with a conventional ohmmeter.
Accordingly, minute resistance changes are meas-
ured with a dedicated strain amplifier using an elec-
tric circuit called a Wheatstone bridge.

Strain measurement with strain gages

Since the handling method is comparatively easy, a strain gage has widely been used, enabling strain measurement to
imply measurement with a strain gage in most cases. When a fine metallic wire is pulled, it has its electric resistance
changed. It is experimentally demonstrated that most metals have their electrical resistance changed in proportion to
elongation or contraction in the elastic region. By bonding such a fine metallic wire to the surface of an object, strain on
the object can be determined through measurement of the resistance change. The resistance wire should be 1/50 to
1/200mm in diameter and provide high specific resistance. Generally, a copper-nickel alloy (Advance) wire is used.
Usually, an instrument equipped with a bridge circuit and amplifier is used to measure the resistance change. Since a
strain gage can follow elongation/contraction occurring at several hundred kHz, its combination with a proper measuring
instrument enables measurement of impactive phenomena. Measurement of fluctuating stress on parts of running vehicles
or flying aircraft was made possible using a strain gage and a proper mating instrument.

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 Wheatstone Bridge

1
What’s the Wheatstone Bridge?
The Wheatstone bridge is an electric circuit suit- Fig. 5
able for detection of minute resistance changes. It
R1 R2
is therefore used to measure resistance changes of

Output, e
a strain gage. The bridge is configured by combin-
ing four resistors as shown in Fig. 5.
Suppose: R3
R4
R1 = R2 = R3 = R4, or
R1 x R3 = R2 x R4 input, E

Then, whatever voltage is applied to the input, the

output, e, is zero. Such a bridge status is called
“balanced.” When the bridge loses the balance, it
outputs a voltage corresponding to the resistance
change.
As shown in Fig. 6, a strain gage is connected in Fig. 6
place of R1 in the circuit. When the gage bears
strain and initiates a resistance change, ∆R, the Gage

bridge outputs a corresponding voltage, e.

e= 1 . ∆R . E
4 R
That is,

e= 1 .K.ε.E
4
Since values other than ε are known values, strain,
ε, can be determined by measuring the bridge out-
put voltage.

Bridge Structures

2 The structure described above is called a 1-gage

system since only one gage is connected to the
bridge. Besides the 1-gage system, there are 2-
gage and 4-gage systems.
Fig. 7

• 2-gage system
With the 2-gage system, gages are connected to
the bridge in either of two ways, shown in Fig. 7.

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•Output voltage of 4-gage system
The 4-gage system has four gages connected one Fig. 8
each to all four sides of the bridge. While this sys-
R1 R2
tem is rarely used for strain measurement, it is fre-
quently applied to strain-gage transducers.

e
When the gages at the four sides have their resist-
ance changed to R1 + ∆R1, R2 + ∆R2, R3 + ∆R3
R4 R3
and R4 + ∆R4, respectively, the bridge output volt-
age, e, is:
E

e= 1
4 ( ∆RR1
1 – ∆R2 + ∆R3 – ∆R4 E
R2 R3 R4 )
If the gages at the four sides are equal in specifica-
tions including the gage factor, K, and receive
strains, ε1, ε2, ε3 and ε4, respectively, the equa-
tion above will be:

e= 1 . K (ε1 – ε2 + ε3 – ε4) E
4

•Output voltage of 1-gage system

In the cited equation for the 4-gage system, the 1-
gage system undergoes resistance change, R1, at
one side only. Thus, the output voltage is: Fig. 9

e= 1 . ∆R1 . E R1
4 R1
e= 1 . K . ε1 . E

e
or,
4
In almost all cases, general strain measurement is
performed using the 1-gage system. E

•Output voltage of 2-gage system Fig. 10 (a)

Two sides among the four initiate resistance change.
R1 R2
Thus, the 2-gage system in the case of Fig. 10 (1),
provides the following output voltage:
e

e = 1 ∆R1 – ∆R2 E
( )
4 R1 R2
or, e = 1 K (ε1 – ε2) E E
4
In the case of Fig. 10 (b), (b)
R1
e = 1 ∆R1 + ∆R3 E
( )
4 R1 R3
e

or, e = 1 K (ε1 + ε3) E

4 R2

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That is to say, the strain borne by the second gage
is subtracted from, or added to, the strain borne
by the first gage, depending on the sides to which
the two gages are inserted, adjacent or opposite.

•Applications of 2-gage system

The 2-gage system is mostly used for the following Fig. 11
case. To separately know either the bending or
tensile strain an external force applies to a
cantilever, one gage is bonded to the same position Gage 1
at both the top and bottom, as shown in Fig. 11.
These two gages are connected to adjacent or op-
Gage 2
posite sides of the bridge, and the bending or ten-
sile strain can be measured separately. That is, gage
1 senses the tensile (plus) strain and gage 2 senses
the compressive (minus) strain. The absolute strain
value is the same irrespective of polarities, pro-
vided that the two gages are at the same distance
from the end of the cantilever.
To measure the bending strain only by offsetting
the tensile strain, gage 2 is connected to the ad- Fig. 12
jacent side of the bridge. Then, the output, e, of
the bridge is: Gage 1 Gage 2

e = 1 K (ε1 – ε2) E
4

e
Since tensile strains on gages 1 and 2 are plus
and the same in magnitude, (ε1 – ε2) in the equa-
tion is 0, thereby making the output, e, zero. E
On the other hand, the bending strain on gage 1
is plus and that on gage 2 is minus. Thus, ε2 is
added to ε1, thereby doubling the output. That is,
the bridge configuration shown in Fig. 12 enables
measurement of the bending strain only.

If gage 2 is connected to the opposite side, the

output, e, of the bridge is: Fig. 13
Gage 1
e = 1 K (ε1 + ε2) E
4
e

Thus, contrary to the above, the bridge output is

zero for the bending strain while doubled for the
Gage 2
tensile strain. That is, the bridge configuration
shown in Fig. 13 cancels the bending strain and E
enables measurement of the tensile strain only.

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 Temperature Compensation
One of the problems of strain measurement is
thermal effect. Besides external force, changing
temperatures elongate or contract the measuring
object with a certain linear expansion coefficient.
Accordingly, a strain gage bonded to the object
bears thermally-induced apparent strain. Tempera-
ture compensation solves this problem. Fig. 14

Active-Dummy Method

1 The active-dummy method uses the 2-gage system

where an active gage, A, is bonded to the measur-
ing object and a dummy gage, D, is bonded to a
dummy block which is free from the stress of the
A
D

measuring object but under the same temperature

condition as that affecting the measuring object.
The dummy block should be made of the same
material as the measuring object.
As shown in Fig. 14, the two gages are connected

Output, e
to adjacent sides of the bridge. Since the measur-
ing object and the dummy block are under the same
temperature condition, thermally-induced elonga-
tion or contraction is the same on both of them.
Thus, gages A and B bear the same thermally-in- Input, E
duced strain, which is compensated to let the out-
put, e, be zero because these gages are connected
to adjacent sides.

2
Self-Temperature-Compensation Method
Theoretically, the active-dummy method described
above is an ideal temperature compensation
method. But the method involves problems in the
form of an extra task to bond two gages and install
the dummy block. To solve these problems, the
self-temperature-compensation gage (SELCOM®
gage) was developed as the method of compensat-
ing temperature with a single gage.
With the self-temperature-compensation gage, the
temperature coefficient of resistance of the sens-
ing element is controlled based on the linear ex-
pansion coefficient of the measuring object. Thus,
the gage enables strain measurement without re-
ceiving any thermal effect if it is matched with the
measuring object. Except for some special models,
all recent KYOWA strain gages apply the self-tem-
perature-compensation method.

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 Principle of Self-Temperature-
Compensation Gages
As described in the previous section, except for
some special models, all recent KYOWA strain
gages are self-temperature-compensation gages
(SELCOM® gages). This section briefly describes
the principle by which they work.

1
Principle of SELCOM® Gages
Suppose that the linear expansion coefficient of
the measuring object is βs and that of the resistive
element of the strain gage is βg. When the strain
gage is bonded to the measuring object as shown
Fig. 15
in Fig. 15, the strain gage bears thermally-induced
apparent strain/°C, εT, as follows: Resistive element of strain gage
(linear expansion coefficient, βg)

εT = α + (βs – βg)
Ks
where, α: Temperature coefficient of resistance of
resistive element
Ks: Gage factor of strain gage
The gage factor, Ks, is determined by the material Measuring object
(linear expansion coefficient, βs)
of the resistive element, and the linear expansion
coefficients, βs and βg, are determined by the materials
of the measuring object and the resistive element,
respectively. Thus, controlling the temperature
coefficient of resistance, α, of the resistive element
suffices to make the thermally-induced apparent
strain, εT, zero in the above equation.
α = –Ks (βs – βg)
= Ks (βs – βg)
The temperature coefficient of resistance, α, of the
resistive element can be controlled through heat
treatment in the foil production process. Since it is
adjusted to the linear expansion coefficient of the
intended measuring object, application of the gage
to other than the intended materials not only voids
temperature compensation but also causes large
meas-urement errors.

SELCOM® gage applicable materials

Applicable materials Linear expansion Linear expansion
coefficient Applicable materials coefficient
Composite materials, diamond, etc. 1 x10–6/°C Corrosion/heat-resistant alloys, nickel, etc. 13 x10–6/°C
Composite materials, silicon, sulfur, etc. 3 x10–6/°C Stainless steel, SUS 304, copper, etc. 16 x10–6/°C
Composite materials, lumber, tungsten, etc. 5 x10–6/°C 2014-T4 aluminum, brass, tin, etc. 23 x10–6/°C
Composite materials, tantalum, etc. 6 x10–6/°C Magnesium alloy, composite materials, etc. 27 x10–6/°C
Composite materials, titanium, platinum, etc. 9 x10–6/°C Acrylic resin, polycarbonate 65 x10–6/°C
Composite materials, SUS 631, etc. 11 x10–6/°C

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 Leadwire Temperature Compensation
The use of the self-temperature-compensation gage
(SELCOM® gage) eliminates the thermal effect
from the gage output. But leadwires between the
gage and the strain-gage bridge are also affected
by ambient temperature. This problem too should
be solved.
With the 1-gage 2-wire system shown in Fig. 16,
the resistance of each leadwire is inserted in series
to the gage, and thus leadwires do not generate
any thermal problem if they are short. But if they
are long, leadwires adversely affect measurement.
The copper used for leadwires has a temperature
coefficient of resistance of 3.93 x10–3/°C. For ex-
ample, if leadwires 0.3mm2 and 0.062Ω/m each
are laid to 10m length (reciprocating distance:
20m), a temperature increase by 1°C produces an
output of 20 x10–6 strain when referred to a strain
quantity.

Fig. 16

Output, e
Gage Leadwires

The 3-wire system was developed to eliminate this Input, E

thermal effect of leadwires. As shown in Fig. 17,
the 3-wire system has two leadwires connected to
one of the gage leads and one leadwire connected
to the other.

Fig. 17 r3

Rg r2
R2
Output, e

Gage r1
Leadwires

R4 R3

Unlike the 2-wire system, the 3-wire system Input, E

distributes the leadwire resistance to the gage side
of the bridge and to the adjacent side. In Fig. 17,
the leadwire resistance r1 enters in series to Rg
and the leadwire resistance r2 enters in series to
R2. That is, the leadwire resistance is distributed to
adjacent sides of the bridge. The leadwire resistance
r3 is connected to the outside (output side) of the
bridge, and thus it produces virtually no effect on
measurement.
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 Strain Gage Bonding Procedure
The strain-gage bonding method differs depending on the type of the strain gage, the applied adhesive
and operating environment. Here, for the purpose of strain measurement at normal temperatures in a
room, we show how to bond a typical leadwire-equipped KFG gage to a mild steel specimen using CC-
33A quick-curing cyanoacrylate adhesive.

(1) Select strain gage. (2) Remove dust and paint.

Select the strain gage Using a sand cloth
model and gage length (#200 to 300), polish
which meet the the strain-gage bonding
reqirements of the site over a wider area
measuring object and than the strain-gage
purpose. For the linear size.
expansion coefficient of Wipe off paint, rust and
the gage applicable to plating, if any, with a
the measuring object, grinder or sand blast
refer to page 13. Select before polishing.
the most suitable one
from the 11 choices.

(3) Decide bonding position. (4) Remove grease from bonding surface and clean.
Using a #2 pencil or a Using an industrial tissue
marking-off pin, mark paper (SILBON paper)
the measuring site in dipped in acetone, clean
the strain direction. the strain-gage bonding
When using a marking- site. Strongly wipe the
off pin, take care not to surface in a single
deeply scratch the direction to collect dust
strain-gage bonding and then remove by
surface. wiping in the same
direction. Reciprocal
wiping causes dust to
move back and forth and
does not ensure cleaning.

(5) Apply adhesive. (6) Bond strain gage to measuring site.

Ascertain the back and After applying a drop of
front of the strain gage. the adhesive, put the
Apply a drop of CC- strain gage on the
33A adhesive to the measuring site while
back of the strain gage. lining up the center
Do not spread the marks with the marking-
adhesive. If spreading off lines.
occurs, curing is
adversely accelerated,
thereby lowering the
adhesive strength.

(7) Press strain gage. (8) Complete bonding work.

Cover the strain gage After pressing the strain
with the accessory gage with a thumb for
polyethylene sheet and one minute or so,
press it over the sheet remove the polyethylene
with a thumb. sheet and make sure the
Quickly perform steps (5) strain gage is securely
to (7) as a series of bonded. The above
actions. Once the strain steps complete the
gage is placed on the bonding work. However,
bonding site, do not lift it good measurement
to adjust the position. The results are available after
adhesive strength will be 60 minutes of complete
extremely lowered. curing of the adhesive.

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 For more useful information, contact
your local Kyowa sales/service distributor
or Kyowa (overseas@kyowa-ei.co.jp).
Thank you.

Specifications are subject to change without notice for improvement.

Safety precautions Be sure to observe the safety pre-

cautions given in the instruction
manual, in order to ensure correct
and safe operation.

Reliability through integration ,

Manufacturer s Distributor

KYOWA ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS CO., LTD.

Overseas Department:
1-22-14, Toranomon, Minato-ku, Tokyo 105-0001, Japan
Tel: (03) 3502-3553 Fax: (03) 3502-3678
http://www.kyowa-ei.com
e-mail: overseas@kyowa-ei.co.jp
Cat. No. 107B-U53
- 16 - Printed in Japan on Recycled Paper 03/05 ocs